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gio trnh: c kh i cng 1
Chng 1
Cc khi nim c bn v sn xut

c kh
1.1. Cc khi nim v qu trnh sn xut
1.1.1. S qu trnh sn xut c kh
K thut c kh l mn hc gii thiu mt cch khi qut qu trnh sn
xut c kh v phng php cng ngh gia cng kim loi v hp kim ch to
cc chi tit my hoc kt cu my.
Qu trnh sn xut v ch to bao gm nhiu giai on khc nhau c
tm tt nh sau:
Ti nguyn Qung, nhin liu,

thin nhin tr dung...
Ch to vt Luyn kim Thp, gang, ng,

Phi kim liu nhm v hp kim
Ch to phi c, cn, rn dp,

hn...
Ph phm v
ph liu
Gia cng ct Tin, phay, bo,

gt khoan, mi...
Ph phm v
ph liu
X l v bo Nhit luyn, ho
v nhit luyn, m,
sn...
Chi tit my
H.1.1.S qu trnh sn xut c kh
nng - 2002
1.1.2. Qu trnh thit k

L qu trnh khi tho, tnh ton, thit k ra mt dng sn phm th hin
trn bn v k thut, thuyt minh, tnh ton, cng trnh v.v... l qu trnh tch
lu kinh nghim, s dng nhng thnh tu khoa hc k thut sng to ra
nhng sn phm mi ngy cng hon thin. Bn thit k l c s thc hin
qu trnh sn xut, l c s php l kim tra, o lng, thc hin cc hp
ng. v.v...
1.1.3. Qu trnh sn xut

Qu trnh sn xut l qu trnh tc ng trc tip ca con ngi thng qua
cng c sn xut nhm bin i ti nguyn thin nhin hoc bn thnh phm
thnh sn phm c th p ng yu cu ca x hi.
Qu trnh sn xut thng bao gm nhiu giai on. Mi giai on tng
ng vi mt cng on, mt phn xng hay mt b phn....lm nhng nhim
v chuyn mn khc nhau.
Qu trnh sn xut c chia ra cc cng on nh, theo mt qu trnh
cng ngh.
1.1.4. Qui trnh cng ngh
QTCN l mt phn ca qu trnh sn xut nhm trc tip lm thay i
trng thi ca i tng sn xut theo mt th t cht ch, bng mt cng ngh
nht nh. V d: QTCN nhit luyn nhm lm thay i tnh cht vt l ca vt
liu chi tit nh cng, bn.v.v...Cc thnh phn ca quy trnh cng ngh
bao gm:
a/ Nguyn cng: l mt phn ca qu trnh cng ngh do mt hoc mt
nhm cng nhn thc hin lin tc ti mt ch lm vic gia cng chi tit (hay
mt nhm chi tit cng gia cng mt ln).
b/ Bc: l mt phn ca nguyn cng trc tip lm thay i trng thi
hnh dng k thut ca sn phm bng mt hay mt tp hp dng c vi ch
lm vic khng i. Khi thay i dng c, thay i b mt, thay i ch ...ta
chuyn sang mt bc mi.
c/ ng tc: l tp hp cc hot ng, thao tc ca cng nhn thc
hin nhim v ca bc hoc nguyn cng.
1.1.5. Dng sn xut

Tu theo quy m sn xut, c trng v t chc, trang b k thut v quy
trnh cng ngh m c cc dng sn xut sau:
a/ Sn xut n chic: l dng sn xut m sn phm c sn xut ra
vi s lng t v thng t lp li v khng theo mt quy lut no. Chng loi
nng - 2002
mt hng rt a dng, s lng mi loi rt t v th phn xng, nh my

thng s dng cc dng c, thit b vn nng. y l dng sn xut thng
dng trong sa cha, thay th...
b/ Sn xut hng lot: l dng sn xut m sn phm c ch to theo
l (lot) c lp i lp li thng xuyn sau mt khong thi gian nht nh vi
s lng trong lot tng i nhiu (vi trm n hng nghn) nh sn phm ca
my bm, ng c in.v.v...Tu theo khi lng, kch thc, mc phc tp
v s lng m phn ra dng sn xut hng lot nh, va v ln.
Trong sn xut hng lot cc dng c, thit b s dng l cc loi chuyn
mn ho c km c loi vn nng hp.
c/ Sn xut hng khi: hay sn xut ng lot l dng sn xut trong
sn phm c sn xut lin tc trong mt thi gian di vi s lng rt ln.
Dng sn xut ny rt d c kh ho v t ng ho nh x nghip sn xut ng
h, xe my, t, xe p.v.v...
1.1.6. Khi nim v sn phm v phi

a/ Sn phm: l mt danh t quy c ch mt vt phm c to ra
giai on cui cng ca mt qu trnh sn xut, ti mt c s sn xut. Sn phm
c th l my mc hon chnh hay mt b phn, cm my, chi tit...dng lp
rp hay thay th.
b/ Chi tit my: l n v nh nht v hon chnh v mt k thut ca
my nh bnh rng, trc c, bi v.v...
c/ Phi: cn gi l bn thnh phm l danh t k thut c quy c
ch vt phm c to ra t mt qu trnh sn xut ny chuyn sang mt qu
trnh sn xut khc. V d: sn phm c c th l chi tit c (nu em dng
ngay) c th l phi c nu n cn gia cng thm (ct gt, nhit luyn, rn
dp...) trc khi dng. Cc phn xng ch to phi l c, rn, dp, hn, g, ct
kim loi v.v..
1.1.7. Khi nim v c cu my v b phn my

a/ B phn my: y l mt phn ca my, bao gm 2 hay nhiu chi tit
my c lin kt vi nhau theo nhng nguyn l my nht nh (lin kt ng
hay lin kt c nh) nh hp tc , may xe p v.v...
b/ C cu my: y l mt phn ca my hoc b phn my c nhin v
nht nh trong my. V d: a, xch, lp ca xe p to thnh c cu chuyn
ng xch trong xe p.
nng - 2002
1.2. Khi nim v cht lng b mt ca sn phm

Cht lng b mt ca cc chi tit my ng mt vi tr rt quan trng
cho cc my mc thit b c kh nng lm vic chnh xc chu ti trng, tc
cao, p lc ln, nhit .v.v... N c nh gi bi nhn b mt v tnh
cht c l ca lp kim loi b mt.
1.2.1. nhn b mt (nhm)

B mt chi tit sau khi gia cng khng bng phng mt cch l tng nh
trn bn v m c nhp nh. Nhng nhp nh ny l do vt dao li, ca
rung ng trong qu trnh ct.v.v... y
L
bng b mt l nhp nh t ng nh Rmax
vi ca lp b mt (H.1.2) gm li lm, 1 y h1 h3 h5
h10 h9 x
sng, bng (nhm). nh gi 0
h2 h4 h6 yn
nhp nh b mt sau khi gia cng ngi
ta dng hai ch tiu l Ra v Rz (m). ng y
H.1.2. nhm b mt chi tit
TCVN 2511- 95 cng nh ISO quy nh 14 cp nhm c k hiu
km theo cc tr s.
Ra l sai lch trung bnh s hc cc khong cch t nhng im ca profil o
c n ng trung bnh ox o theo phng vung gc vi ng trung
bnh ca nhp nh t vi trn chiu di chun L. Ta c th tnh:
L
( y1 + y 2 + y3 + ... + y n ) = 1 yi .
n
1 1
L 0
Ra = y dx Ra =
n n i =1
Rz l chiu cao nhp nh t vi trn chiu di chun L vi gi tr trung bnh
ca tng cc gi tr tuyt i ca chiu cao 5 nh cao nht h1, h3, h5, h7, h9 v
chiu su ca 5 y thp nht h2, h4, h6, h8, h10 ca profin trong khong chiu
di chun.
(h + h2 + + h9 ) ( h2 + h4 + + h10 )
Rz =
1
.
5
2,5 Rz20
T cp 6 12, ch yu dng Ra,
a/ b/
cn i vi cc cp 1 5 v 13 14
dng Rz. khi ghi trn bn v bng H.1.3. K hiu bng
c th hin nh H.1.3 a/ K hiu bng theo Ra
b/ K hiu bng theo RZ
Trong thc t sn xut, tu theo cc phng php gia cng khc nhau ta
c cc cp bng khc nhau. V d:
B mt rt th, th t cp 1 3 (Rz = 320 40): c, rn
nng - 2002
Gia cng na tinh v tinh t cp 46 (Rz = 4010, Ra = 2,5): tin, phay,

khoan.
Gia cng tinh t cp 6 8 (Ra = 2,5 0,32): khot, doa, mi.
Cc gi tr thng s nhm b mt (TCVN 2511 - 78)

Cp Tr s nhm (m) Chiu di Phng php ng dng
Ra Rz chun gia cng
nhm L(mm)
1 - 320 - 160 8 Tin th, ca, Cc b mt khng tip
2 - 160 - 80 8 da, khoan ... xc, khng quan trng:
3 - 80 - 40 8 gi , chn my v.v...
4 - 40 - 20 2,5 Tin tinh, da B mt tip xc tnh,
5 - 20 - 10 2,5 tinh, phay... ng, trc vt, b. rng ...
6 2,5-1,25 - 2,5 Doa, mi, nh B mt tip xc ng:
7 1,25-0,63 - 0,8 bng v.v... mt rng, mt pittng,
8 0,63-0,32 - 0,8 xi lanh, cht v.v...
9 0,32-0,16 - 0,8 Mi tinh mng, B mt mt, van, bi, con
10 0,16-0,08 - 0,25 nghin, r, gia ln, dng c o, cn
11 0,08-0,04 - 0,25 cng c bit, mu v.v...
12 0,04-0,02 - 0,25 ph. php khc
13 - 0,1 - 0,05 0,08 B mt lm vic chi tit
14 - 0,05 - 0,025 0,08 chnh xc, dng c o
1.2.2. Tnh cht c l ca lp b mt sn phm

Tnh cht c l ca lp b mt gm cu trc t vi b mt, cng t vi, tr
s v du ca ng sut d b mt. Chng nh hng nhiu n tui th ca chi
tit my. Cu trc t vi v tnh cht c l ca lp b mt chi tit sau gia cng
c gii thiu trn H.1.4:
Mt ngoi b ph hu (1) do chu lc p v ma st khi ct gt, nhit tng
cao. Ngoi cng l mng kh hp th dy khong 23 ngstron (1 = 10-
8
cm), n hnh thnh khi tip xc vi khng kh v mt i khi b nung nng.
Sau l lp b xy ho dy khong (40 80).
Lp cng ngui (2) l lp kim loi b bin dng do c chiu dy khong
50.000, vi cng cao thay i gim dn t ngoi vo, lm tnh cht c l
thay i. Kim loi c bn t vng (3) tr vo.
1
2 HB 1- Mt ngoi b ph hu
2- Lp cng ngui
3 3- Kim loi c bn
h- Chiu su kim loi
HB- cng
h
H.1.4. Tnh cht c l lp b mt
nng - 2002
1.3. Khi nim v chnh xc gia cng c kh
1.3.1. Khi nim v chnh xc gia cng

chnh xc gia cng ca chi tit my l c tnh quan trng ca ngnh
c kh nhm p ng yu cu ca my mc thit b cn c kh nng lm vic
chnh xc chu ti trng, tc cao, p lc ln, nhit v.v...
chnh xc gia cng l mc chnh xc t c khi gia cng so vi
yu cu thit k. Trong thc t chnh xc gia cng c biu th bng cc sai
s v kch thc, sai lch v hnh dng hnh hc, sai lch v v tr tng i gia
cc yu t hnh hc ca chi tit c biu th bng dung sai.
chnh xc gia cng cn phn no c th hin hnh dng hnh hc
lp t vi b mt. l bng hay nhn b mt, cn gi l nhm.
1.3.2. Dung sai

a/ Khi nim
Khi ch to mt sn phm, khng th thc hin kch thc, hnh dng, v
tr chnh xc mt cch tuyt i c sn phm ging ht nh mong mun v
ging nhau hng lot, v vic gia cng ph thuc vo nhiu yu t khch quan
nh chnh xc ca dng c, thit b gia cng, dng c o, trnh tay ngh
ca cng nhn v.v...Do mi sn phm khi thit k cn tnh n mt sai s cho
php sao cho m bo tt cc yu cu k thut, chc nng lm vic v gi thnh
hp l. Dung sai c trng cho chnh xc yu cu ca kch thc hay cn gi
l chnh xc thit k v c ghi km vi kch thc danh ngha trn bn v
k thut.
Tr s dung sai kch thc (IT- m)
D (d) >3 >6 > 10 > 18 > 30 > 50 > 80 > 120 >180
Cp 3
chnh 6 10 18 30 50 80 120 180 250
xc
5 4 6 8 8 9 11 13 15 18 20
6 6 8 9 11 13 16 19 22 25 29
7 10 12 15 18 21 25 30 35 40 46
8 14 18 22 27 33 39 46 54 63 72
9 25 30 36 43 52 62 74 87 100 115
10 40 48 58 70 84 100 120 140 160 185
11 60 75 90 110 130 160 190 220 250 290
12 100 120 150 180 210 250 300 350 400 460
D (d) - Kch thc danh ngha ca chi tit.
nng - 2002
b/ Dung sai kch thc

Dung sai kch thc l sai s cho php gia kch thc t c sau khi
gia cng v kch thc danh ngha. l hiu gia kch thc gii hn ln nht
v nh nht hoc hiu i s gia sai lch trn v sai lch di. Trn H.1.5. biu
din dung sai kch thc l v trc:
ES es
ITt
ITl
EI ei
Dmax
Dmin
dmin
dmax
D
d
a/ Dung sai kch thc l b/ Dung sai kch thc trc
H.1.5. Dung sai kch thc trc v l

Theo TCVN 2244 - 99 cng nh ISO k hiu ch in hoa dng cho l, k
hiu ch thng dng cho trc. Trong :
D (d): Kch thc danh ngha, s dng theo kch thc trong dy u tin
ca TCVN 192 - 66.
- Dmax, dmax: kch thc gii hn ln nht.
- Dmin, dmin: kch thc gii hn nh nht.
- ES = Dmax - D, es = dmax - d : sai lch trn.
- EI = Dmin - D, ei = dmin - d : sai lch di.
- ITl = Dmax - Dmin = D = ES - EI : khong dung sai ca l.
- ITt = dmax - dmin = d = es - ei : khong dung sai ca trc.
Dung sai lp ghp l tng dung sai ca l v trc.
c/ Min dung sai

L l tn gi c dng k hiu cc b mt tr trong cc chi tit. Theo
ISO v TCVN min dung sai ca l c k hiu bng mt ch in hoa A, B, C...,
ZA, ZB, ZC (k hiu sai lch c bn) v mt s (k hiu cp chnh xc), trong
c l c s c sai lch c bn H vi EI = 0 (Dmin= D), cp chnh xc JS c cc sai
lch i xng (| ES = EI ).
Trc l tn gi c dng k hiu cc b mt tr ngoi b bao ca chi
tit. Min dung sai ca trc c k hiu bng ch thng a, b, c..., za, zb, zc;
trong trc c bn c cp chnh xc h vi ei = 0 (dmax= d), cp chnh xc js c
cc sai lch i xng ( es = ei ).
Tri s dung sai v sai lch c bn xc nh min dung sai. Min dung sai
ca trc v l c trnh by trn H.1.6:
nng - 2002
H.1.6. V tr cc min dung sai ca Trc v L
Mi kch thc c ghi gm 2 phn: kch thc danh ngha v min

dung sai. Trn bn v ch to ghi kch thc danh ngha v gi tr cc sai lch.
V d: trn bn thit k ghi 20H7, 40g6 cn trn bn v ch to ghi kch thc
tng ng (tra bng): 20+0,021, 40 00,,009
025 ...
d/ Sai s hnh dng v v tr

Sai s hnh dng hnh hc l nhng sai lch v hnh dng hnh hc ca sn
phm thc so vi hnh dng hnh hc khi thit k nh thng, phng,
cn...
Sai s hnh dng hnh hc Sai s v tr tng i cc b mt
TT Tn gi K hiu TT Tn gi K hiu
1 Dung sai thng 1 Dung sai song song
2 Dung sai phng 2 Dung sai vung gc
3 Dung sai trn 3 Dung sai ng tm
4 Dung sai i xng
4 Dung sai tr 5 Dung sai giao nhau
6 D. sai o mt u
7 D. sai o hng knh
nng - 2002
Sai lch v tr tng i l s sai lch v tr thc ca phn t c kho st

so vi v tr danh ngha nh khng song song, khng vung gc, khng
ng tm, o v.v...Cc k hiu v v d cch ghi cc sai lch ny trn bng
trn.
/ Cp chnh xc
Cp chnh xc c qui nh theo tr s t nh n ln theo mc chnh
xc kch thc. TCVN v ISO chia ra 20 cp chnh xc nh s theo th t
chnh xc gim dn l 01, 0, 1, 2, ...15, 16, 17, 18. Trong :
Cp 01 cp 1 l cc cp siu chnh xc.
Cp 1 cp 5 l cc cp chnh xc cao, cho cc chi tit chnh xc,
dng c o.
Cp 6 cp 11 l cc cp chnh xc thng, p dng cho cc mi lp
ghp.
Cp 12 cp 18 l cc cp chnh xc thp, dng cho cc kch thc t
do (khng lp ghp).
1.3.3. Lp ghp v phng php lp ghp
a/ H thng lp ghp
H thng l: l h thng lp ghp ly l lm chun, ta chn trc c cc
kiu lp khc nhau; min dung sai k hiu bng ch in hoa; ti min dung sai
l c bn H c ES > 0, cn EI = 0. H thng l thng c s dng nhiu
hn h thng trc.
H thng trc: l h thng lp ghp ly trc lm chun, ta chn l c cc
kiu lp khc nhau; min dung sai k hiu bng ch thng; min dung sai
trc c bn h c es = 0, cn ei < 0.
b/ Phng php lp ghp

Lp lng: l phng php lp ghp m kch thc trc lun lun nh hn
kch thc ca l, gia 2 chi tit lp ghp c h, chng c th chuyn ng
tng i vi nhau nn dng cc mi lp ghp c truyn chuyn ng quay hay
trt. Dng lp ghp ny, theo TCVN l c min dung sai A, B, ...G, H hoc cc
trc c min dung sai a, b, ...g, h.
Lp cht: l phng php lp ghp m kch thc trc lun lun ln hn
kch thc l. Khi lp ghp gia 2 chi tit c di nn cn c lc p cht hoc
gia cng nhit cho l (hoc trc), thng dng cho cc mi lp ghp c truyn
lc.
Dng lp ghp ny, theo TCVN l c min dung sai P, R, ..., ZC hoc cc
trc c min dung sai p, r, ..., zc.
nng - 2002
Lp trung gian: l loi lp + 0,021

25
ghp m tu theo kch thc ca l H7 + 0,028
v kch thc trc mi lp c th c 25 + 0,015
e8
h hoc di. Gia 2 chi tit
lp ghp c th c h rt nh
hoc di rt nh. Khi lp c th a/ b/
p nh c mi lp. Dng lp ghp
ny, theo TCVN l c min dung H.1.7. S v cch ghi k hiu lp ghp
a/ Cch ghi k hiu trn bn v thit k
sai JS, K, M, N hoc cc trc c b/ Cch ghi k hiu trn bn v lp
min dung sai js, k, m, n.
1.3.4. Phng php o v dng c o

a/ Phng php o
Tu theo nguyn l lm vic ca dng c o, cch xc nh gi tr o, ta c
cc phng php o sau:
o trc tip: l phng php o m gi tr ca i lng o c xc nh
trc tip theo ch s hoc s o trn dng c o: o trc tip tuyt i dng
o trc tip kch thc cn o v gi tr o c nhn trc tip trn vch ch
th ca dng c. o trc tip so snh dng xc nh tr s sai lch ca
kch thc so vi mu chun. Gi tr sai s c xc nh bng php cng i
s kch thc mu chun vi tr s sai lch .
o gin tip: dng xc nh kch thc gin tip qua cc kt qu o cc
i lng c lin quan n i lng o.
o phn tch (tng phn): dng xc nh cc thng s ca chi tit mt cch
ring bit, khng ph thuc vo nhau.
b/ Dng c o
Cc loi dng c o thng gp l cc loi thc: thc thng, thc cun,
thc dy, thc l, thc cp, thc o gc, compa, panme, ng h so, calp,
cn mu...Cc loi thit b o tin tin thng dng nh: u o kh nn, u o
bng siu m hoc laze, thit b quang hc, thit b o bng in hoc in t
v.v...
Thc l: c vch chia n 0,5 hoc 1mm c chnh xc thp khong
0,5mm.
Thc cp: l dng c o vn nng o cc kch thc c gii hn v ngn
nh chiu di, chiu su, khong cch, ng knh l v.v... vi chnh xc
khong (0,020,05)mm.
nng - 2002
Panme: dng o ng knh ngoi, l, rnh...vi chnh xc cao, c th t

(0,0050,01)mm. Panme ch o c kch thc gii hn. V d panme ghi
0 - 25 ch o c kch thc 25mm.
Calp - cn mu: l loi dng c kim tra dng trong sn xut hng lot,
hng khi kim tra kch thc gii hn cc sn phm t yu cu hay
khng.
ng h so: c chnh xc n 0,01mm, dng kim tra sai s o so vi
kch thc chun bng bn r, bn g chun nn c th kim tra c nhiu
dng b mt. Dng ng h so c th xc nh c khng song song,
khng vung gc, ng tm, trn, phng, thng, o v.v...
Dng: ch dng kim tra mt kch thc hoc hnh dng.
nng - 2002
Chng 2
Vt liu dng trong c kh

2.1. Tnh cht chung ca kim loi v hp kim
Kim loi v hp kim c s dng rng ri trong cng nghip ch to
cc chi tit my. Mi loi chi tit my phi c nhng tnh nng k thut khc
nhau ph hp vi iu kin lm vic. Mun vy phi nm c cc tnh cht
c bn ca chng sau y:
2.1.1. C tnh
C tnh l c trng c hc biu th kh nng ca kim loi hay hp kim
khi chu tc dng ca cc ti trng. Chng c trng bi:
a/ bn: l kh nng ca vt liu chu tc dng ca ngoi lc m khng b

ph hu. bn c k hiu . Tu theo cc dng khc nhau ca ngoi lc ta
c cc loi bn: bn ko (k); bn un (u); bn nn (n). Gi tr
bn ko tnh theo cng thc :
P F0 P(N)
k =
P(N)
(N/mm2).
F0
H.2.1.S mu o bn ko
Ti thi im khi P t n gi tr no lm cho thanh kim loi c F0 b

t s ng vi gii hn bn ko ca vt liu . Tng t ta s c gii hn bn
un v bn nn.
b/ cng: l kh nng chng ln ca vt liu khi chu tc dng ca ngoi lc.

Nu cng mt gi tr lc nn, lm bin dng trn mu o cng ln, cng su th
cng ca mu o cng km. cng c o bng cch dng ti trng n
vin bi bng thp cng hoc mi cn kim cng hoc mi chp kim cng ln
b mt ca vt liu mun th, ng thi xc nh kch thc vt lm in trn b
mt vt liu o. C cc loi cng Brinen; cng Rcoen; cng Vicke.
cng Brinen: dng ti trng P (i vi thp v gang P = 30D2) n vin
bi bng thp nhit luyn, c ng knh D (D = 10; 5; 0,25 mm) ln b
mt vt liu mun th (H.2.2.a). cng Brinen c tnh theo cng thc:
P
HB = (kG/mm2).
F
y, F - din tch mt cu ca vt lm (mm2).
nng - 2002
cng Brinen dng o vt liu c cng thp (< 4500 N/mm2)

D P P P
h d d
d
a/ b/ c/
H.2.2. S th nghim o cng
cng Rcoen: (H.2.2.b) c xc nh bng cch dng ti trng P n

vin bi bng thp nhit luyn, c ng knh D = 1,587 mm tc l 1/16
(thang B) hoc mi cn bng kim cng c gc nh 1200 (thang C hoc A)
ln b mt vt liu th. Trong khi th, s cng c ch trc tip ngay
bng kim ng h. cng Rcoen c k hiu HRB khi dng bi thp
th vt liu t cng; HRC v HRA khi dng mi cn kim cng th vt liu
c cng cao (>4500 N/mm2).
Chn thang o cng Brinen - Rcoen
cng Thang o Mi th Ti trng K hiu Gii hn cho
Brinen Rcoen chnh P (N) cng Rcoen php thang
HB (mu) Rcoen
60230 B () Vin bi thp 1000 HRB 25100
230700 C (en) Vin bi thp 1500 HRC 2067
> 700 A (en) Mi kim cng 600 HRA > 70
cng Vicke (HV) dng mi o 1 (hnh chp gc vt = 1360) bng kim

cng (H.2.2.c) dng o cho vt liu mm, vt liu cng v vt liu c
cng nh lp mng ca b mt c thm than, thm nit.v.v...
P
HV = 1,8544 .
d2
Trong d - ng cho ca vt lm (mm); P- ti trng (kg).
c/ Tnh do: l kh nng bin dng vnh cu ca kim loi v hp kim khi chu
tc dng ca ngoi lc. Khi th mu n c th hin qua dn di tng i
(%) l t l tnh theo phn trm gia lng dn di sau khi ko v chiu di ban
u:
l1 l0
= * 100% .
l0
y l1 v l2 - di mu trc v sau khi ko (mm). Vt liu c (%)
cng ln th cng do v ngc li.
nng - 2002
d/ dai va chm (ak): C nhng chi tit my lm vic thng chu cc ti

trng tc dng t ngt (ti trng va p). Kh nng chu ng cc ti trng
m khng b ph hu ca vt liu gi l dai va chm.
A
ak = (J/mm2).
F
Trong : A - cng sinh ra khi va p lm gy mu (J);
F - din tch tit din mu (mm2).
2.1.2. L tnh
L tnh l nhng tnh cht ca kim loi th hin qua cc hin tng vt l
khi thnh phn ho hc ca kim loi khng b thay i. N c c trng
bi: khi lng ring, nhit nng chy, tnh dn n, tnh dn nhit, tnh dn
in v t tnh...
2.1.3. Ho tnh
Ho tnh l bn ca kim loi i vi nhng tc dng ho hc ca cc
cht khc nh xy, nc, axt v.v... m khng b ph hu.
a/ Tnh chu n mn: l bn ca kim loi i vi s n mn cc mi trng
xung quanh.
b/ Tnh chu nhit: l bn ca kim loi i vi s n mn ca xy trong
khng kh nhit cao.
c/ Tnh chu axt: l bn ca kim loi i vi s n mn ca axt.
2.1.4. Tnh cng ngh

Tnh cng ngh l kh nng ca kim loi v hp kim cho php gia cng
theo phng php no l hp l. Chng c c trng bi:
a/ Tnh c: c c trng bi chy long, co, ho tan kh v tnh

thin tch. chy long cng cao th cng d c; co, ho tan kh v tnh
thin tch cng ln th cng kh c.
b/ Tnh rn: l kh nng bin dng vnh cu ca kim loi khi chu tc dng ca
ngoi lc to thnh hnh dng ca chi tit m khng b ph hu. Thp d rn
v c tnh do cao, gang khng rn c v dn; ng, ch rt d rn.
c/ Tnh hn: l kh nng to s lin kt gia cc chi tit hn. Thp d hn, gang,
nhm, ng kh hn.
nng - 2002
2.2. Thp
2.2.1. Thp ccbon
a/ Khi nim chung v thp ccbon
Thp ccbon l hp cht ca Fe-C vi hm lng ccbon nh hn 2,14%.
Ngoi ra trong thp ccbon cn cha mt lng tp cht nh Si, Mn, S, P ...
Cng vi s tng hm lng ccbon, cng v bn tng ln cn
do v dai li gim xung. Si, Mn l nhng tp cht c li cn S v P th c
hi v gy nn dn nng v dn ngui nn cn hn ch < 0,03%.
Thp ccbon c c tnh tng hp khng cao, ch dng trong xy dng, ch
to cc chi tit chu ti trng nh v va trong iu kin p sut v nhit thp.
b/ Phn loi thp ccbon

C nhiu cch phn loi thp ccbon nhng c bn c mt s cch nh sau:
a/ Phn loi theo hm lng ccbon
Thp ccbon thp C < 0,25%.
Thp ccbon trung bnh C = 0,250,5%.
Thp ccbon cao C > 0,50%.
b/ Phn loi theo cng dng
Thp ccbon cht lng thng: loi ny c tnh khng cao, ch dng
ch to cc chi tit my, cc kt cu chu ti trng nh. Thng dng trong
ngnh xy dng, giao thng. Nhm thp thng dng ny hin chim ti 80%
khi lng thp dng trong thc t, thng c cung cp dng qua cn
nng (tm, thanh, dy, ng, thp hnh: ch U, I, thp gc, ...). Nhm thp ny
c cc mc thp sau:
Mc thp Mc thp k (kG/mm2) 0,2 (%)

LX VN (kG/mm2)
CT0 CT31 31 - 20
CT1 CT33 3242 - 31
CT2 CT34 3444 20 29
CT3 CT38 3849 21 23
CT4 CT42 4254 24 21
CT5 CT51 5064 26 17
CT6 CT61 60 30 12
nng - 2002
Theo TCVN 1765-75 nhm thp ny c k hiu bng ch CT vi con s

tip theo ch gii hn bn ko ti thiu.
Thp ccbon kt cu: l loi thp c hm lng tp cht S, P rt nh, c th:
S 0,04%, P 0,035%, tnh nng l ho tt thun tin, hm lng ccbon
chnh xc v ch tiu c tnh r rng. Theo TCVN 1766-75, nhm thp ny
c k hiu bng ch C vi con s ch lng ccbon trung bnh theo phn
vn. V d: thp C40 l thp ccbon kt cu vi lng ccbon trung bnh l
0,40%. Thp ccbon kt cu dng ch to cc chi tit my chu lc cao
nh cc loi trc, bnh rng, l xo v.v... Loi ny thng c cung cp di
dng bn thnh phm vi cc mc thp sau: C08, C10, C15, C20, C30, C35,
C40, C45, C50, C55, C60 C65, C70, C80, C85.
Thp ccbon dng c: l loi thp c hm lng ccbon cao (0,701,3%),
c hm lng tp cht P v S thp (< 0,025%). Thp ccbon dng c tuy c
cng cao sau khi nhit luyn nhng chu nhit thp nn ch dng lamf cc
dng c nh c, da hay cc loi khun dp, cc chi tit cn cng cao.
Theo TCVN 1822-76, nhm thp ny c k hiu bng ch CD vi con s
ch lng ccbon trung bnh theo phn vn. V d: CD70 l thp ccbon dng
c vi 0,70% C. Loi thp ny gm cc mc thp: CD70, CD80, CD90,
...CD130 tng ng vi thp Lin x l: Y7, Y8, Y9, ...Y13.
Thp ccbon c cng dng ring: Thp ng ray cn c bn v kh
nng chu mi mn cao l loi thp ccbon cht lng cao c hm lng C
v Mn cao (0,500,8% C, 0,61,0% Mn). Ray hng c th dng ch to
cc chi tit v dng c nh c, dao, nhp, dng c gia cng g,...Dy thp
cc loi: dy thp ccbon cao v c bin dng ln khi ko ngui (d = 0,1
mm), gii hn bn ko c th t n 400450 kG/mm2. Dy thp ccbon
thp thng c m km hoc thic dng lm dy in thoi v trong sinh
hot. Dy thp c thnh phn 0,50,7% C dng cun thnh cc l xo trn.
Trong k thut cn dng cc loi dy cp c bn cao c bn t cc si
dy thp nh. Thp l dp ngui: c hm lng ccbon v Si nh
(0,050,2% C v 0,070,17% Si). tng kh nng chng n mn trong kh
quyn, cc tm thp l mng c th ng trng Sn (gi l st ty) hoc trng
Zn (gi l tn trng km).
2.2.2.Thp hp kim
a/ Khi nim v thp hp kim
Thp hp kim l loi thp m ngoi st, ccbon v cc tp cht ra, ngi
ta cn c a vo cc nguyn t c bit vi mt lng nht nh lm thay
i t chc v tnh cht ca thp hp vi yu cu s dng. Cc nguyn t a
nng - 2002
vo gi l nguyn t hp kim thng gp l: Cr, Ni, Mn, Si, W, V, Mo, Ti, Nb,
Cu,...vi hm lng nh sau:
Mn: 0,8 - 1,0%; Si: 0,5 - 0,8%; Cr: 0,2 - 0,8%; Ni: 0,2 - 0,6%;
W: 0,1 - 0,6%; Mo: 0,05 - 0,2; Ti, V, Nb, Cu > 0,1%; B > 0,002%.
Trong thp hp kim, lng cha cc tp cht c hi nh S, P v cc kh
xy, hyr, nit l rt thp so vi thp ccbon. V c tnh thp hp kim c
bn cao hn hn so vi thp ccbon dc bit l sau khi nhit luyn. V tnh chu
nhit: Thp hp kim gi c cng cao v tnh chng do ti 6000C (trong
khi thp ccbon ch n 2000C), tnh chng xy ho ti 800-10000C. V cc tnh
cht vt l v ho hc c bit: thp ccbon b g trong khng kh, b n mn
mnh trong cc mi trng axit, baz v mui,...Nh hp kim ho m c th to
ra thp khng g, thp c tnh gin n v n hi c bit, thp c t tnh cao v
thp khng c t tnh, ...
b/ Phn loi thp hp kim

C nhiu cch phn loi thp hp kim nhng n gin v thng dng nht
l phn loi theo cng dng:
a/ Thp hp kim kt cu
Trn c s l thp ccbon kt cu cho thm cc nguyn t hp kim.
Thp hp kim kt cu c hm lng ccbon khong 0,10,85% v lng
phn trm nguyn t hp kim thp. Thp ny phi qua thm than ri nhit luyn
c tnh mi cao. Loi thp ny c dng ch to cc chi tit chu ti trng
cao, cn cng, chu mi mn, hoc cn tnh n hi cao v.v...
Cc mc thp hp kim kt cu thng gp: 15Cr, 20Cr, 40Cr, 20CrNi,
12Cr2Ni4, 35CrMnSi; cc loi c hm lng ccbon cao dng lm thp l xo
nh 50Si2, 60Si2CrA v.v...
K hiu mc thp biu th ch s u l hm lng ccbon tnh theo phn
vn, cc ch s t sau nguyn t hp kim l hm lng ca nguyn t , ch
A l loi tt. V d: thp 12Cr2Ni4A trong c 0,12% C, 2% Cr, 4% Ni v l
thp tt.
b/ Thp hp kim dng c

L loi thp dng ch to cc loi dng c gia cng kim loi v cc
loi vt liu khc nh g, cht do v.v...
Thp hp kim dng c cn cng cao sau khi nhit luyn, chu nhit
v chu mi mn cao. Hm lng ccbon trong thp hp kim dng c cao t
0,71,4%; cc nguyn t hp kim cho vo l Cr, W, Si v Mn.
Thp hp kim dng c sau khi nhit luyn c cng t 6062 HRC. C
mt s mc thp chuyn dng nh sau:
nng - 2002
Thp dao ct dng ch to cc loi dao ct nh dao tin, dao bo, dao phay,
mi khoan v.v...nh 90CrSi, 140CrW5, 100CrWMn, hoc mt s thp gi
nh 80W18Cr4VMo, 90W9V2, 75W18V cc loi thp gi c cng cao,
bn, chu mi mn v chu nhit n 6500C.
Thp lm khun dp: i vi khun dp ngui thng dng 100CrWMn,
160Cr12Mo, 40CrSi. i vi khun dp nng hay dng cc mc thp:
50CrNiMo, 30Cr2W8V, 40Cr5W2VSi.
Thp ln: l loi thp dng ch to cc loi bi hay a l loi thp
chuyn dng nh OL100Cr2, OL100Cr2SiMn. Cc ln lm vic trong mi
trng nc bin phi dng thp khng g nh 90Cr18 v lm vic trong iu
kin nhit cao phi dng thp gi loi 90W9Cr4V2Mo.
Cc k hiu ca thp hp kim dng c cng c biu th nh cc loi
thp hp kim khc tr thp ln l c thm ch OL ban u.
c/ Thp hp kim c bit

Trong cng nghip c nhiu chi tit my phi lm vic trong nhng iu
kin c bit v vy chng cn phi c nhng tnh cht c bit p ng yu
cu ca cng vic.
Thp khng g: l loi thp c kh nng chng li mi trng n mn.
Thng dng cc mc thp: 12Cr13, 20Cr13, 30Cr13, 12Cr18Ni9,
12Cr18Ni9Ti,...
Thp bn nng: l loi thp lm vic nhit cao m bn khng gim,
khng b xy ho b mt. V d 12CrMo, 04Cr9Si2 chu c nhit
3005000C; loi bn nng 10Cr18Ni12, 04Cr14Ni14W2Mo chu c nhit
5007000C; hoc l thp NiCrm chuyn ch to dy in tr
10Cr150Ni60.
Thp t tnh: l loi thp c nhim t cao. Thp hp kim t cng thng
dng cc thp Cr, Cr-W, Cr-Co hoc dng hp kim h Fe-Ni-Al, Fe-Ni-Al-
Co ch to cc loi nam chm vnh cu bng phng php c v qua mt
qu trnh nhit luyn c bit trong t trng. Thp v hp kim t mm c
lc kh t nh t thm ln dng lm li my bin p, stato my in, nam
chm in cc loi,...Thng dng: st ty nguyn cht k thut (<0,04% C),
thp k thut in (thp Si) c 0,010,1% C v 24,4% Si; c th dng hp
kim permaloi c thnh phn 79% Ni, 4% Mo cn li l Fe.
Thp khng t tnh: l loi vt liu khng nhim t nh 55Mn9Ni9Cr3.
nng - 2002
2.3. Gang
2.3.1. Khi nim chung
Gang l hp kim Fe-C, hm lng ccbon ln hn 2,14% C v cao nht
cng < 6,67% C. Cng nh thp trong gang c cha cc tp cht Si, Mn, S, P v
cc nguyn t khc. c tnh chung ca gang l cng v dn, c nhit nng
chy thp, d c.
2.3.2. Phn loi gang

a/ Gang trng: rt cng v dn, kh ct gt. N ch dng ch to gang do
hoc dng ch to cc chi tit my cn tnh chng mi mn cao nh bi
nghin, trc cn...Gang trng khng c k hiu ring.
b/ Gang xm: l loi gang m hu ht ccbon trng thi graphit. Gang xm

c bn nn cao, chu mi mn, c bit l c tnh c tt.
K hiu gang xm gm 2 phn cc ch ci ch loi gang v nhm s ch
th t bn ko v bn un. V d: GX 21-40 c k = 21 kG/mm2; u = 40
kG/mm2. Hin nay thng dng cc mc gang xm GX 12-28, GX 15-32 ch
to v hp s, np che, GX 28-48 c bnh , thn my hoc GX 36-56, GX
40-60 ch to v xi lanh.
c/ Gang cu: c t chc nh gang xm nhng graphit c dng thu nh thnh

hnh cu. Gang cu c bn rt cao v c do bo m dng ch to cc
loi trc khuu, trc cn.
Gang cu c k hiu theo TCVN nh sau: v d GC 42-12 l loi gang
cu c k = 42 kG/mm2, dn di tng i = 12%. Thng c cc loi: GC
45-15, GC 60-2, GC 50-2.
d/ Gang do: l loi gang c ch to t gang trng, chng c bn cao,

do ln. Chng c k hiu nh gang cu v c cc mc sau: GZ 33-8, GZ 45-6,
GZ 60-3 dng ch to cc chi tit phc tp v thnh mng.
nng - 2002
2.4. Kim loi v hp kim mu

St v hp kim ca n (thp v gang) gi l kim loi en. Kim
loi v hp kim mu l kim loi m trong thnh phn ca chng khng
cha Fe, hoc cha mt liu lng rt nh.
Kim loi mu c nhiu u im nh tnh cng ngh tt, tnh do
cao, c tnh kh cao, c kh nng chng n mn v chng mi mn
tt, c dn nhit, dn in tt, ...Cc kim loi thng gp l ng,
nhm, manh v titan.
2.4.1.ng v hp kim ng
a/ ng
ng l mt kim loi c nhiu tnh cht qu nh: do cao, kh nng
chng n mn tt trong nhiu mi trng, c bit l dn nhit v dn n rt
cao. ng c khi lng ring: 8,94 G/cm3; nhit nng chy: 10830C;
bn: b= 16 kG/mm2. Theo TCVN 1659-75 ng c 5 loi sau y: Cu99,99,
Cu99,97, Cu99,95 dng lm dy dn in; Cu99,90, Cu99,0 dng ch to brng
khng Sn.
b/ Hp kim ng Latng
La tng l hp kim ng, trong km l nguyn t hp kim chnh. La
tng c mu sc p, do, d bin dng, m tt, gi thnh thp hn ng , ph
bin nht trong thc t.
nng cao mt s tnh cht c bit ca latng ngi ta a vo hp
kim mt s nguyn t nh thic tng kh nng chng n mn trong nc
bin. Latng vi thnh phn 29%Zn-1%Sn-70%Cu rt thng dng trong ngnh
ng tu; hoc thm nhm, Mn v st tng c tnh v kh nng chng n mn
ca latng.
Hp kim ng c 17-27%Zn, 8-18%Ni gi l mayxo dng lm dy in
tr.
C cc mc Latng thng dng: LCuZn30, LCuZn40, LCuZn29Sn1,
LCuZn27Ni18,...Latng c k hiu bng ch L ri ln lt cc ch Cu, Zn,
sau l cc nguyn t hp kim khc nu c. Cc con s ng pha sau mi
nguyn t ch hm lng trung bnh ca nguyn t theo phn trm.
nng - 2002
c/ Hp kim ng Brng
Brng l hp kim ca ng vi cc nguyn t hp kim khc nh Sn, Al,
Pb,...ng thanh c mt s loi sau:
Brng thic: Cu-Sn (8-10%Sn) c c tnh cao v kh nng chng n mn
trong nc bin tt. Chng c s dng lm cng tc in, a ly hp, l xo,
bnh rng v i khi lm bc lt. C cc mc sau: BCuSn5P0,15;
BCuSn5Zn5Pb5, ...
Brng nhm: Cu-Al c cha khong <13% Al c tng hp c tnh cao, kh
nng chng mi mn v gii hn mi tng i ln thng dng ch to
h thng trao i nhit, cc chi tit my bm. Cc mc Brng nhm nh:
BCuAl5, BCuAl9Fe4, ...
Brng ch: Cu-Pb c s dng nhiu ch to trt, thng dng nht l
hp kim BCuPb30.
Brng berili: l mt th h hp kim mi c bn, kh nng chng mn,
chng mi, bn nng cao. c bit l gii hn n hi rt cao. Brng
berili thng cha khong 2% Be. N c s dng lm l xo, mng n hi
v cc chi tit i hi chu nhit, n hi v dn in cao. V d: BCuBe2.
2.4.2. Nhm v hp kim nhm

a/ Nhm nguyn cht
Nhm nguyn cht c mu trng bc, c khi lng ring nh khong 2,7
3
G/cm , c tnh dn in, dn nhit cao, chng n mn tt do c lp xt nhm
Al203 bn ngoi. Nhit nng chy 6600, bn thp nhng do. Nhm
nguyn cht c chia thnh 3 nhm:
Al99,999 - l loi nhm tinh khit.
Al99,995; Al99,97; Al99,95 - l loi c sch cao.
Al99,85; Al99,80; Al99,70,...Al99,00 - l loi nhm k thut.
Nhm sch k thut c dng ch to cp ti in trong kh quyn, cc
ng bc x nhit, cc ng ng dn v bn cha xng, du,...
b/ Hp kim nhm bin dng

Hp kim nhm bin dng c sn xut ra di dng tm mng, bng di,
cc thi nh hnh v cc loi ng. Hp kim nhm ny c th rn, dp, cn, p
hoc cc phng php gia cng p lc khc. Hp kim nhm bin dng c cc h
sau:
nng - 2002
H Al-Mn: chu gia cng bin dng nng v ngui tt, c tnh hn v chng
n mn trong kh quyn cao. Chng c s dng thay cho nhm nguyn
cht k thut khi c yu cu cao hn v c tnh.
H Al-Mg: c tnh hn tt, kh nng chng n mn trong kh quyn cao, gii
hn bn mi cao, b mt sau khi gia cng p nn c dng nhiu trong
cng nghip ch to t v xy dng cng trnh.
H Al-Cu v Al-Cu-Mg: chng c hiu ng ho bn cao c gi l uyra.
V d: AlCu4,5Mg0,5MnSi - dng trong t v hng khng.
H Al-Mg-Si: c dng ch to cc chi tit chu hn, cc cu kin tu
thu. V d: AlMgSi1,5Mn.
Hp kim h Al-Zn-Mg v Al-Zn-Mg-Cu: c s dng trong hng khng,
ch to v kh, dng c th thao, v.v... V d: AlZn5,5Mg2,5Cu1,5Cr.
c/ Hp kim nhm c
Hp kim nhm c cn tnh c tt d dng to hnh cc chi tit,
chng cha lng nguyn t hp kim ln hn. C cc dng hp kim nhm c
in hnh v thng dng:
Hp kim Al-Si: cho thm mt s nguyn t khc na ta s c mt loi hp
kim c tnh c tt, h s dn n nhit nh, chng mn tng i dng ch
to pittng ng c t trong nh: AlSi12CuMg1Mn0,6Ni.
Hp kim Al-Cu v mt s nguyn t khc c kh nng bn nng cao v gii
hn mi kh ln rt thch hp ch to cc chi tit nh, hnh dng phc tp
lm vic nhit cao nh: AlCu5Mg1Ni3Mn0,2.
Mt s h hp kim nhm c khc nh Al-Mg; Al-Zn-Mg c s dng
nhiu trong nc bin v mt s mi trng in ly khc.
Ch : Cc k hiu ca hp kim nhm c pha sau cng c ch phn bit
vi hp kim nhm bin dng.
2.5. Hp kim cng

Bng phng php c bit: nn thnh tng bnh hp kim cng dng bt
di p sut hng nghn at ri thiu kt 15000C ngi ta to ra hp kim cng t
cc ccbt (cacbit vonfram, cacbit titan, cacbit tantan) cng vi mt lng cban
lm cht dnh kt.
Hp kim cng l mt loi vt liu in hnh vi cng nng rt cao
(80010000C). V vy hp kim ny c dng ph bin lm cc dng c ct gt
kim loi v phi kim loi c cng cao. c bit l khng cn nhit luyn vt
liu ny vn t cng 8592 HRC. C cc loi hp kim cng thng dng:
nng - 2002
a/ Nhm mt cacbit: WC + Co gm cc k hiu: WCCo2; WCCo4; WCCo6;

WCCo8; WCCo10; WCCo20; WCCo25. V d: WCCo8 c 8% Co v 92% WC.
Nhm ny c do thch hp vi gia cng vt liu dn, cc loi khun ko, p.
b/ Nhm 2 cacbit: WC + TiC + Co gm cc k hiu: WCTiC30Co4;
WCTiC14Co8; WCTiC5Co10, ... dng ch to dao tin v cc loi dng c ct
gt khc.
c/ Nhm 3 cacbit: WC + TiC + TaC +Co gm WCTTC7Co12; WCTTC10Co8
dng ch to dng c ct gt cc loi vt liu kh gia cng nh cc hp kim bn
nhit.
nng - 2002
chng 3
k thut c
3.1. khi nim chung
3.1.1. Thc cht ca sn xut c
c l phng php ch to chi tit bng cch nu chy v rt kim loi
lng vo khun c hnh dng nht nh, sau khi kim loi ho rn trong khun ta
thu c vt c c hnh dng ging nh khun c.
Nu vt phm c a ra dng ngay gi l chi tit c, cn nu vt phm
c phi qua gia cng ct gt nng cao chnh xc kch thc v bng
b mt gi l phi c.
c c nhng phng php sau: c trong khun ct, c trong khun
kim loi, c di p lc, c li tm, c trong khun mu chy, c trong
khun v mng, c lin tc v.v... nhng ph bin nht l c trong khun ct.
3.1.2. c im
c c th gia cng nhiu loi vt liu khc nhau: Thp, gang, hp kim mu
v.v... c khi lng t mt vi gam n hng trm tn.
Ch to c vt c c hnh dng, kt cu phc tp nh thn my cng c,
v ng c v.v...m cc phng php khc ch to kh khn hoc khng ch
to c.
chnh xc v hnh dng, kch thc v bng khng cao (c th t cao
nu c c bit nh c p lc).
C th c c nhiu lp kim loi khc nhau trong mt vt c.
Gi thnh ch to vt c r v vn u t t, tnh cht sn xut linh hot,
nng sut tng i cao.
C kh nng c kh ho v t ng ho.
Hao tn kim loi cho h thng rt, u ngt, u hi.
D gy ra nhng khuyt tt nh: thiu ht, r kh, chy ct v.v...
Kim tra khuyt tt bn trong vt c kh khn, i hi thit b hin i.
3.1.3. phm vi s dng

Sn xut c c pht trin rt mnh v c s dng rt rng ri trong
cc ngnh cng nghip. khi lng vt c trung bnh chim khong 4080%
tng khi lng ca my mc.
nng - 2002
Trong ngnh c kh khi lng vt c chim n 90% m gi thnh ch

chim 2025%.
3.1.4. Phn loi
K thut c c phn loi theo s sau:
K thut c
c trong khun ct c c bit
c trong c trn c bng khun c p c ly c

hm khun nn xng dng gt kim loi lc tm lin tc
c trong khun v mng c trong khun mu chy
H.3.1. S phn loi phng php c
3.2. c trong khun ct

3.2.1. Cc b phn chnh ca phn xng c
B phn k
thut
Ch to hn hp B phn mc Ch to hn hp
lm khun mu lm li
Lm khun Nu kim loi Lm li
Sy khun Sy li
Lp rp khun v
rt kim loi
Ph khun ly Ph li khi Lm sch vt Kim tra cht

vt c vt c c lng sn phm
H.3.2. Cc b phn chnh ca xng c
nng - 2002
3.2.2. cc b phn c bn ca mt khun c

Mun c mt chi tit, trc ht phi v bn v vt c da trn bn v
chi tit c tnh n ngt ca vt liu v lng d gia cng c kh. Cn c theo
bn v vt c, b phn xng mc mu ch to ra mu v hp li.
Mu to ra lng khun 6 - c hnh dng bn ngoi ca vt c. Li 7 c
ch to t hp li c hnh dng ging hnh dng bn trong ca vt c. Lp li
vo khun v lp rp khun ta c mt khun c.
dn kim loi lng vo khun ta phi to h thng rt 10. Rt kim loi
lng qua h thng rt ny. Sau khi kim loi ho rn, ngui em ph khun ta
c vt c.
Lng khun 6 ph hp vi hnh dng vt c, kim loi lng c rt vo
khun qua h thng rt. B phn 11 dn hi t lng khun ra ngoi gi l u
hi ng thi cn lm nhim v b sung kim loi cho vt c khi ho rn cn
gi l u ngt.
Hm khun trn 1, hm khun di 9 lm na khun trn v di.
lp 2 na khun chnh xc ta dng cht nh v 2.
Vt liu trong khun 4 gi l hn hp lm khun (ct khun). nng
cao bn ca hn hp lm khun trong khun ta dng nhng xng 5. tng
tnh thot kh cho khun ta tin hnh xin cc l thot kh 8.
11 10
1- Hm khun trn
2- Cht nh v
1 3- Mt phn khun
4- Ct khun
5- Xng khun
2 6- Lng khun
7- Li
8- Rnh thot kh
9- Hm khun di
3 10- H thng rt
11- u hi (hoc u ngt)
4
5 6 7 8 9
H.3.3. Cc b phn chnh ca mt khun c ct
nng - 2002
3.2.3. cc loi vt liu lm khun v lm li

Vt liu lm khun, li ch yu l ct, t st, cht dnh kt, cht ph
v.v...
a/ Ct:
Thnh phn ch yu l SiO2, cn c tp cht Al2O3, CaCO3, Fe2O3...Ct
c chn theo hnh dng ht nh ct ni, ct sng... Ct sng ht trn u, ct
ni ht sc cnh. Ngi ta xc nh ht ca ct theo kch thc l ry.
b/ t st:
Thnh phn ch yu: cao lanh mAl2O3, nSiO2, qH2O, ngoi ra cn c tp
cht: CaCO3, Fe2O3, Na2CO3.
c im: Do, dnh khi c lng nc thch hp, khi sy th bn tng
nhng dn, d v, khng b chy khi rt kim loi vo.
t st thng hay cao lanh c sn trong t nhin. Thnh phn ch yu l
Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O, loi ny lm khun c thng, c mu trng, kh
nng ht nc km, tnh do v dnh km, b co t khi sy. Nhit nng
chy cao (175017850C).
t st bentnit (I ) thnh phn ch yu l: Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O. N l t st
trng c tnh do dnh ln, kh nng ht nc v trng n ln, b co nhiu
khi sy, ht rt mn, nhit chy thp (125013000C). Do ni la sinh ra lu
ngy bin thnh. Loi ny lm khun quan trng cn do, bn cao.
c/ Cht kt dnh
Cht dnh kt l nhng cht a vo hn hp lm khun, li tng tnh
do ca hn hp. N c mt s yu cu:
Khi trn vo hn hp, cht dnh kt phi phn b u.
Khng lm dnh hn hp vo mu v hp li v d ph khun, li.
Kh nhanh khi sy v khng sinh nhiu kh khi rt kim loi .
Tng do, bn v tnh bn nhit cho khun v li.
Phi r, d kim, khng nh hng n sc kho cng nhn.
Nhng cht dnh kt thng dng:

Du: du lanh, du bng, du tru... em trn vi ct v sy t0 = 200
2500C , du s b xy ho v to thnh mng xt hu c bao quanh cc ht ct
lm chng dnh kt chc vi nhau.
Nc ng (mt): dng lm khun, li khi c thp. Loi ny b sy
b mt khun s bn nhng bn trong rt do nn vn m bo thot kh v
nng - 2002
tnh ln tt. Khi rt kim loi n b chy, do tng tnh xp, tnh ln, thot kh
v d ph khun nhng ht m nn sy xong phi dng ngay.
Bt h: (nng 2,53%) ht nc nhiu, tnh cht nh nc ng,
dng lm khun ti rt tt.
Cc cht dnh kt ho cng: Nha thng, ximng, hc n, nha ng.
Khi sy chng chy lng ra v bao quanh cc ht ct. Khi kh chng t ho
cng lm tng bn, tnh dnh kt cho khun. Thng dng loi ximng pha
vo hn hp khong 12%, m ca hn hp 68%, trong khng kh 2427
gi c kh nng t kh, loi ny rt bn.
Nc thu tinh: chnh l cc loi dung dch silicat Na2O.nSiO2.mH2O

hoc K2O.nSiO2.mH2O sy 2002500C, n t phn hu thnh nSiO2.(m-p)H2O
l loi keo rt dnh. Khi thi CO2 vo khun lm xong, nc thu tinh t phn
hu thnh cht keo trn, hn hp s cng li sau 1530 pht.
d/ Cc cht ph:
L cc cht a vo hn hp khun v li c mt s tnh cht c bit
nh nng cao tnh ln, tnh thng kh, lm nhn mt khun, li v tng kh nng
chu nhit cho b mt khun li, gm 2 loi:
Trong hn hp thng cho thm mn ca, rm vn, phn tru b kh, bt
than... Khi rt kim loi lng vo khun, nhng cht ny chy li trong
khun nhng l rng lm tng tnh xp, thng kh, tnh ln cho khun li. T
l khong 3% cho vt c thnh mng v 8% cho vt c thnh dy.
Cht sn khun: mt khun nhn bng v chu nng tt, ngi ta thng
qut ln b mt lng khun, li mt lp sn, c th l bt than, bt grafit, bt
thch anh hoc dung dch ca chng vi t st. Bt than v grafit qut vo
thnh khun, khi rt kim loi vo n s chy to thnh CO, CO2 lm thnh
mi trng hon nguyn rt tt, ng thi to ra mt lp kh ngn cch gia
kim loi lng vi mt lng khun lm cho mt lng khun khng b chy ct
v to cho vic ph khun d dng.
3.2.4. hn hp lm khun
Hn hp lm khun c hai loi:
a/ Ct o:
Dng ph st mu khi ch to khun nn cn c bn, do cao, ng
thi n trc tip tip xc vi kim loi lng nn cn phi c chu nhit cao,
ht cn nh hn b mt c nhn bng, thng thng ct o lm bng vt liu
mi, n chim khong 1015% tng lng ct khun.
nng - 2002
b/ Ct m:
Dng m cho phn khun cn li, khng trc tip tip xc vi kim
loi lng nn tnh chu nhit, bn khng cn cao lm, nhng phi c tnh
thng kh tt chim 8590% lng ct.
Vt c cng ln yu cu ht ca hn hp lm khun cng ln tng
tnh thng kh.
3.2.5. Ch to b mu v hp li
B mu l cng c chnh dng to hnh khun c. B mu bao gm :
Mu, tm mu, mu ca h thng rt, u hi, u ngt.Tm mu kp mu
khi lm khun, dng kim tra.
a/ Vt liu lm b mu v hp li
Yu cu:
Bo m bng, chnh xc khi gia cng ct gt.
Cn bn, cng, nh, khng b co, trng, nt, cng vnh trong khi lm vic.
Chu c tc dng c, ho ca hn hp lm khun, t b mn, khng b r v
n mn ho hc. R tin v d kim.
b/ Cc loi vt liu lm mu v hp li
Vt liu thng dng: G, kim loi, thch cao, ximng, cht do. Ch yu
l g, kim loi.
G: u im l r, nh, d gia cng, nhng c nhc im l bn, cng
km; d trng, nt, cong vnh nn g ch dng trong sn xut n chic, lot
nh, trung bnh v lm mu ln. Thng dng cc loi sau: g lim, g, sn, m,
d, thng, b , v.v...
Kim loi: c bn, cng, nhn bng, chnh xc b mt cao, khng

b thm nc, t b cong vnh, thi gian s dng lu hn, nhng kim loi t kh
gia cng nn ch s dng trong sn xut hng khi v hng lot. Thng dng:
hp kim nhm, gang xm, hp kim ng.
Thch cao: Bn hn g (lm c 1000 ln) nh, d ch to, d ct gt.

Nhng gin, d v, d thm nc. Nn lm nhng mu nh khi lm bng tay,
tin li khi lm mu ghp v dng trong c m ngh (v d sa).
Ximng: Bn, cng hn thch cao, chu va chm tt, r, d ch to, nhng
nng tuy khng ht nc, kh gt, sa nn ch dng lm nhng mu, li phc
tp, mu ln, mu lm khun bng my.
nng - 2002
3.2.6. Cc phng php lm khun bng ct

Trong sn xut c, khun c ng mt vai tr quan trng, l mt trong
nhng yu t quyt nh cht lng vt c. Thng c ti 50 n 60% ph
phm l do khun c gy ra. V vy phi tun th quy trnh cng nhg lm
khun cht ch.
Khun c c 3 loi: khun dng mt ln, khun bn vnh cu lm bng
vt liu chu nng a sy 6007000C, sau khi ly vt c em sa cha ri
dng li c mt s ln (50200 ln). Khun vnh cu lm bng kim loi dng
trong sn xut hng lot v hng khi.
a. Cc phng php lm khun bng tay

a/ Lm khun trong 2 hm khun vi mu nguyn
Trnh t nhng thao tc lm khun vi hai hm v mu nguyn nh sau:
a/ b/
c/ H.3.4. Lm khun trong 2 hm khun

d/
Lm na khun di: u tin t mu ln tm mu, t hm khun ln

tm mu, ct o xung quanh mu, ct m, dm cht ln th nht, tip
ct m ri dm cht, l phng, xm kh (a).
Lm na khun trn: Quay na khun di 1800, ly tm mu, t hm
khun trn ln, bt cht nh v, t mu u hi, mu ng rt, mu rnh lc x,
ct o xung quanh mu v tin hnh lm khun nh hm khun di (b, c).
nng - 2002
Tho lp khun: Tho cht nh v, tho na khun trn ra, rt b mu,

khot rnh dn v cc rt, sa cha cc nI b h hng, qut sn ln mt phn
khun, lp rp khun lI, bt cht c cu kp cht (d).
b/ Lm khun trn nn xng:

Lm khun trn nn xng l dng ngay nn xng to khun di.
Phng php ny thch ng trong sn xut n chic v hng lot nh, vt c
trung bnh v ln khng yu cu b mt nhn p, kch thc khng cn chnh
xc.
Lm khun trn m cng (H.3.5): trn nn xng o l c chiu su
ln hn chiu cao ca mu 300400 mm, dm cht y l ri 1 lp x hoc
si dy 150200 mm.
tng thot kh, t hai ng nghim 2 dn kh ra ngoi, lp ct
m sau ct o 3 v dm cht mt t, n mu xung mt phn khun ca
mu trng mt bng ca nn, rc lp bt cch v t hm khun 4 ln, c nh
v tr ca hm bng cht 9 st vo thnh hm v tin hnh lm khun trn.
Nhc hm khun trn v ct mng dn 8, rt b mu ra v lp khun trn
vo, to cc rt 7, t ti trng 6 v rt kim loi.
5 6 7 8
9
1- si (hoc x)
2- ng nghim
3- Ct o
4- Hm khun trn
5- u hi
4 6- Ti trng
7- Cc rt
8- Rnh dn
9- Cht nh v
3 2 1
H.3.5.Lm khun trn nn xng vi nn m cng
c/ Lm khun trong 3 hoc nhiu hm khun

Phng php ny thch ng khi lm khun vi mu phc tp m khng th
lm trong 2 hm khun c.
nng - 2002
H.3.6. Lm khun trong 3 hm khun
B/ Cc phng php lm khun bng my

Lm khun bng my tc l c kh ho hon ton qu trnh lm khun
hoc mt s nguyn cng c bn nh dm cht v rt mu. Lm khun, rut
bng my nhn c cht lng tt, nng sut cao song vn u t cao nn ch
dng trong sn xut hng lot hay hng khi.
a/ Dm cht khun c
Dm cht khun c bng cch p: C nhiu kiu dm cht hn hp lm
khun c bng cch p: p trn xung, p di ln v p c 2 pha. My p lm
khun c nng sut cao, khng n nhng dm cht thay i mnh theo chiu
cao. Khi p trn dm cht mt di khun thp nn chu p lc kim loi lng
km. My p ch thch hp vi hm khun thp.
6
h, mm
5 1- bn my
h, mm 2- mu
4
3 3- hm khun chnh
3 4- hm khun ph
2 g/cm
1 5- chy p
6- x ngang
g/cm3
8 7- van kh
8- phttng y
9
7 9- xilanh
a/ b/
H.3.7. Dm cht khun c bng cch p
a/ p trn xung; b/ p di ln
nng - 2002
Nguyn l lm vic: khun chnh v ph c t trn bn my 1, kh nn

qua van 7 i vo xi lanh 9 nng piston y 8 i ln, chy p 5 s p ln hn hp
khun ph v nn chng vo khun chnh tng dm cht cho n.
My p di ln th quay x ngang v v tr p nh hnh v, mu nm trn
piston y v c piston y v pha khun chnh cng vi hn hp lm tng
dm cht cho khun chnh.
Dm cht khun c trn my dn (H3.8.a): Mu 2 v hm khun chnh

3 lp trn bn my 1, hm khun ph 4 bt cht vi hm khun 3. Sau khi
hn hp lm khun, ta m cho kh p theo rnh 5 vo xi lanh 6 y pittng 7
cng bn my i ln. n cao khong 3080 mm th l kh vo 5 b ng li
v h l kh 8, nn kh p trong xi lanh thot ra ngoi, p sut trong xi lanh gim
t ngt, bn my b ri xung v p vo thnh xi lanh. Khi pittng ri xung
th l kh vo 5 li h ra v qu trnh dn lp li.
5
4 4
h, mm h, mm
3 3
2 2
1 1
g/cm3 g/cm3
8 6
7
7
5 8 9
6
10 11
a b
H.3.8. Dm cht trn my dn, va dn va p
a/ Dm cht trn my dn; b/ Dm cht trn my va dn va p
Dm cht khun c trn my va dn va p (H.3.b): Mu 2, hm

khun 3,4 lp cht trn bn my 1. y hn hp lm khun. Kh p theo rnh
8 vo xi lanh 9 v y pittng 7 cng bn my i ln, khi l kh 6 h ra kh p
thot ra ngoi, bn my li ri xung thc hin qu trnh dn. Sau khi dn xong
quay chy p 5 v v tr trn hm khun, ng ca vo rnh 8, m rnh 10, kh
p s nng pittng 11 cng ton b pittng 7 v bn my i ln thc hin qu
trnh p. dm cht hn hp lm khun phng php ny tng i u.
Trong thc t khi lm khun thp dng my p, lm khun cao dng my
dn hoc va dn va p.
b/ Cc phng php ly mu bng my

Vic ly mu ra khi khun c tin hnh bng cc c cu: y hm
khun, bn quay, bn lt v rt mu.
nng - 2002
Ly mu bng c cu y hm khun:
3 3
2 2
1 4 1
5 5
a b
H.3.9. Ly mu bng c cu y hm khun

a/ Ly mu bng cch nng hm khun
b/ Ly mu bng cch nng hm khun v tm mu
Phng php y hm khun bng cht nng (H.3.9.a): Khi dm cht

xong, tm mu 1 c gi c nh vi bn my 5, cc cht nng 2 t t i ln
y vo cnh hm khun 3, mu c ly ra khi khun. Phng php ny n
gin, nng sut cao, nhng khun d v ch thch ng vi cc mu n gin
chiu cao thp.
Phng php y hm khun bng cht nng v tm (H.3.9.b): Nh c
tm 4 gi hn hp nn khun t b v hn song phi ch to tm cho tng
tm mu nn tn km hn.
Ly mu kiu bn quay: Sau khi lm xong khun (a), bn quay 4 c

nng ln v quay mt gc 1800, lt khun xung pha di, tip tc nng bn
5 ln ly khun, tho kp hm khun ra khi bn quay v t t h xung, cn
tm c bn quay gi li (b).
2 3
1 4
a b
H.3.10. Ly mu bng bn quay
nng - 2002
Ly mu bng bn quay c cng vng ln, khun v tr lt nn t

v khun nhng kt cu phc tp. Phng php ny thch hp khi lm khun
di.
Ly khun kiu bn lt: Sau khi lm khun xong (a), bn lt 1 gc 1800,
bn 4 nng ln ly hm khun v tho kp hm khun ri t t h xung,
cn tm mu 2 c bn lt gi li (b). Ly mu bng bn lt kt cu phc tp,
chim mt bng nhng t v khun, thch hp khi lm khun di.
2 3
1
4
b
a
H.3.11. Ly mu bng bn lt
3.2.7. H thng rt, u hi, u ngt

a/ H thng rt:
H thng rt l h thng dn kim loi lng t thng rt vo khun. S b
tr h thng rt quyt nh cht lng vt c v gim c s hao ph kim loi
vo h thng rt. Hao ph do h thng rt gy nn t n 30%.
Cc b phn chnh ca h thng rt th hin trn hnh v:
1
Yu cu i vi h thng rt:
Ton b lng khun phi c in y kim loi. 1- Phu rt
Dng kim loi chy phi u, cn, khng va p. 2 2- ng rt
3- Rnh lc x
H thng rt phi chc khng b v. 3 4- Rnh dn
4
H.3.12. H thng rt
b/ u hi: Dng kh trong lng khun thot ra, i khi dng b sung
kim loi cho vt c. C 2 loi u hi: u hi bo hiu v u hi b sung
chng thng c t v tr cao nht ca vt c.
nng - 2002
c/ u ngt: Dng b sung kim loi cho vt c khi

ng c. Thng dng khi c gang trng, gang bn
cao, thp, hp kim mu, gang xm thnh dy.
u ngt phi c t vo ch thnh vt c tp
trung nhiu kim loi v kim loi ng c chm nht
v co rt nhiu nht.
H.3.13. u ngt
3.3. c gang xm
Gang c nhiu loi, nh gang trng, gang do, gang bin tnh, gang cu,
song trong k thut c ngi ta ch yu s dng gang xm. Gang xm c k
hiu: Gx. v d: Gx15-28. Thnh phn ho hc: 2,53,5% C; 0,83% Si;
0,61,3% Mn; 0,21% P; < 0,12%S. Trong C trng thi t do gi l graft.
3.3.1.Vt liu nu v m liu:
Khi nu gang xm phi dng nhng nguyn nhin liu sau: nguyn liu:
kim loi; nhin liu cung cp nhit; tr dung to x; trong sn xut c gi
l vt liu nu.
Mun nu ra loi gang c thnh phn ho hc ng yu cu, c nhit
cao, vn hnh l d dng cn phi tnh ton phi liu cho mt m nu gi l m
liu.
a/ Nguyn liu (khi lng kim loi):

Trong thc t lng nguyn liu thng dng trong mt m liu:
Gang c (thi gang ch to l cao): 30 50%
Gang vn (cc loi gang ph liu) : 20 30%
Vt liu v l (ph liu t l c) : 30 35%
Thp vn : 0 10%
Fer hp kim (FeSi; FeMn...) : 1 2%
Vt liu trc khi a vo l phi c ly theo mt t l nht nh; phi
lm sch g v cc cht bn.
b/ Nhin liu:
Trong thc t thng dng cc loi nhin liu sau:
Than cc: (1016)% khi lng kim loi/ M liu.
Than gy (than c mc cc bon ho cao): nc ta thng dng than
gy ng triu, Mo kh. Trong thc t thng dng: 20 22% khi lng
kim loi/ M liu.
Than : t dng v nhit tr thp, bn c hc khng cao.
nng - 2002
c/ Cht tr dung:
Cht tr dung dng lm long x cho d ni ln trn b mt v d dng
loi b chng cng vi tp cht. Thng dng vi (45% khi lng kim
loi/M liu); hunh thch (cha CaF2): (<8% khi lng kim loi/M liu)
hoc x l Mctanh.
3.3.2. L nu gang
Thng dng l ng, l ch, l in. Nhng ch yu l dng l ng v
l ch. L ng c s dng rng ri v cu to n gin, tiu hao nhin liu t,
vn u t thp, d thao tc, cng sut cao (50025.000 kG gang lng/ gi).
Song nhit gang ra l khng cao (14500C), thnh phn ho hc ca gang
khng n nh. Cc gang hp kim cn cht lng cao thng c nu bng l
in hoc l ni.
a/ L ng nu gang
L l loi l ng, hnh tr gm cc b phn ch yu l: b phn l,
thn l, thit b tip liu v thit b gi nng, h thng gi v thit b lm ngui,
ng khi c thit b dp la, l tin v ng dn gang v.v..
H.3.14. S cu to ca l ng nu gang
nng - 2002
L c t trn ct chng (1) ca b phn l. Thn l gm c v

ngoi (2) lm bng thp tm dy 810 mm, pha trong xy gch chu la (3)
(gch samt, gch dint hoc l gch nung gi). B phn tip liu (8) a than
cc (5) v kim loi (6) vo l qua ca tip liu (4). L c 1, 2 hoc 3 hng l mt
gi c cp gi t qut gi (19) qua ng gi (9) nm trn ni l. Trn nh ng
khi (10) l thit b dp la (11) chng c g trn tr (7).
Phn ni l l phn khng gian t y l (12) ti ng gi (9). y l c
ph mt lp vt liu chu la nn cht. Gang t l ng chy qua l tin t
ca (14) v t l tin qua ca (18) v mng mng rt (17) ra gu rt . X c
tho ra ngoi bng ming (15). Ton b l c g trn 3 tr bng thp.
Q. L. K
+ ng knh trong ca l: D = (m). Q - cng sut l (tn/gi); L v
4,71. L1
L1 - S m3 gi dng cho 1 kg nhin liu (6,56,8m3/kg) v 1m2 tit din l trong
1 pht, K - T l than trong m liu (%).
+ Chiu cao l: l c nh: Ho = (35)D m; l c ln: Ho= (2,54)D m.
Qu trnh nu: Sau mi ln nu phi sa l: sa tng l, l ra gang, ra
x, p y l ri cht ci t sy l trong 24 gi, khi ci to chy, dn
than lt xung cho n khi cao hn mt gi chnh 1,21,5 m. Sau cht vt
liu vo theo tng m liu mt theo th t: kim loi (thp vn, gang thi, gang
vn v f r) - nhin liu - cht tr dung c lp i lp li nh th cho n y l.
Ch 2040 pht cho vt liu nng ri thi gi vo.
Thc cht ca qu trnh nu: Qu trnh oxy ho nhin liu v tp cht
pht nhit v qu trnh trao i nhit gia kh nng v vt liu nu.
b/ L ch nu gang
Hin nay cc xng c nh u dng l ch nu gang. u im c
bn l cu trc rt n gin d ch to, vn u t rt t. Nhin liu d kim, ch
cn than c nh 20-30 mm, c th nu bng nhiu loi than .
Song l ch c nng sut thp v thnh phn ho hc ca gang khng n
nh. L ch ch ph hp cho cc xng c nh, mt hng c c nh (<60
kG), iu kin c kh ho thp.
nghing l
ra gang
H Mt gi Hp gi
D
L x
L ra gang
a H.3.15. L ch nu gang b/
a/ L ch quay; b/ L c nh
nng - 2002
L ch thp hn l ng, khng c b phn dp la lng bi. Thn l chia

lm 2 hoc 3 on d dng nng h v tho lp. L ch c 2 loi: quay
nghing v c nh. L c cc thng s k thut sau:
ng knh trong ca l: 400500 mm.
Chiu cao ca l: H/D = 23 l hp l.
Mt gi: gi vo l 110120 m3/m2.pht l c.
Trng lng m liu < 60 kG; t l than/gang khong 2030%.
3.4. c kim loi mu
3.4.1. c im v cng ngh c ng

a/ c im
Hp kim ng c nhit chy thp (10830C), tnh chy long cao c th
c c nhng vt c phc tp, r nt.
Hn hp lm khun, li nh mn, cn sn bt graphit chng chy ct.
V c tnh chy long tt nn c th phn b nhiu vt c vo mt hm
khun c chung mt h thng rt, c c cc vt mng.
V c co ln nn u ngt phi ln v t nhng ch tp trung kim loi.
ng d b xy ho, ng thanh d b thin tch nn dng kim loi rt vo
khun phi thp v nhanh, chy m v lin tc nn ng rt thng hnh rn,
nhiu tng.
a/ Vt liu nu:
Vt liu chnh: Gm ng k thut, ng thanh v ng thau, hi liu.
Hp kim ph: Hp kim ng + 1 nguyn t kim loi khc (50%Cu + 50%Al
hoc 80%Cu + 20%Mn)
Cht kh oxy: Dng hon nguyn oxyt kim loi trong hp kim (90%Cu +
10%P) v: 5Cu20 + 2P = 10Cu + P205; P205 to thnh x ni ln.
Cht tr dung: Dng kim loi lng khi b oxy ho v tch tp cht ra
thnh x. Thng dng: Than ci hoc thu tinh lng, thch cao, mui n.
c/ Qu trnh nu ng:
Nu ng : Sy l n 90010000C, ri cht mt lp than ci vo y ni
v ph mt lp than ci ln trn. Tip tc nung n khi Cu nng chy.
kh tt oxy sau khi Cu nng chy, cho dn Cu + P vo kh. Kh xong rt ly
nng - 2002
mu, ngui em b mu. Nu mu b nt chng t vn cn oxy v tip tc

kh ht xy ri mi rt.
Nu ng thanh: Sy l 7008000c ri tin hnh nh trn. Cn khuy u,
khi lng Cu chy ht cho 1/2 lng Cu+P vo kh xy.
Nu ng thau: Nh nu ng thanh nhng km d bc hi nn ph liu (c
cha km) v cc cht d chy sau cng.
3.4.2. c im v cng ngh c nhm

a/ c im:
Thng c trong khun ct v trong khun kim loi.
Nhm co nhiu nn hn hp lm khun phi c tnh ln tt, bn cao, tng
cht dnh v cht ph.
Nhm c tinh chy long cao nn c th c c ccvt c c thnh mng
ti 2,5 mm v phc tp.
Nhm d ho tan kh nn ng rt dng loi hnh rn, bc.
u hi, u ngt ln n 250% khi lng vt c.
Khng nn d khun sm qu v ngui nhanh ngoi khng kh d b nt.
b/ Cng ngh c nhm

Nguyn vt liu: Gm 40 60% vt liu c v 60 40% kim loi nguyn
cht. Kim loi nguyn cht thng dng: 90%Al + 10%Mn; 50%Al + 50%Cu;
85%Al + 15%Si. Cht tr dung: nga s xy ho v to x. Thng dng cc
loi: 44%KCl + 56%MnCl2 hoc 50%NaCl + 35%KCl + 15%Na3AlFe6. Nhng
cht ny ph hu xyt nhm to x.
L nu nhm: thng dng: L

ni, l in tr hoc l cm ng.
Qu trnh nu: Nu nhm kh

khn do s oxy ho mnh lit v s bo
ho kh khi nung trn 8000C. Nn thng
nu di lp cht tr dung, tinh luyn
bng kh hoc mui ri bin tnh. H.3.16. L in tr nu nhm
Nu di lp cht tr dung: Cht 1/3 m liu vo l, trn ph mt lp cht
tr dung ri tin hnh nu chy. Phn m liu cn li sy nng n
1001200C (thot ht nc) ri cho vo kim loi lng trong l. t chc
u mn ta cho vo mt s cht bin tnh. Khuy u ri th mu, nu mu
ngui m cn si bt th phi tip tc kh xy.
nng - 2002
Tinh luyn bng kh: Nu chy 1/3 m liu ri cho hp kim ph v phn cn
li ca m liu vo l. Khuy u ri thi kh clo (hoc N2) vo kim loi
lng, khong 5 15 pht tinh luyn:
3Cl2 + 2Al = 2AlCl3 + Q
Cl2 + H2 = 2HCl + Q
AlCl3 v HCl bay ln to thnh s si mang theo cc tp cht (Al2O3, SiO2
v cc kh khc thot ra ngoi. sau cng lm bin tnh, th v rt vo khun.
3.5. Cc phng php c c bit

c trong khun ct c bng, chnh xc thp, lng d gia cng ln,
nhiu khuyt tt, gi thnh ch to cao nn hin nay xut hin cc phng php
c c bit nh: c trong khun kim loi, c di p lc, c ly tm, c
trong khun mu chy, c trong khun v mng, c lin tc v.v...
3.5.1. c trong khun kim loi

a/ c im:
Khun c th dng c nhiu ln (vi trm n hng vn) tu thuc vo khi
lng vt c.
Vt c c chnh xc v bng cao (cp 7, 8; RZ = 20 Ra = 0,63)
T chc ht kim loi nh, mn (do ngui nhanh) nn c tnh tt.
Tit kim c vt liu lm khun v iu kin lao ng tt.
Gi thnh khun t nn dng sn xut hng lot.
dn nhit khun ln nn khi c gang d b ho trng v gim kh nng
in y ca kim loi v th kh c thnh mng v phc tp.
Khun, li bng kim loi nn khng c tnh ln, ngn cn s co ca kim loi
nhiu lm cho vt c d nt.
Hin nay thng s dng rng ri c thp, gang, ng, nhm, magi
khi ch to cc chi tit nh ng dn kh p lc cao, secmng- xilanh ca bm
thu lc, van, pittng, trc khuu, cam ...
b/ Vt liu lm khun, li v kt cu khun

Vt liu lm khun: Thng dng thp hp kim, thp ccbon, hp kim ng.
Vt liu lm li: kim loi hoc lm bng ct-t st.
Kt cu khun:
Nu vt c n gin th khun c lm 2 na nh c trong khun ct.
i vi vt c phc tp: khun thng t nhiu phn ghp li vi nhau.
nng - 2002
c/ Qu trnh cng ngh c

Lm sch b mt khun, li; sy khun n T0 nht nh; sn ln b mt
khun, li mt lp sn chu nhit dy 2mm. Sn ph ln lp sn m mt lp
sn o bng du mazt, du hi hoc du thc vt. Lp rp khun v rt kim
loi. ngui vt c mt thi gian ri d khun.
3.5.2. c di p lc
a/ c im
Vt c c chnh xc, bng cao (cp 6,7; RZ =10 Ra = 0,63).
c c nhng vt c mng v phc tp.
Vt c ngui nhanh cho nn c tnh cao; nng sut cao.
Khun lm vic di p sut cao, dng chy kim loi ln nn khun mau
mn v chng b hng.
c di p lc dng ch to cc chi tit phc tp nh: van dn kh, v

bm xng du, np bung p.
Vt liu c p lc: Thic ch, km, magi, nhm, ng.
b/ My c p lc
Kim loi lng c vo xi lanh, Piston trn nn xung, piston di I
xung, kim loi lng theo rnh dn vo khun c, sn phm c y ra nh c
cu bn y.
H.3.17. S c p lc kiu pittng
3.5.3. c ly tm
a/ c im:
c ly tm l rt kim loi vo khun quay, nh lc ly tm m kim loi
lng c phn b u trn b mt bn trong ca khun to thnh vt c.
Lc ly tm: P = m.r.2 .
c c nhng chi tit hnh trn xoay, rng m khng cn li.
nng - 2002
C th c c nhng vt c c thnh mng, c gn, hoc hnh ni mng.

Vt c sch, t chc kim loi mn cht.
Ch thch ng cho cc chi tit hnh trn xoay, rng. Cht lng b mt trong
khng tt. Vt c d b thin tch.
Khun cn c bn cao, chu nhit tt. My c ly tm cn c kn tt,
kh nng cn bng ng cao.
Kh xc nh chnh xc ng knh trong ca sn phm.
b/ Cc phng php c ly tm
c ly tm ng: Khun quay theo trc thng ng. Vt c thng c dng
mt Parabonloit. Phng php ny dng c cc chi tit ngn.
c ly tm nm ngang: Khun quay theo phng nm ngang. Vt c l mt
ng hnh tr c chiu dy nh nhau. kim loi chy u vo khun nn t
trc quay nghing mt gc 50.
1 3 2
b/
a/
H.3.18. S nguyn l cc phng php c ly tm

a/ c ly tm ng; b/ c ly tm nm ngang
1. Rt kim loi lng; 2. Khun kim loi; 3. Phi c
nng - 2002
chng 4
Gia cng kim loi bng p lc

4.1. Khi nim chung
4.1.1. Thc cht, c im ca gia cng p lc
a/ Thc cht
Gia cng kim loi bng p lc l mt trong nhng phng php c bn
ch to cc chi tit my v cc sn phm kim loi thay th cho phng php
c hoc gia cng ct gt.
Gia cng kim loi bng p lc thc hin bng cch dng ngoi lc tc dng
ln kim loi trng thi nng hoc ngui lm cho kim loi t n qu gii
hn n hi, kt qu s lm thay i hnh dng ca vt th kim loi m khng
ph hu tnh lin tc v bn ca chng.
b/ c im
Kim loi gia cng th rn, sau khi gia cng khng nhng thay i hnh
dng, kch thc m cn thay i c c, l, ho tnh ca kim loi nh kim
loi mn cht hn, ht ng u, kh cc khuyt tt (r kh, r co v.v ...) do
c gy nn, nng cao c tnh v tui bn ca chi tit v.v ...
GCAL l mt qu trnh sn xut cao, n cho php ta nhn cc chi tit c kch
thc chnh xc, mt chi tit tt, lng ph liu thp v chng c tnh c hc
cao so vi cc vt c.
c/ Cc phng php gia cng kim loi bng p lc

Tt c cc dng GCAL u c th chia lm hai ngnh chnh:
Cn, ko, p thuc ngnh luyn kim.
Rn t do, rn khun, rp tm thuc ngnh c kh.
Sn phm ca GCAL c dng nhiu trong cc xng c kh; ch to
hoc sa cha chi tit my; trong cc ngnh xy dng, kin trc, cu ng,
dng hng ngy ...
V d: Tnh khi lng chi tit rn, dp trong ngnh ch to my bay
chim n 90%, ngnh t chim 80%, ngnh my hi nc chim 60%.
nng - 2002
4.1.2. Bin dng do ca kim loi

a/ Bin dng ca kim loi
Nh chng ta bit, di tc dng ca ngoi lc, kim loi bin dng
theo cc giai on: bin dng n hi, bin dng do v bin dng ph hu. Tu
theo cu trc tinh th ca mi loi, cc giai on trn c th xy ra vi cc mc
khc nhau.
Bin dng n hi: di tc dng ca P
ngoi lc, kim loi b bin dng; nu thi lc
tc dng th bin dng s mt i v kim loi
tr v v tr ban u. l bin dng m ng
sut sinh ra trong kim loi cha vt qu gii
hn n hi
Bin dng do: khi ng sut sinh ra
trong kim loi vt qu gii hn n hi. Bin
dng do l bin dng vnh cu, n lm thay L
i hnh dng ca kim loi sau khi thi lc H.4.1. th quan h
tc dng. gia lc v bin dng
Bin dng ph hu: Nu lc tc dng vt qu gii hn ban u ca kim
loi th n lc lc khng cn tng na, bin dng vn tip din v dn n
ph hu kim loi.
b/ Tnh do ca kim loi

Tnh do ca kim loi l kh nng bin dng do ca kim loi di tc
dng ca ngoi lc m khng b ph hu. Tnh do ca kim loi ph thuc vo
hng lot nhn t khc nhau: thnh phn v t chc ca kim loi, nhit , trng
thi ng sut chnh, ng sut d, ma st ngoi, lc qun tnh, tc bin dng ...
Tnh do ca kim loi ph thuc rt ln vo nhit , hu ht kim loi khi
tng nhit , tnh do tng. Trng thi ng sut chnh cng nh hng ng k
n tnh do ca kim loi. Qua thc nghim ngi ta thy rng kim loi chu ng
sut nn khi c tnh do cao hn khi chu ng sut nn mt, nn ng hoc
chu ng sut ko. ng sut d, ma st ngoi lm thay i trng thi ng sut
chnh trong kim loi nn tnh do ca kim loi cng gim.
4.2. Cn kim loi

4.2.1.Thc cht ca qu trnh cn
Qu trnh cn l cho kim loi bin dng gia hai trc cn quay ngc
chiu nhau c khe h nh hn chiu cao ca phi, kt qu lm cho chiu cao
phi gim, chiu di v chiu rng tng. Hnh dng ca khe h gia hai trc cn
nng - 2002
quyt nh hnh dng ca sn phm. Qu trnh phi chuyn ng qua khe h

trc cn l nh ma st gia hai trc cn vi phi.
Cn khng nhng thay i hnh dng v kch thc phi m cn nng cao
cht lng sn phm.
My cn c hai trc cn t song song vi nhau v quay ngc chiu.
Phi c chiu dy ln hn khe h gia hai trc cn, di tc dng ca lc ma
st, kim loi b ko vo gia hai trc cn, bin dng to ra sn phm. Khi cn
chiu dy phi gim, chiu di, chiu rng tng.
R

A A C
N T A I B
T ho l B
h1
P
A B
A A B
H.4.2. S cn kim loi
Khi cn dng cc thng s sau biu th:

T s chiu di (hoc t s tit din) ca phi trc v sau khi cn gi l h s
l1 F0
ko di: = =
l 0 F1
Lng p tuyt i: h = (ho - h1) (mm).
Quan h gia lng p v gc n:
h = D(1 - cos ) (mm).
S thay i chiu di trc v sau khi cn gi l lng gin di:
l = l1 - lo
S thay i chiu rng trc v sau khi cn gi l lng gin rng:
b = b1 - bo
Cn c th tin hnh trng thi nng hoc trng thi ngui. Cn nng c
u im: tnh do ca kim loi cao nn d bin dng, nng sut cao, nhng cht
lng b mt km v c tn ti vy st trn mt phi khi nung. V vy cn nng
dng cn phi, cn th, cn tm dy, cn thp hp kim. Cn ngui th ngc li
nng - 2002
cht lng b mt tt hn song kh bin dng nn ch dng khi cn tinh, cn tm

mng, di hoc kim loi mm.
iu kin kim loi c th cn c gi l iu kin cn vo. Khi kim
loi tip xc vi trc cn th chng chu hai lc: phn lc N v lc ma st T, nu
h s ma st gia trc cn v phi l f th:
T = N. f f = tg.
V l gc ma st, nn: T/N = tg = f
Lc N v T c th chia thnh 2 thnh phn: nm ngang v thng ng:
Nx = Nsin Tx = T.cos = N.f.cos
Ny = P.cos Ty = T.sin
Thnh phn lc thng ng c tc dng lm kim loi bin dng, cn thnh
phn nm ngang c tc dng ko vt cn vo hoc y ra.
c th cn c, phi tho mn iu kin:
Tx > Nx
f.N.cos > N.sin ; tg > tg hoc >
Ngha l h s ma st f phi ln tg ca gc n . Hoc gc ma st ln
hn gc n. Khi vt cn vo gia trc cn th gc n nh dn n khi vt cn
hon ton vo gia trc cn th gc n ch cn bng 1/2. Hin tng ny gi
l ma st tha. m bo iu kin cn vo cn tng h s ma st trn b mt
trc cn.
4.2.2. Sn phm cn
Sn phm cn rt a dng, c phn ra bn nhm chnh: dng hnh, dng
tm, dng ng v dng c bit.
a/ Loi hnh:
Cc sn phm dng hnh c chia ra dng hnh n gin (a), gm c
thanh, thi tit din trn, vung, ch nht, lc gic, bn nguyt ... v dng hnh
phc tp (b) c tit din ch V, U, I, T, Z ...
a. Dng hnh n gin b. Dng hnh phc tp
b/ Loi tm:
Cc sn phm dng tm c phn loi theo chiu dy ca tm thnh:
Mng: s = 0,23,75 mm; b = 6002200 mm.
Dy: s = 460 mm; b = 6005000 mm; l = 400012000mm.
Cun: s = 0,22 mm; b = 2001500 mm; l = 400060.000 mm.
nng - 2002
c/ Loi ng:
Cc sn phm dng ng c phn ra: ng khng hn v ng c mi hn.
ng khng hn c cn t phi thi c = 5426 mm, chiu dy thnh ng
S = 0,540 mm.
ng c mi hn c ch to bng cch cun tm thnh ng sau cn
hn gip mi vi nhau. Loi ny c ng knh ngoi n 720 mm v chiu
dy n 14 mm.
d/ Loi hnh c bit:

Cc sn phm c bit gm cc loi c hnh dng c bit theo yu cu
ring nh v t v cc loi c tit din thay i theo chu k.
4.2.3. Thit b cn
a/ Cc b phn ch yu ca my cn
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 7
H.4.3. S cu to my cn
1. Trc cn 2. Trc cc ng 3. Hp phn lc
4. Khp ni 5. Bnh 6. Hp gim tc 7. ng c
Gi cn: L b phn ch yu ca my cn bao gm: cc trc cn gi ln v

gi ta c t trong ca s ca thn my, c h thng nn trc v cn bng
trc.
Trc cn: Gm ba phn: thn trc cn (3), c trc (2) v u ch thp (1). Thn
trc cn c dng trc trn (a) hoc c cc rnh to l hnh (b), c trc lp
, u ch thp l ch ni vi b phn truyn dn.
1 2 3 1 2 3
a. Trc cn thng b. Trc cn thp hnh

H.4.4. Trc cn
nng - 2002
Trc truyn: Truyn m men xon t hp phn lc n cho cc trc cn. C 3

loi trc truyn:
Trc khp ni hoa mai c cu to n gin, gc nng khng ln dng
rng ri cc my cn hnh, my cn tm v my cn c nh phi tiu chun.
Trc khp ni vung: dng nhiu trong cc my cn c nh phi tiu

chun, my cn hn hp va cn hnh va cn tm, hp l nht l khi dng cc
loi my cn c ng knh trc 50200 mm.
Trc khp ni vn nng: C kh nng truyn m men xon cho trc cn

gc nghing = 00100. N c s dng nhiu trong my cn, c bit trong
cc loi my cn phi, my cn ph, my cn tm dy, my cn ren v.v...
Hp bnh rng ch V: Phn phi mmen xon ra cho cc trc cn. Cc bnh
rng c ch to t thp 40Cr hoc 40CrNi, rng xin 2 pha c kh nng chu
ti ln v chng c lc dc trc.
Hp gim tc: c ch to t cc bnh rng xin c t mt n 3 cp, mi cp

c t s truyn t 4 n 6, hp gim tc 3 cp t dng.
b/ Phn loi my cn
Cn c theo s lng trc cn:
a/ b/ c/ d/ e/
H.4.5. Phn theo s lng trc cn

a- my cn 2 trc, b-my cn 3 trc, c- my cn 2 trc kp, d-
my cn nhiu trc, e-my cn vn nng.
Cn c theo cng dng:

My cn phi; my cn thp hnh; my cn thp ng, my cn c bit.
Cn c theo ng knh trc:
Hng ln: >600 mm, va: =360550 mm, nh: = 240350 mm.
nng - 2002
Cn c theo s b tr trc cn:
a b.
c
d g
H.4.6. Cch b tr trc cn

a-my cn n, b-my cn ng thng, c-my cn hai cp, d-my cn nhiu cp,
e-my cn bn lin tc, g-my cn lin tc.
4.2.4. Cng ngh cn mt s thp thng dng

a/ Cn thp tm:
Cn thp tm dy: Khi cn thp tm dng trc cn trn, thng qua hai cng
on: u tin l cn rng (a), tip theo l cn di (b). Khi cn rng, phi a
vo theo gc nghing so vi ng tm trc cn, cn khi cn di phi c a
vo thng gc. Cn thp tm dy c th dng my cn hai trc hoc 3 trc.
c d c
d
b
a b
a
a. b.
a b
d
c
a d c
b a) Cn rng b) Cn di
Cn thp tm mng: C th cn trng thi nng hoc ngui. Cn nng thng

tin hnh trn my cn lin tc hay bn lin tc c vn tc n 15 m/s. Kim loi
sau khi cn nng tip tc cn ngui c chiu dy nh hn. Khi cn ngui
thng dng cht bi trn v cn trn my 2, 3, 5 trc v.v... V cn ngui tn ti
hin tng bin cng nn phi trung gian gia cc ln cn trong l c mi
trng bo v hoc l trung tnh.
nng - 2002
b/ Cn thp hnh
Cn thp hnh n gin: Qu trnh cn cc loi thp hnh n gin
thng qua nhiu ln cn vi trc cn hnh, cc bc cn th tin hnh vi cc l
hnh c bin dng khc nhau nh: l hnh vung, l hnh ch nht, l hnh thoi,
l hnh -van,... cn cn tinh, l hnh c bin dng ca sn phm. Hnh sau trnh
by s cn mt s loi thp hnh n gin.
90o 90o
a
90o 90o
b
H.4.7. S cn mt s thp hnh

a) Cn thp trn b) Cn thp vung c) Cn thp gc
c/ Cn ng:
Khi cn ng khng c mi hn (a), phi ban u l thp trn, my cn
c hai trc cn, mi trc c hai phn hnh nn ct ngc nhau, quay cng chiu
v t cho nhau trong khng gian mt gc = 4 6o.
Trong qu trnh cn, phi va chuyn ng quay, va chuyn ng tnh
tin dc trc ca n. vng bin dng, tm ca phi b bin dng nhiu v chu
ng sut ko nn thay i lin tc lm xut hin cc vt nt v to thnh l, sau
l c mi xoy sa li bin dng. Sau khi cn th, ng c a qua
nguyn cng tu chnh sa chnh xc ng knh trong v ngoi.
K
nhn theo K
2
3

1
H.4.8. S cn ng khng c mi hn
1) Trc cn 2) Mi xoy 3) Phi
Khi cn ng c mi hn, dng thp tm ct thnh di sau cn cun thnh

ng v hn gip mi cnh dc theo chiu trc ca ng.
nng - 2002
4.3. Ko kim loi

4.3.1. Thc cht, c im v cng dng
a/ Thc cht:
Ko si l qu trnh ko phi kim loi qua l khun ko lm cho tit din
ngang ca phi gim v chiu di tng. Hnh dng v kch thc ca chi tit
ging l khun ko.
b/ c im:
Ko si c th tin hnh trng thi nng hoc trng thi ngui.
Ko si cho ta sn phm c chnh xc cp 1214 v bng Ra = 0,63
0,32.
c/ Cng dng:
Ko si dng ch to cc thi, ng, si bng thp v kim loi mu.
Ko si cn dng gia cng tinh b mt ngoi cc ng cn c mi hn v mt
s cng vic khc.
1 2 3 1 2 3
P P
4
a) b)
H.4.9. S ko si
a/ Ko si b) Ko ng
1) Phi 2) Khun ko 3) Sn phm 4) Li sa l
Khi ko si, phi (1) c ko qua khun ko (2) vi l hnh c tit din
nh hn tit din phi kim loi v bin dng theo yu cu, to thnh sn phm
(3). i vi ko ng, khun ko (2) to hnh mt ngoi ng cn l c sa
ng ng knh nh li (4) t trong.
4.3.2. Qu trnh ko si
Ty theo tng loi kim loi, hnh dng l khun, mi ln ko tit din c
th gim xung 15% 35%. T l gia ng knh trc v sau khi ko gi l
d0
h s ko di: K= = 1+
d1 P(1 + f cot g )
nng - 2002
do, d1- ng knh si trc v sau khi ko (mm).

- gii hn bn ca kim loi (N/mm2); - gc nghing ca l khun.
2
p - p lc ca khun p ln kim loi (N/mm ). f - h s ma st.
Ko si c th ko qua mt hoc nhiu l khun ko nu t s gia ng
knh phi v ng knh sn phm vt qu h s ko cho php. S lt ko c
th c tnh ton nh sau:
d0 d d d d
d1 = ; d 2 = 1 = 02 ; d n = n 1 = 0n
k k k k k
d0 lg d 0 lg d n
kn = n lg k = lg d 0 lg d n ; ta c: n =
dn lg k
Lc ko si phi m bo:
ln thng lc ma st gia kim loi v thnh khun, ng thi kim
loi bin dng.
ng sut ti tit din ra khi khun phi nh hn gii hn bn cho php ca
vt liu nu khng si s b t.
Lc ko si c th xc nh:
(1 + f cot g )
F0
P = . F1 .lg (N)
F1
- Gii hn bn ca kim loi ly bnh tr s trung bnh gii hn bn ca vt
liu trc v sau khi ko.
F0, F1 - tit din trc v sau khi ko (mm2).
f - h s ma st gia khun v vt liu.
Ko si dng ch to cc thi, ng, si bng thp v kim loi mu c
ng knh t vi mm n vi chc mm. Ko si cn dng gia cng tinh b mt
ngoi ng cn c mi hn v mt s cng vic khc.
4.3.3.Dng c v thit b ko si
a/ Khun ko:
Khun ko si gm khun (1) v khun
1 2
(2), bin dng l hnh ca khun gm 4 phn: on
cn (I) l phn lm vic chnh ca khun c gc
cn = 24o360 (thng dng nht l 260), on IV
cn vo (II) c gc cn 90o l ni phi vo v II I
III
cha cht bi trn, on thng (III) c tc dng
nh knh v on cn thot phi (IV) c gc cn
600 si ra d dng khng b xc. Vt
liu ch to khun l thp cc bon dng c, thp
hp kim hoc hp kim cng, thng dng cc loi Khun ko
sau: CD80, CD100, CD130, 30CrTiSiMo, Cr5Mo. 1) Khun 2) khun
nng - 2002
b/ My ko si
My ko si c nhiu loi, cn c vo phng php ko c th chia lm 2
loi: my ko thng hay my ko c tang cun. Cng c th c phn loi theo
s lng khun ko, s si c ko ng thi.
My ko thng dng khi ko cc si hoc ng c ng knh ln khng
th cun c ( = 610 mm hoc ln hn). Lc ko ca my t 0,275 tn, tc
ko 1545 m/ph. tu kt cu ca my c th ko 1 hoc 3 sn phm cng mt
lc. to chuyn ng thng c th dng xch, vt v cu, thanh rng v bnh
rng, du p v.v...Trn hnh sau trnh by my ko si bng xch si c kp
cht nh c cu kp (3), c ko nh hai xch ko (4) ni chuyn ng vi h
thng dn ng.
1 2 3 4
H.4.10. S my ko si ko thng
1) Kim loi 2) Khun ko 3) C cu ko 4) Xch ko
My ko si c tang cun dng khi ko si di c th cun trn c.

Trn my ko mt khun (a) dng ko nhng si hoc thi c = 610
mm. khi tang ko (3) quay, si c ko qua khun (2) ng thi cun thnh
cun. Theo tc ko, tang cp si (1) lin tc quay theo cp cho khun ko.
My ko si nhiu khun ko c s trt (b) th cc khun ko c tit
din gim dn v gia nhng khun ko l nhng con ln (3). S quay ca trng
(4) ng thi to nn tng lc ko ca cc khun.
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
b.
H.4.11. My ko c tang cun
a-My ko mt khun; b- My ko nhiu khun
nng - 2002
4.4. p kim loi

4.4.1. Nguyn l chung
Ep l phng php ch to cc sn phm kim loi bng cch y kim loi
cha trong bung p kn hnh tr, di tc dng ca chy p kim loi bin dng
qua l khun p c tit din ging tit din ngang ca chi tit. Trn hnh sau
trnh by nguyn l mt s phng php p kim loi:
1 2 3 4 2 4 3 2 3 4
1 1 5
a/ b/ c/
H.4.12. S nguyn l p kim loi

a, b) p si, thanh c) p ng
1) Pistng 2) Xi lanh 3) Kim loi 4) Khun o 5) Li to l
Khi p thanh, thi ngi ta c th tin hnh bng phng php p thun
hoc p nghch. Vi p thun (a), khi pistng (1) p, kim loi trong xi lanh (2) b
p qua l hnh ca khun p (4) chuyn ng ra ngoi cng chiu chuyn ng
ca pistng p. Vi p nghch (b), khi pistng (1) p, kim loi trong xi lanh (2)
b p qua l hnh ca khun p (4) chuyn ng ra ngoi ngc chiu chuyn
ng ca pistng p. Vi p thun kt cu n gin, nhng lc p ln v ma st
gia kim loi v thnh xi lanh lm tng lc p cn thit, ng thi phn kim loi
trong xi lanh khng th p ht ln (1012%). p nghch lc p thp hn, lng
kim loi cn li trong xi lanh t hn (68%), nhng kt cu p phc tp.
S hnh (c) trnh by nguyn l p ng, y l ng c to thnh
nh li (5). Phi p c l rng t li (5), khi pistng (1) p, kim loi b y
qua khe h gia l hnh ca khun (4) v li to thnh ng.
4.4.2. Khun p
V kt cu, khun p c ba dng: hnh cn (a), hnh phu (b) v hnh tr (c).
a b c
H.4.13. Kt cukhun p
nng - 2002
Khun p dng hnh cn, c gc cn thnh bn t 2030o, chiu di on

hnh tr t 58 mm, c s dng nhiu v kt cu tng i n gin. Kt cu
hnh phu, kim loi bin dng u hn nhng gia cng kh khn, cn kt cu
hnh tr d gia cng nhng kim loi bin dng qua khun kh hn.
Vt liu ch to khun l thp hp kim cha W, V, Mo, Cr v.v... hoc
hp kim cng.
4.4.3. c im v ng dng
p l phng php sn xut cc thanh c tit din nh hnh c nng sut
cao, chnh xc v nhn b mt cao, trong qua trnh p, kim loi ch yu
chu ng sut nn nn tnh do tng, do c th p c cc sn phm c tit
din ngang phc tp. Nhc im ca phng php l kt cu p phc tp,
khun p yu cu chng mn cao. Phng php ny c ng dng rng ri
ch to cc thanh kim loi mu c ng knh t 5200 mm, cc ng c
ng knh trong n 800 mm, chiu dy t 1,58 mm v mt s prfin khc.
nng - 2002
4.5. Rn t do
4.5.1. Thc cht, c im v dng c rn t do
Rn t do l mt phng php gia cng p lc m kim loi bin dng
khng b khng ch bi mt mt no khc ngoi b mt tip xc gia phi kim
loi vi dng c gia cng (ba v e). Di tc ng ca lc P do ba (1) gy ra
v phn lc N t e (3), khi kim loi (2) bin dng, s bin dng ch b khng
ch bi hai mt trn v di, cn cc mt xung quanh hon ton t do.
1
P
2
3
N
H.4.14. S rn t do
a/ c im
chnh xc, bng b mt chi tit khng cao. Nng sut thp
Cht lng v tnh cht kim loi tng phn ca chi tit kh m bo ging
nhau nn ch gia cng cc chi tit n gin hay cc b mt khng nh hnh.
Cht lng sn phm ph thuc vo tay ngh ca cng nhn.
Thit b v dng c rn t do n gin.
Rn t do c dng rng ri trong sn xut n chic hay hng lot nh. Ch
yu dng cho sa cha, thay th.
b/ Dng c
Nhm1: L nhng dng c cng ngh c bn nh cc loi e, ba, bn l, bn
tp, sn, cht, mi t.
Nhm 2: L nhng dng c kp cht nh cc loi km, t v cc c cu kp
cht khc.
Nhm 3: L nhng dng c kim tra v o lng: ke, thc cp (o trong o
ngoi, o chiu su, cc loi compa.
nng - 2002
4.5.2. Thit b rn t do
Thit b rn t do bao gm: Thit b gy lc, thit b nung, my ct phi,
my nn thng, my vn chuyn.v.v...
Rn t do c th tin hnh bng tay hoc bng my. Rn tay ch yu dng
trong sn xut sa cha, trong cc phn xng c kh ch yu l rn my. Theo
c tnh tc dng lc, cc my dng rn t do c chia ra: my tc dng lc
va p (my ba), my tc dng lc tnh (my p). Trong , my ba hi l
thit b c s dng nhiu nht.
Hnh sau trnh by s ca mt my ba hi. My ba hi c hai xi
lanh, mt xi lanh kh (5) v mt xi lanh ba (9). Gia hai xi lanh c van phn
phi kh (7) iu khin s cp kh nn t xi lanh nn sang xi lanh u ba.
7
8 6
5
9
10
4
11 3 2
12
13
1
14
H.4.15. S nguyn l my ba hi
1- ng c in 2- B truyn ai 3- Trc khuu 4- Tay bin 5- Xi lanh p
6-Pistng p 7- Van phn phi kh 8- Pistng ba 9- Xi lanh ba 10- e
trn 11- e di 12- gi e 13-B e 14- bn p iu khin
Nguyn l lm vic ca my ba: ng c 1 truyn ng cho trc khuu

3 qua b truyn ai 2. Thng qua bin truyn ng 4 lm cho pittng p 6
chuyn ng tnh tin to ra kh p bung trn hoc bung di trong xi lanh
ba 9.
Tu theo v tr ca bn p iu khin 14 m h thng van phn phi kh 7
s to ra nhng ng dn kh khc nhau, lm cho pittng ba 8 c gn thn
pittng ba v e trn 10 chuyn ng hay ng yn trong xi lanh ba 9. e
di 11 c lp vo gi e 12, chng c gi cht trn b e 13.
Ngoi my ba hi trong thc t cn s dng cc loi my sau y trong
rn t do: My ba hi nc- khng kh p rn t do, My ba ma st kiu
vn g, My ba l xo.
nng - 2002
4.5.3. Nhng nguyn cng c bn ca rn t do

Cng ngh rn t do mt sn phm no thng bao gm nhiu nguyn
cng khc nhau. Tu theo yu cu v k thut, hnh dng ca chi tit gia cng v
dng phi ban u m la chn nhng nguyn cng v th t tin hnh khc
nhau.
a/ nguyn cng Vut

Nguyn cng lm gim tit din ngang v tng chiu di ca phi rn.
Dng rn cc chi tit dng trc, ng, dt mng hay chun b cho cc nguyn
cng tip theo nh t l, xon, un. Thng thng khi vut dng ba phng,
nhng khi cn vut vi nng sut cao hn th dng ba c dng hnh ch V hoc
cung trn.
Cn m bo cc thng s k thut hp l:
Kch thc chi tit ban u l b0,h0; kch thc sau khi vut l b, h; kch
thc e L, B. s - gi l bc vut.
c
b0
b
h
s h0
h L
B
H.4.16. S vut kim loi
tranh tt gp np cho sn phm th: s > h v cn m bo th no cho

b0
2 2,5 . tng nng sut vut th: s << b.
h0
cho b mt sn phm c phng th: s (0,40,8)c
Khi vut phi l thi thp c th tin hnh vut t gia ra dn cc khuyt
tt ra hai u ri ct b.
i vi thp cn th vut tng on mt t ngoi vo trong, v hai u chng
ngui.
Khi cn vut nhanh n tit din nh yu cu, th trc tin vut thnh tit
din ch nht hay vung cho d, lc gn t n kch thc cn thit ngi
ta mi tu chnh cho ng theo thnh phm.
nng - 2002
Khi mun chuyn i phi c tit din vung thnh chi tit c tit din trn
vi chiu di thay i khng ng k th chn cnh ca phi b hn ng
knh ca chi tit 23%.
Khi phi c tit din hnh trn m chi tit c tit din hnh ch nht m
mun chiu di khng thay i ng k th ng knh ca phi D c
2a + b a a
tnh: D= nu 2 ; D = 1,3a nu 2
3 b b
a,b - cnh ln v cnh nh ca tit din chi tit.
Mt s phng php vut c bit:

Vut trn trc tm: Nhm gim chiu dy v tng chiu di chi tit, ng knh
trong ca phi hu nh khng i.
Lng phi vo trc tm (c d = d
trong ca phi c cn 312 Ba
mm/m) v tin hnh gia cng trn Chi tit
e dng ch V v ba phng. Nu
trc tm ln th bn trong c l
rng dn nc lm ngui nu l Trc tm
ln vut u th trc tm phi e
0
nung trc khong 150200 C.
Khi vut th vut dn tng on H.4.17. S vut trn trc tm
t 2 u vo gia d ly chi
tit ra khi trc tm.
M rng ng knh trn trc

tm: dng vut cc chi tit dng
ng nhm tng ng knh trong, b
P ba
ng knh ngoi, gim chiu
dy thnh ng m chiu di hu
nh khng i. Trc tm c
ng knh nh hn l phi t
50150 mm, chiu di cng tc a l
ly ln hn chiu di phi l a
khong 50100 mm. Trc tm
cng b th nng sut vut cng
cao nhng cng vng km. H.4.18. S m rng l trn trc tm
Ba gia cng c b > l.
nng - 2002
b/ Nguyn cng chn

L nguyn cng nhm tng tit din ngang v gim chiu cao phi. N
thng l nguyn cng chun b cho cc nguyn cng tip theo nh t l, thay
dng th trong t chc kim loi, lm bng u, chuyn i kch thc phi.
Chn ton b: l nung c chiu di phi, khi chn thng xy ra cc trng hp

sau:
h0
Trng hp 1: khi 2 th vt chn c dng hnh trng (a).
d0
h
Trng hp 2: khi 0 2 2,5 c th xy ra cc hin tng sau:
d0
Lc p ln: vt chn c dng 2 hnh trng chng kht ln nhau (b).
Lc p trung bnh: 2 hnh trng kp khng chng kht ln nhau (c).
Lc p nh v nhanh: vt chn c 2 u loe ra (d).
h0
Trng hp 3: khi 2,5 vt chn d b cong, cn nn thng ri chn tip ().
d0
d0
h0
a b c d
H.4.19. Chn ton b
Chn cc b
Ch cn nung nng vng cn chn hay lm ngui trong nc phn khng
cn chn ri mi gia cng. Cng c th nung nng ton b ri gia cng trong
nhng khun m thch hp.
H.4.20. Chn cc b
nng - 2002
c/ nguyn cng t l
t lthng sut:
Nu chi tit t mng v rng th khng cn lt phi trong qu trnh t. Cn
phi c vng m d thot phoi. Nu chiu dy vt t ln th t n
7080% chiu su l, lt phi 1800 t phn cn li.
h
Nu l t qu su ( > 2,5 ) th khi ht mi t ta dng cc tr m t
d
n chiu su yu cu.
Nu l t c ng knh qu ln (D>50100mm) nn dng mi t rng
gim lc t.
t l khng thng:
c coi nh l giai on u ca t l thng, song bit c chiu
su l t th trn mi t v tr m phi c khc du. khng dng c
mi t rng. Nu l t ln trc ht dng mi t nh t, sau dng
mi t ln dn cho n ng knh yu cu. V rng s bin dng trong khi t
l khng thng rt kh khn.
lu :
Li ct ca mi t phi phng, sc u, c cng cao v nm trong mt
phng vung gc vi trc tm ca n.
Lc p ca ba phi phn b u v phi vung gc vi ng tm trc.
Khi t n 1030mm th nhc mi t ln v cho cht chng dnh vo (bt
than, bt grafit...) ri mi t tip.
nng - 2002
4.6. Dp th tch
a/ nh ngha
Dp th tch l phng php gia cng p lc trong kim loi bin dng
trong mt khng gian hn ch bi b mt lng khun.
Qu trnh bin dng ca phi trong lng khun phn thnh 3 giai on:
giai on u chiu cao ca phi gim, kim loi bin dng v chy ra xung
quanh, theo phng thng ng phi chu ng sut nn, cn phng ngang chu
ng sut ko. p
1
Giai on 2: kim loi bt u ln kn ca

2
ba-via, kim loi chu ng sut nn khi,
mt tip gip gia na khun trn v di
3
cha p st vo nhau. Giai on cui: kim
loi chu ng sut nn khi trit , in 6
y nhng phn su v mng ca lng 5
4
khun, phn kim loi tha s trn qua ca
bavia vo rnh cha bavia cho n lc 2 b H.4.20. S kt cu ca mt b khun rn
mt ca khun p st vo nhau. 1-khun trn; 2- rnh cha ba-via;
3- khun di; 4- chui ui n;
5- lng khun; 6- ca ba-via
b/ c im
chnh xc v bng b mt phi cao (cp 6 - 7; RZ = 80 20)
Cht lng sn phm ng u v cao, t ph thuc tay ngh cng nhn.
C th to phi c hnh dng phc tp hn rn t do.
Nng sut cao, d c kh ho v t ng ha.
Thit b cn c cng sut ln, cng vng v chnh xc cao.
Chi ph ch to khun cao, khun lm vic trong iu kin nhit v p lc
cao. Bi vy dp th tch ch yu dng trong sn xut hng lot v hng khi.
4.6.2. Thit b dp th tch

Thit b dng trong dp th tch bao gm nhiu loi khc nhau nh thit b
nung, thit b vn chuyn, my ct phi, thit b lm ngui, thit b kim tra
v.v...Tuy nhin ay ta ch nghin cu mt s my gia cng chnh.
Dp th tch i hi phi c lc dp ln, bi vy cc my dp phi c cng
sut ln, cng vng ca my cao. Mt khc, do yu cu khi dp khun trn v
nng - 2002
khun di phi nh v chnh xc vi nhau, chuyn ng ca u trt my dp

phi chnh xc, t gy chn ng.
Trong dp th tch thng dng nht l s dng cc loi my sau: my ba
hi nc - khng kh nn, my p trc khuu, my p thu lc, my p ma st
trc vt.
a/ My p thy lc
Cc my p thu lc l cc loi my rn truyn dn bng dng cht lng
(du hoc nc) c p sut cao. My c ch to vi lc p t 300 - 7.000 tn.
to p lc p ln, trong cc my p thy lc
n u p
thng dng b khuch i p sut vi hai xi lanh: xi P2
lanh hi (1) v xi lanh du (3). Pittng (2) c hai 3
phn ng knh khc nhau, phn nm trong xi lanh
hi c ng knh ln (D) v phn nm trong xi lanh
du c ng knh b (d). Vi p sut hi p1, p sut d
du (p2) c tnh theo cng thc sau: 2
D2
p 2 = p1
d2
My p thy lc c u im: lc p ln, chuyn 1 P1 D
ng ca u p m v chnh xc, iu khin hnh Hi
trnh p v lc p d dng. Nhc im ca my p B khuyt i p sut
thu lc l ch to phc tp, bo dng kh khn.
b/ My p trc khuu 1 2 3
My p trc khuu c lc p t
4
1610.000 tn. My ny c loi hnh trnh u
5
con trt c nh gi l my c hnh trnh cng;
c loi u con trt c th iu chnh c gi 6
l hnh trnh mm. Nhn chung cc my ln u
c hnh trnh mm. Trn my p c kh c th
lm c cc cng vic khc nhau: rn trong 7
khun h, p phi, t l, ct bavia v.v... S
8
nguyn l c trnh by trn hnh sau:
10
Nguyn l lm vic ca my nh sau: 9

ng c (1) qua b truyn ai (2) truyn
chuyn ng cho trc (3), bnh rng (4) n
khp vi bnh rng (7) lp lng khng trn trc
khuu (5). H.4.21. My p trc khuu
nng - 2002
Khi ng li hp (6), trc khuu (8) quay, thng qua tay bin (8) lm cho
u trt (9) chuyn ng tnh tin ln xung, thc hin chu trnh dp. e di
(10) lp trn b nghing c th iu chnh c v tr n khp ca khun trn v
khun di.
c im ca my p trc khuu: chuyn ng ca u trt m hn
my ba, nng sut cao, tn hao nng lng t, nhng c nhc im l phm vi
iu chnh hnh trnh b, i hi tnh ton phi chnh xc v phi lm sch phi
k trc khi dp.
4.6.3. Cng ngh dp th tch

Ty thuc vo mc phc tp ca kt cu vt dp, qu trnh dp c th
tin hnh qua mt lng khun hoc qua nhiu lng khun. Thng thng vi cc
vt dp phc tp, qu trnh dp tin hnh qua cc nguyn cng dp s b, dp
bn tinh v dp tinh.
a/ Khi dp s b
Qu trnh dp c tin hnh vi cc lng khun sau:
Lng khun vut: lng khun lm gim tit din ngang mt phn phi ng
thi lm tng chiu di phi (H.3.22a).
Lng khun p t: lng khun lm tng tit din ngang ca phi mt s
ch nh gim tit din cc ch khc, chiu di phi c gi nguyn
(H.3.22b).
Lng khun un: lng khun lm thay i hng trc ca mt phn phi so
vi phn khc ph hp vi dng ca vt dp (H.3.22c) .
a/ b/ c/
H.4.22. Lng khun dp s b
b/ Khi dp bn tinh
S dng lng khun thnh hnh: lng khun to hnh gn ging vi hnh
dng vt dp (H.3.23d), nhng cn, gc ln ln hn khun dp tinh v
khng c rnh bavia.
nng - 2002
c/ Khi dp tinh
S dng lng khun tinh: lng khun to hnh chnh xc vt dp c rnh
bavia (H.3.23e).
d/ e/
H.4.23. Lng khun dp bn tinh v tinh
4.7. k thut Dp tm
a/ Thc cht
Dp tm l mt phng php gia cng p lc tin tin ch to cc sn
phm hoc chi tit bng vt liu tm, thp bn hoc thp di.
Dp tm c tin hnh trng thi ngui (tr thp ccbon c S > 10mm)
nn cn gi l dp ngui.
Vt liu dng trong dp tm: Thp ccbon, thp hp kim mm, ng v
hp kim ng, nhm v hp kim nhm, niken, thic, ch vv...v vt liu phi kim
nh: giy cctng, bnt, fp, aming, da, vv...
b/ c im
Nng sut lao ng cao do d t ng ho v c kh ho.
Chuyn ng ca thit b n gin, cng nhn khng cn trnh cao, m
bo chnh xc cao.
C th dp c nhng chi tit phc tp v p, c bn cao..v.v...
c/ Cng dng
Dp tm c dng rng ri trong cc ngnh cng nghip c bit ngnh ch to
my bay, nng nghip, t, thit b in, dn dng v.v...
nng - 2002
4.7.2.Thit b dp tm
Thit b dp tm thng c hai loi: my p trc khuu v my p thu
lc. My dp c th tc dng n (my ch c mt con trt chnh dng t,
ct, to hnh) tc dng kp (my c 2 con trt: 1 con trt dng p phi, con
trt kia dng dp su) 3 tc dng (ngoi 2 con trt nh my trn cn c b
phn y sn phm ra khi khun).
1
1- c cu cam
2 2- con trt ngoi
3- con trt trong
3 4- phi kim loi
H.4.24. My p tc dng kp
a/ My p trc khuu
Truyn ng ca trc khuu l truyn ng cng, khong hnh trnh ca
my khng ch chnh xc nn sn phm dp tm c cht lng cao v ng u.
Khi ng c quay, trc khuu c th c iu khin bng bn p, khi khng
lm vic con trt v tr cao nht d tho sn phm v a phi vo.
Phn ln cc my p trc khuu u c th iu chnh hnh trnh ca con
trt ph hp vi kch thc ca chi tit. Ngoi ra cn c nhiu c cu cp
phi v ly sn phm t ng trong sn xut hng lot.
1
4 3
x x
2
5 x x x 1- mt in
6 2- b truyn ai
x x
3- b ly hp
7 4- phanh hm
5- trc khuu
6- bin truyn ng
7- b gim chn
8 8- b thay i hnh trnh v
cn bng con trt.
10 9
9- con trt cng tc
10- bn my
H.4.25. My p trc khuu K366
nng - 2002
4.7.3. Cng ngh dp tm

Cng ngh dp tm c c trng bi 2 nhm nguyn cng chnh:
nguyn cng ct v nguyn cng to hnh.
a/ nhm Nguyn cng ct

Ct phi l nguyn cng tch mt phn ca phi khi phn kim loi
chung. Nguyn cng ny c 3 loi: ct t, ct phi, t l.
a/ Ct t
L nguyn cng ct phi thnh tng ming theo ng ct h, dng ct
thnh tng di c chiu rng cn thit, ct thnh ming nh t nhng phi thp
tm ln. C cc loi my ct t sau:
My ct li dao song song:
Gc trc =230
Ct c cc tm rng B 3200
mm, chiu dy S n 60 mm.
Ch ct c ng thng, chiu
+ + + +
rng tm ct phi nh hn chiu

S B
di dao.
ng ct thng, p, hnh trnh
dao nh; Lc ct tng i ln:
P = 1,3.B.S. c (N).
B - chiu rng ct ca phi (mm); S - chiu dy phi ct (mm).
c - Gii hn bn ct ca phi c = (0,60,8)b (N/mm2).
My ct dao nghing:
Li dao di nm ngang, li
dao trn nghing mt gc =
260. + + + +
Gc ct = 7585 ; gc sau =
0
230. n gin khi mi dao S

cho php = 900; gc sau = 0.
h gia 2 dao Z = 0,05 Z
0,2mm
Lc ct khng ln, ct c cc tm dy; Ct c cc ng cong; ng
ct khng thng v nhn. Hnh trnh ca dao ln.
0,5. S 2 . c
P = 1,3 (N)
tg
nng - 2002
My ct chn ng:
My c 2 li dao nghing to
thnh mt gc = 24300; gc trc
= 670, khi ct li ct trn ln
xung rt nhanh (20003000
ln/pht) v vi hnh trnh ngn 23
mm. Ct c tm c S 10 mm.
My ct dao a mt cp dao:
D D
h
S D
h B
B S Z
B
a/ Dao a c tm trc song song b/ My ct dao di nghing c/ Hai dao nghing

My ct nhiu dao a.
Li ct l 2 a trn quay ngc chiu B
nhau; my c th c hai hoc nhiu cp a

D
ct.
Gc ct 900; Z = (0,1 0,2)S
ng knh dao a: D =(40 125)S (mm).
Chiu dy dao: B = 15 30 (mm) Z
Vn tc ct: v = 1 5 m/s
Vt liu lm dao: 5XBC
My ny dng ct cc ng thng v ng cong chiu di tu . Cc
tm ct mng < 10 mm.
b/ Dp ct v t l
y l nguyn cng ct m ng ct l mt chu vi kn. V nguyn l dp
ct v t l ging nhau ch khc nhau v cng dng.
t l l qu trnh to nn l rng trn phi, phn vt liu tch khi phi
gi l ph liu, phn cn li l phi i qua nguyn cng to hnh. i vi dp
ct th phn ct ri l phi phn cn li l ph liu .
Mt s thng s k thut cn lu :
Chy v ci phi c cnh sc to thnh li ct,
gia chy v ci c khong h Z = (5% 10%)S.
Khi t mun c kch thc l t cho th kch
Cc loi u chy
thc ca chy chn bng kch thc ca l, cn
nng - 2002
kch thc ca ci ln hn 2Z. Chy vt lm pha

trong to thnh rnh ct.
Khi ct phi c kch thc cho th kch thc ca
z
ci bng kch thc ca phi cn ca chy nh thua
2Z.
Lc ct hoc t P
- Khi ng ct trn: P = 1,25.d.s.cp (N).
- Khi ng ct bt k: P = 1,25L.s.cp (N).
s - chiu dy phi (mm); d - ng knh phi hoc l t (mm).
L - chu vi ng ct (mm); cp- gii hn bn ct (N/mm2).
b/ nhm Nguyn cng to hnh

L nguyn cng dch chuyn mt phn ca phi i vi phn khc m
phi khng b ph hu.
a/ Nguyn cng un:

L nguyn cng lm thay i hng ca trc phi. Trong qu trnh un
cong lp kim loi pha trn b nn, lp kim loi pha ngoi b ko, lp kim loi
gia khng b ko nn gi l lp trung ho. Khi bn knh un cong cng b th
mc nn v ko cng ln c th lm cho vt un cong b nt n. Lc ny lp
trung ho c xu hng dch v pha un cong.
V tr v kch thc lp trung ho c Lp trung ho Chy
xc nh bi bn knh lp trung ho: S
r
= + . . S . r
S 2
r - bn knh un trong; S - chiu dy phi (mm);
x.S
- bn knh lp trung ho; r - bn knh un Ci
trong.
b/ Nguyn cng dp vut

Dp vut l nguyn cng ch to cc chi tit rng c hnh dng bt k t
phi phng v c tin hnh trn cc khun dp vut. Khi dp vut c th lm
mng thnh hoc khng lm mng thnh.
Dp vut khng lm mng thnh

Hnh dng tm phi: Nu chi tit l hnh hp y ch nht th phi c dng
hnh bu dc hay elp, cn nu chi tit l hnh hp y vung hoc hnh tr
y trn th phi l ming ct trn.
nng - 2002
Kch thc phi: Nu S < 0,5 mm th din tch phi bng din tch mt trong
hoc din tch mt ngoi ca chi tit, cn nu S > 0,5mm th ly bng din
tch lp trung ho ca chi tit (k c y). Trong thc t din tch phi (k c
lng d ct mp) c tnh:
D = 113
, F = 113
, f (mm)
Trong : F - din tch b mt ca chi tit, mm2.
f - tng din tch cc phn t ring ca b mt chi tit, mm2.
Xc nh s ln dp vut:
Khi dp vut tu theo tnh do ca vt liu mi ln dp cho php dp
thnh chi tit c ng knh nht nh. H s dp cho php c tnh nh sau:
d ct
m=
D ph
Trng hp mun ch to mt chi tit dp gin c chiu su ln, ng
knh nh th phi dp mt s ln, mi ln dp ch gim ng knh y theo h
s cho php m = 0,550,95.
H s dp gin ln th nht m1 < m2,m3,m4...,mn. v cc ln dp sau vt
sinh ra hin tng bin cng v iu kin bin dng kh hn.
S ln dp n ca phi c dng knh D thnh chi tit c ng knh dn:
d1
m1 = d1 = m1.D
D
d2
m2 = d2 = m2.d1 = m1.m2.D
d1
d
mn = n dn = m1.m2.m3...mn.D
d n1
dct
n gin tnh ton ta ly gi tr trung bnh:
mtb = n 1 m2 . m3 ... mn d3
Ta c th vit: dn = m1.mtb(n-1).D d2
d1
Ly lg c hai v ta s c :
lg d n lg(m1 . D)
n = 1+
lg mtb D
Qu trnh dp vut:
1
Nhng chi tit c phi l tm dy 4
th tin hnh trn khun khng cn vnh 3
p, nhng nu phi l tm mng s xy ra 2
hin tng nhn xp thnh sn phm
nn dng thm vnh p. d1 D
1 - chy p; 2 - khun p
3 - phi k.loi; 4 - vnh p
nng - 2002
Dp vut lm mng thnh

c thc hin khi h gia chy v khun nh hn chiu dy phi.
ng knh gim t, chiu su tng nhiu v gim chiu dy thnh phi. rt
ngn s ln dp gin, mt s ln dp u khng lm mng thnh, sau mi
dp gin lm mng thnh. P
c im: Khng cn vnh p chng nhn.
S
Khng cn thit b dn hng.
0
Ch cn dp trn my tc dng n . S
Khi dp nhiu ln phi qua trung gian.

r ch
S gim chiu dy cho php trong gii hn: S 0
S0 S
100% = (40 60)%
S0 z =( 0,3-0,8)S
c/ Un vnh
L phng php ch to cc chi tit c g, ng knh D chiu cao H, y
chi tit rng. Phi un vnh phi t l vi d trc, sau dng chy v khun
to vnh.
d
Bn knh ln ca chy v khun R = (510)S. H

S
Khe h gia chy v ci Z = (810)S. D

R
L b dng chy u hnh cu hoc hnh chp. D 1
khng xy ra nt mp vng l t th phi c h s un vnh hp l:

Ku = d/D = 0,620,78
d/ Tp ming d
L nguyn cng lm cho ming ca phi rng
(thng l hnh tr) thu nh li. Phn tp nh li c th l
hnh cn, cn v tr, na hnh cu v.v...
Khun di lm nhim v nh v chi tit, khun
trn c l hnh cn ng knh gim dn, phn cui ca
khun trn l hnh tr. trnh xy ra hin tng xp
ming tp th:
d0
d
K = 0 = 1,2 1,3
d
Khi cn tp n chi tit c ng knh nh hn gii hn cho php th phi
qua mt s ln tp.
nng - 2002
e/ Mit
Mit l phng php ch to cc chi tit trn xoay mng. c bit mit
c dng ch to nhng chi tit c ng knh ming thu nh vo v thn
phnh ra nh bi ng, l hoa...k tip sau nguyn cng dp vut.
Cng ngh mit c ng dng
Khun Phi
i vi cc chi tit bng thp mm hay
kim loi mu. Mit khng bin mng
thnh i vi thp chiu dy khng qu Ta
1,5mm, i vi kim loi mu khng qu
2mm, cn mit mng thnh th ng dng
vi vt liu c chiu dy ln hn
(20mm). Cn p
S vng quay ca trc chnh ph thuc

vo vt liu: thp mm 400 - 600 v/ph;
nhm 800 - 1200 v/ph; uara 500 - 900
S mit
v/ph; ng 600 - 800 v/ph.
d min
Mit chi tit hnh cn th t s mit ly: = 0,2 0,3 (dmin- ng knh nh
D
d
nht ca hnh cn); mit nhng chi tit hnh tr: = 0,6 0,8 .
D
Vi nhng chi tit khng th mit mt ln th phi mit bng mt s
nguyn cng ni tip nhau trn cc li khc nhau nhng ng knh ch nh
nht phi bng nhau.
nng - 2002
chng 5
k thut hn
5.1. Khi nim chung
a/ Thc cht
Hn l phng php ni hai hay nhiu chi tit kim loi li vi nhau m
khng th tho ri bng cch nung nng kim loi vng tip xc n trng thi
nng chy, sau ngui t do v ng c hoc nung n trng thi do, sau
tc dng lc p ln.
b/ c im ca phng php hn:

Tit kim kim loi: so vi tn ri v tit kim t 1020%, c t 3050% ...
Thi gian chun b v ch to phi ngn, gi thnh phi thp.
C th to c cc kt cu nh nhng kh nng chu lc cao.
bn v kn ca mi hn ln.
C th hn hai kim loi c tnh cht khc nhau.
Thit b hn n gin, vn u t khng cao.
Trong vt hn tn ti ng sut d ln. Vt hn b bin dng v cong vnh. kh
nng chu ti trng ng thp.
Hn c s dng rng ri ch to phi trong ngnh ch to my, ch
to cc kt cu dng khung, gin, dm trong xy dng, cu ng, cc bnh cha
trong cng nghip v.v...
c/ Phn loi cc phng php hn

Cc phng php hn rt a dng, chng c phn loi theo 2 nhm c
bn sau:
Hn nng chy: kim loi mp hn c nung n trng thi nng chy
kt hp vi kim loi b sung t ngoi vo in y khe h gia hai chi tit hn,
sau ng c to ra mi hn.
Nhm ny gm hn h quang, hn kh, hn in x, hn bng tia in t,
hn bng tia laze, hn plasma v.v...
Hn p lc: khi hn bng p lc kim loi vng mp hn c nung
nng n trng thi do sau hai chi tit c p li vi lc p ln, to ra
mi hn.
Nhm ny gm hn in tip xc, hn ma st, hn n, hn siu m, hn
kh p, hn cao tn, hn khuch tn v.v...
nng - 2002
5.2. Hn h quang bng tay
5.2.1. Thc cht v phn loi hn h quang

a/ Thc cht ca hn h quang
Hn h quang l phng php hn nng chy dng nhit ca ngn la h
quang sinh ra gia cc in cc hn. Thc cht ca h quang hn l dng
chuyn ng ca cc in t v ion trong mi trng kh gia hai in cc, km
theo s pht nhit ln v pht sng mnh.
b/ Phn loi hn h quang bng tay

Phn loi theo dng in hn: hn h quang bng dng in xoay chiu v
dng in mt chiu.
Hn bng dng in xoay chiu cho ta mi hn c cht lng khng cao, kh
gy h quang v kh hn song thit b hn dng xoay chiu n gin v r
tin nn trn thc t hin c khong 80% l my hn xoay chiu.
Hn bng dng in mt chiu tuy my hn t tin nhng d gy h quang,
d hn v cht lng mi hn cao.
Phn loi theo in cc: hn h quang bng in cc nng chy v in cc

khng nng chy.
in cc hn khng nng chy: c ch to t cc vt liu c nhit
nng chy cao nh grafit, vonfram. ng knh in cc dq = 15 mm i
vi in cc vonfram v dq = 612 mm i vi in cc grafit, chiu di que
hn thng l 250 mm, u vt cn. in cc khng nng chy cho h quang
hn n nh, b sung kim loi cho mi hn phi s dng thm que hn
ph.
in cc hn nng chy: c ch to t kim loi hoc hp kim c thnh
phn gn vi thnh phn kim loi vt hn.
Li que hn c ng knh theo l thuyt dq = 612 mm. Trong thc t
thng dng dq=16 mm. Chiu di ca que hn L = 250450 mm; chiu di
phn cp l1 = 305 mm; l2< 15mm; l3= 12 mm.
1 2
l3
l1 l2
L
a/ Que hn nng chy
1- li kim loi; 2- thuc bc b/ Que hn khng nng chy
nng - 2002
Lp thuc bc c ch to t hn hp gm nhiu loi vt liu dng

dng bt, sau trn u vi cht dnh v bc ngoi li c chiu dy t 12
mm. Tc dng ca lp thuc bc que hn:
Tng kh nng ion ha d gy h quang v duy tr h quang chy n nh.
Thng thng ngi ta a vo cc hp cht ca kim loi kim.
Bo v c mi hn, trnh s oxy ho ho tan kh t mi trng.
To x lng v u, che ph kim loi tt gim tc ngui ca mi hn
trnh nt.
Kh xy trong qu trnh hn. Ngi ta a vo trong thnh phn thuc bc
cc loi phe-r hp kim hoc kim loi sch c i lc mnh vi xy c kh
nng to oxyt d tch khi kim loi lng.
Phn loi theo cch u cc in cc khi hn:
a- u dy trc tip b- u dy gin tip c- u dy 3 pha

5.2.3 Ngun in v my hn
a/ Yu cu:
Ngun in hn trong hn h quang tay c th l ngun in xoay chiu hoc
mt chiu. Nhn chung ngun in hn v my hn phi m bo cc yu cu
chung sau:
u (V)
in p khng ti U0 phi < 80 v.
2
i vi my hn xoay chiu: A 1
U0= 5580 V, Hh = 3055 V.
i vi my hn mt chiu: B
U0= 2545 V, Hh = 1635 V. I (A)
ng c tnh ng V-A ca my
hn phi l ng dc lin tc. 1- ng c tnh tnh ca h quang
C kh nng chu qu ti khi ngn 2- ng c tnh ng ca my hn
mch I= (1,31,4)Ih.
C kh nng iu chnh dng in hn trong phm vi rng.
My hn phi c khi lng nh, h s hu ch ln, gi thnh r, d s dng
v d sa cha.
nng - 2002
b/ My hn h quang xoay chiu

My hn h quang dng dng in xoay chiu c s dng rng ri
trong hn h quang tay v chng c kt cu n gin, gi thnh ch to thp, d
vn hnh v sa cha. Tuy nhin cht lng mi hn khng cao v h quang
chy khng n nh so vi h quang dng dng in mt chiu.
H.5.1 .My hn xoay

My hn c li t di ng l loi my thng dng nht hin nay c
trnh by nh hnh v sau:
My hn kiu ny c
mt li t di ng (A) nm
trong gng t (B) ca my A
bin p. Khi li t (A) nm B
hon ton trong mt phng
ca gng t (B) th t thng
u1 u2
do cun s cp sinh c mt uh
phn r nhnh qua li t lm
cho t thng i qua cun th W1 W2
cp gim, do in p trn H.5.2. S my hn xoay chiu c li di ng
cun th cp (u2) gim.
Khi di ng li t (A) ra ngoi (theo phng vung gc vi mt phng
ca gng t B), khe h gia li t v gng t tng, t thng r nhnh gim lm
cho t thng qua cun th cp tng v in p trn cun th cp tng.
My hn c li t di ng c kt cu gn, iu chnh dng in hn v
cp, khong iu chnh rng do hin nay c dng nhiu.
b/ My hn h quang mt chiu
My pht hn h quang: Hnh sau trnh by s nguyn l ca mt my hn
mt chiu dng my pht c cun kch t ring v cun kh t mc ni tip.
nng - 2002
My hn gm my pht in
mt chiu (M) c cun dy kch t 1
ring (2) c cp in ring t 2
kt
ngun in xoay chiu qua b chnh
lu (1). Trn mch ra ca my pht
t cun kh t (3). Ngi ta b tr M
sao cho t thng (c) sinh ra trn
cun kh t lun lun ngc hng n p 3
vi t thng (kt) sinh ra trong cun c
kch t.
ch khng ti, dng K
in hn Ih = 0 nn t thng c = 0,
my pht c kch t bi t thng
(kt) do cun dy kch t (2) sinh H.5.3. S my
pht hn
W
ra: kt = I kt .
Rk
Trong Ikt l dng in kch t, W v Rk l s vng dy v t tr ca
cun kch t. Khi in p khng ti xc nh theo cng thc:
u kt = C. kt
ch lm vic, dng in hn Ih 0 nn t thng c 0, my pht
c kch t bi t thng tng hp () do cun dy kch t (2) v cun kh t
(3) sinh ra: = kt c
Sc in ng sinh ra trong phn cm ca my ph thuc vo t thng
kch t:
E = C. = C.( kt c ) .
Trong C l h s ph thuc vo my.
1 2 3
My hn dng dng in chnh lu:
My hn dng dng in chnh lu c hai
b phn chnh: Bin p p hn (1) v b chnh
lu (2), bin tr (3) dng iu chnh cng H.5.3. S my hn
dng in hn. chnh lu 1 pha
My hn dng dng in chnh lu c h quang chy n nh hn my

hn xoay chiu, phm vi iu chnh dng in hn rng, h s cng sut hu ch
cao, cng sut khng ti nh, kt cu n gin hn.
Nhc im ca my hn chnh lu l cng sut b hn ch, cc i-t d
b hng khi ngn mch lu v dng in hn ph thuc ln vo in p ngun.
nng - 2002
5.2.4. Ch hn h quang in
a/ ng knh que hn:
ng knh que hn ph thuc vo vt liu hn, chiu dy vt hn, v tr
mi hn trong khng gian, kiu mi hn... chn c th tra theo s tay cng
ngh hn hoc xc nh theo cc cng thc kinh nghim i vi cc vt hn
mng:
S
Hn gip mi: d=
+ 1 [mm]
2
K
Hn gc, hn ch T: d = + 2 [mm]
2
Trong S - l chiu dy vt hn, K- l cnh ca mi hn gc.
b/ Cng dng in hn (Ih):
Cng dng in hn chn ph thuc vo vt liu hn, ng knh que
hn, v tr mi hn trong khng gian, kiu mi hn...c th tra theo s tay cng
ngh hoc xc nh theo cc cng thc kinh nghim:
i vi hn sp: I h= ( + d q )d q
Trong v l cc h s ph thuc vo c tnh kim loi vt liu hn. i
vi thp = 6, = 20.
Khi chiu dy chi tit S > 3d tng cng dng in khong 15% cn S
< 1,5d gim 15% so vi tr s tnh ton.
c/ in p hn: in p hn thng t thay i khi hn h quang tay.

d/ S lt cn phi hn:
hon thnh mt mi hn c th tin hnh trong mt ln hn hoc mt
s ln hn. Khi tit din mi hn ln, thng tin hnh qua mt s ln hn. S
Fd F0
lt hn c th tnh theo cng thc sau: n = + 1 . Trong Fd l din tch
Fn
mt ct ngang ton b mi hn (din tch p), F0 v Fn tng ng l din tch
mt ct ngang ca ng hn u tin v cc ln tip theo.
/ Tc hn (Vh):
Tc hn ph thuc vo cng dng in hn v tit din mi hn,
c th tnh theo cng thc kinh nghim sau:
d .Ih
Vh = [cm/s]
3600 Fd
d l h s p = 711[g/A.h]; l khi lng ring kim loai que hn [g/cm3]
Ih l cng dng in hn [A]; F l tit din p ca mi hn [cm2]
nng - 2002
2.5.5. Thao tc hn:

Khi hn h quang tay, gc nghing que hn so vi mt vt hn thng t
o
7585 . Trong qu trnh hn, que hn c dch chuyn dc trc duy tr chiu
di ct h quang, ng thi chuyn ng ngang mi hn to b rng mi hn
v chuyn ng dc ng hn theo tc hn cn thit.
Khi hn sp, nu mi hn c b rng b, que hn c dch chuyn dc
ng hn, khng c chuyn ng ngang.
Khi mi hn c b rng ln, chuyn dch que hn c th thc hin theo
nhiu cch: thng thng chuyn ng que hn theo ng dch dc (a), khi cn
nung nng phn gia nhiu theo s (b) v khi cn nung nng nhiu c gia
v hai bn theo s (c).
nng - 2002
5.3. Hn h quang t ng v
bn t ng
5.3.1 Thc cht v c im
a/ Thc cht:
Hn h quang t ng l qu trnh hn trong cc khu ca qu trnh
c tin hnh t ng bi my hn, bao gm: gy h quang, chuyn dch in
cc hn xung vng hn duy tr h quang chy n nh, dch chuyn im
hn dc mi hn, cp thuc hn hoc kh bo v.
Khi mt s khu trong qu trnh hn c t ng ha ngi ta gi l hn
bn t ng. Thng khi hn bn t ng ngi ta ch t ng ha khu cp in
cc hn vo vng hn cn di chuyn in cc thc hin bng tay.
b/ c im:
Nng sut hn cao v cht lng mi hn tt v n nh.
Tit kim kim loi nh h s p cao. Ci thin iu kin lao ng.
Tit kim nng lng v s dng trit ngun nhit.
Thit b t, khng hn c cc kt cu hn v v tr hn phc tp.
c/ Phn loi
Hn h quang t ng v bn t ng c tin hnh vi in cc hn
dng dy khng c thuc bc, bi vy trong qu trnh hn thng phi s dng
cc bin php bo v mi hn.
Theo phng php bo v kim loi mi hn phn ra: hn h, hn di lp
thuc, hn trong mi trng kh bo v.
Theo mi trng kh bo v c th phn ra:
Hn TIG (Tungstene Inert Gas): Hn h quang dng in cc khng nng
chy, bo v bng kh tr (Ar, He ...).
Hn MIG (Metal Inert Gas): Hn h quang dng in cc nng chy, bo v
bng kh tr.
Hn MAG (Metal Active Gas): Hn h quang dng in cc nng chy, bo
v bng kh hot tnh (CO, CO2, H2 ...)
nng - 2002
5.3.2. Hn h quang t ng
Hn h quang t
ng c s dng trong
sn xut hng lot cc
kt cu hn bng thp v
kim loi mu, hn cc
mi hn n (ng
thng, ng trn... ), v
tr mi hn khng phc
tp. Hn h quang t
ng c th c thc
hin trong mi trng
kh bo v (kh tr: Ar,
He; kh hot tnh: CO, H.5.5. My hn h quang t ng di lp tr dung bo v
CO2, H2 ...) hoc bo v 1. H quang; 2. Dy hn; 3. Tang cun dy hn; 4. u hn;
5. Thng thuc hn; 6. Mng dn thuc hn; 7. ng ht thuc
bng tr dung (thuc hn hn tha; 8. C cu ko dy; 9. Thuc hn; 10. Vng hn;
ri). 11. V x; 12. Mi hn; 13. Vt hn.
5.3.3. Hn h quang bn t ng
i vi cc ng
hn phc tp, v tr hn
khng thun li trong sn
xut hng lot thng s
dng hn h quang bn
t ng. Khi hn h
quang bn t ng vic
dch chuyn dy hn dc
ng hn c thc
hin bng tay. Hnh bn
trnh by s thit b
hn bn t ng trong
mi trng kh CO2.
H.5.6. My hn h quang trong mi trng kh bo v CO2 (MAG)
1. Dy hn; 2. Kh bo v CO2; 3. Cng tc; 4. Tm hn; 5. Mi hn
Kh CO2 c phun vo vng mi hn, di tc dng nhit ca ngn la

h quang kh b phn hu theo phn ng: 2CO2 = 2CO +O2. Kh CO khng ho
tan vo thp, hnh thnh mi trng bo v khi hn, trnh s oxy ha ca oxy
ngi ta s dng que hn ph c hm lng Mn v Si cao.
nng - 2002
5.4. Hn v ct kim loi bng kh

a/ Thc cht, c im
Hn v ct bng kh l phng php s dng nhit ca ngn la sinh ra
khi t chy kh chy trong dng xy nung kim loi. Thng dng nht l hn
v ct bng kh xy - axtylen. Hn v ct bng kh c c im:
Hn c nhiu loi kim loi v hp kim (gang, ng nhm ... )
Hn c cc chi tit mng. Thit b gn, nh, n gin
Vn u t thp, khng cn ngun in.
Nng sut thp. Vt hn b nung nng nhiu dn n c tnh gim.
Hn kh c s dng nhiu khi hn cc chi tit mng bng thp, cc chi
tit bng gang, ng, nhm v mt s kim loi mu khc, ct to phi t tm, ct
t thanh thi v.v...
b/ Kh hn
xy k thut xy dng hn kh l xy k thut cha t 98,599,5 % xy v
khong 0,51,5 % tp cht (N2, Ar).
Trong cng nghip, sn xut xy dng phng php in phn nc
hoc lm lnh v chng ct phn on khng kh . xy hn ch yu dng
phng php lm lnh khng kh. Nh chng ta bit, trong thnh phn khng
kh cha khong 78,03 % N2, 0,93 % Ar v 20,93 % O2, nhit ho lng ca
chng tng ng l -195,8 oC, -185,7 oC v -182,06oC. Bng phng php lm
lnh khng kh xung nhit di -182,06 oC nhng trn nhit ha lng ca
N2 v Ar, sau cho N2 v Ar bay hi ta thu c xy lng. xy k thut c th
bo qun th lng hoc kh. th lng, xy c cha bng cc bnh thp v
gi nhit thp, khi hn cho xy lng bay hi, c 1 lt xy th lng bay hi
cho 860 lt th kh iu kin tiu chun.
Axtylen
Axtylen l hp cht ca ccbon v hyr c cng thc ha hc l C2H2,
khi lng ring iu kin tiu chun 1,09 kg/m3, nhit tr 11.470 Cal/m3.
Axtylen c sn xut t t n CaC2. Khi cho t dn tc dng vi nc ta
thu c Axtylen theo phn ng:
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2 + 30.400 Cal/mol
Kh Axtylen c cc tnh cht sau:
Nhit t bc chy khong 420oC ( p sut 1 at).
nng - 2002
D pht n khi p sut > 1,5 at v nhit trn 500oC

nhit v p sut thp d trng hp to thnh cc hp cht khc nh
benzel (C6H6), (C8H8) ...
C kh nng ha tan trong nhiu cht lng vi ho tan ln, c bit l
trong axtn: 23 lt C2H2/ lt.
Cc tp cht cha trong kh axtylen l PH3 lm tng kh nng gy n v
H2S l tp cht c hi, lm gim cht lng mi hn.
Ngoi kh axtylen khi hn v ct ngi ta cn dng cc kh khc nh
hyr, mtal, hn hp prpan - butan.
5.4.2. Thit b hn v ct bng kh

Cc thit b chnh ca mt trm hn hoc ct bng kh gm c cc loi sau:
H.5.6. S thit b ca mt trm hn kh

a/ Trm hn kh vi bnh cha xy v bnh cha axtylen
b/ Trm hn kh vi bnh cha xy vi bnh iu ch axtylen
1. Bnh xy; 2. Bnh cha axtylen (hoc iu ch axtylen); 3. Van gim p;
4. Van an ton; 5. M hn; 6. Van kho; 7. ng h; 8. Xe y.
Bnh cha kh dng cha kh oxy v kh axtylen, c ch to t thp tm

dy 7 mm bng phng php dp hoc hn. Bnh c ng knh ngoi 219 mm,
cao 1390 mm, dung tch 40 lt, trng lng 67 kg. Bnh cha oxy chu c p
sut kh np 150 at v c sn mu xanh hoc xanh da tri.
Bnh cha axtylen chu c p sut kh np ti 19 at, c sn mu
vng hoc mu trng. Trong bnh cha bt xp (thng l than hot tnh) v tm
axtn, lng dng khong 290 - 320 gram than hot tnh v 225 - 230 gram a
xtn cho mt lt th tch bnh cha.
nng - 2002
Bnh iu ch axtylen:
Bnh iu ch dng iu ch kh axtylen t t n. Trong thc t,
ngi ta dng nhiu loi bnh iu ch kh khc nhau. Theo nguyn tc tc dng
gia t t n v nc ta c cc loi ri vo nc, nc ri vo v
tip xc vi nc.
S nguyn l ca mt s bnh iu ch kh in hnh:
6
2 C2H2
3
4 6
C2H
1 5 1 1
5 2
C2H2
6 2
a) Kiu ri vo b) Kiu nc ri c) Kiu tip xc nc
H.5.7. S nguyn l bnh iu ch kh A xtylen

1.Nc 2. t n () 3).Nn cp t n 4. Phu cp nc
5. Van iu chnh lng nc 6. ng dn kh ra
Van gim p: l dng c dng gim p sut kh trong bnh cha xung p
sut lm vic cn thit v t ng duy tr p sut mc n nh. i vi kh
oxy p sut kh trong bnh ti 150 at, p sut kh lm vic khong 34 at, cn
kh axtylen p sut trong bnh ti 1516 at, p sut lm vic 0,11,5 at.
Trn hnh sau trnh by s nguyn l ca mt s van gim p:
1 2 3 4 5
p1 p1
p2 p2
10
6
9
8 7
H.5.8. S nguyn l van gim p

1. ng dn kh cao p 2. L xo ph 3. Van 4. Van an ton 5. ng dn kh ra
6. Bung thp p 7. L xo chnh 8. Vt iu chnh 9. Mng n hi 10. thanh truyn
nng - 2002
Nguyn l lm vic: kh c dn vo van theo ng (1) v qua ng (5) i

ti m hn hoc m ct. p lc kh trong bung h p (6) ph thuc vo m
ca van (3). Khi l xo chnh (7) cha b nn, van (3) chu tc dng ca l xo ph
(2) v p lc ca kh, ng kn ca van khng cho kh vo bung h p (6). Khi
vn vt iu chnh (8), lm cho l xo chnh (7) b nn, van (3) c nng ln, ca
van m v kh i sang bung h p. Tu thuc vo nn ca l xo chnh (7),
nn ca l xo ph (2), chnh p trc v sau van, ca van (3) c m
nhiu hay t, ta nhn c p sut cn thit trong bung h p. Nh c mng n
hi (9), van c th t ng iu chnh p sut ra ca kh. Nu do mt nguyn
nhn no , p sut kh ra (p2) tng, p lc tc dng ln mt trn ca mng n
hi (9) tng, y mng n hi dch xung v thng qua con i van (3) b ko
xung, lm ca van ng bt li, lng kh i vo bung h p gim, lm p
sut kh ra gim. Ngc li, nu p2 gim, ca van (3) m ln hn, lng kh vo
bung h p tng, lm p2 tng tr li.
Dy dn kh: dng dn kh t bnh cha kh, bnh ch kh n m hn hoc

m ct.
Yu cu chung i vi ng dn kh:
Chu c p sut ti 10 at i vi dy dn oxy, 3 at vi dy dn axtylen.
mm cn thit nhng khng b gp.
Dy dn c ch to bng vi lt cao su, c ba loi kch thc sau:
ng knh trong 5,5 mm, ng knh ngoi khng quy nh.
ng knh trong 9,5 mm, ng knh ngoi 17,5 mm.
ng knh trong 13 mm, ng knh ngoi 22 mm.
M hn v m ct: l dng c dng pha trn kh chy v xy, to thnh hn

hp chy c t l thnh phn thch hp nhn c ngn la hn hoc ct theo
yu cu. M hn c 2 loi l m hn kiu ht v m hn ng p.
H.5.9. S nguyn l cu to ca m hn kh
1. u m hn; 2. ng dn hn hp kh chy; 3. Bung ht;
4. Van iu chnh xy; 5. Van iu chnh C2H2
nng - 2002
M hn kiu t ht s dng khi hn vi p sut kh C2H2 thp v trung

bnh. Kh C2H2 (p sut 0,011,2 at) c dn vo qua ng v qua van ng m
(5), cn kh xy (p sut 14 at) c dn vo qua ng v qua van iu chnh
(4). Khi dng xy phun ra u ming phun (3) vi tc ln to nn vng p
sut thp ht kh C2H2 vo theo. Hn hp tip tc c ho trn trong bung ht
(3), sau theo ng dn (2) ra ming m hn (1) v c t chy to thnh
ngn la hn. Nhc im ca m hn t ht l thnh phn hn hp chy khng
n nh.
Ngoi ra cn c m hn ng p dng khi hn vi p lc kh C2H2 trung
bnh. Kh xy v C2H2 c phun vo bung trn vi p sut bng nhau (0,51
at) v tip tc c ha trn trong ng dn ca m hn, i ra ming m hn
t chy to thnh ngn la.
5.4.3. Cc loi ngn la hn

Khi hn kh xy-axtylen, tu thuc t l thnh phn ca hn hp chy c
th nhn c ba dng ngn la hn khc nhau:
a/ Ngn la bnh thng:

O2
Ngn la bnh thng nhn c khi t l = 1,11,2.
C2 H 2
Quan st ngn la ta c th nhn thy ba vng r rt: vng nhn ngn la
(I), vng gia (II) v vng ui (III).
Vng nhn ngn la: trong

vng ny ch yu xy ra
phn ng phn hy C2H2:
C2H2 2C + H2
Ngn la c mu sng trng,
nhit thp v thnh phn
kh giu cc bon.
Vng chy khng hon
ton: trong vng ny xy ra
phn ng chy khng hon H.5.10. Ngn la hn kh
ton ca ccbon : a/ Cu to ngn la hn; b/ Ngn la bnh thng;
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + Q c/ Ngn la xy ho; Ngn la ccbon ho
Ngn la vng ny c mu sng xanh, nhit ngn la t cao nht, kh

cha nhiu CO v H2 l nhng cht hon nguyn khng tham gia vo cc phn
ng xy ho v cacbon ho nn cht lng mi hn tt. Khi hn nn cho vng
hn nm trn trong vng ny. Vng ny cn gi l vng hon nguyn.
nng - 2002
Vng chy hon ton: trong vng ny xy ra phn ng chy hon ton:
CO + H2 + O2kk CO2 + H2O + Q
Ngn la vng ny c mu vng sm, cha nhiu CO2 v H2O v nhit
thp hn vng gia. Vng ny khng hn c v c nhiu cht xy ho.
b/ Ngn la xy ha: nhn c khi t l O2/C2H2 > 1,2.

Nhn ca ngn la ngn li, vng gia d O2 v cha c CO2 nn c tnh
xy ha v khng phn bit r vi vng ui. Ngn la xy ha ch dng khi
hn ng thau, ct v ty b mt.
c/ Ngn la cc bon ha: nhn c khi t l O2/C2H2 < 1,1.

Nhn ca ngn la ko di nhp vi vng gia thnh mu nu sm, thnh
phn kh d ccbon nn c tnh ccbon ha. Ngn la cc bon ha c dng
khi hn gang, thp gi v thp hp kim.
5.4.4. Cng ngh hn kh

a/ Cc phng php hn kh
Tu thuc vt liu hn, chiu dy vt hn, c th s dng hai phng php
hn khc nhau: hn phi v hn tri.
a
b/
H.5.11. S cc phng php hn kh
a. Hn phi; b. Hn tri
Khi hn phi (a), trong qu trnh hn ngn la hn hng v pha mi hn,

m hn lun i trc que hn. c im ca hn phi l nhit ch yu tp trung
vo vng hn, vng hon nguyn hng vo mp hn, mi hn ngui chm v
c bo v tt, lng tiu hao kh gim.
Phng php ny c ng dng khi hn cc tm dy hoc kim loi vt
hn dn nhit nhanh.
Khi hn tri (b), trong qu trnh hn ngn la hn hng v pha cha
hn, que hn i trc m hn. Trong trng hp hn tri, mp hn c nung
nng - 2002
nng s b nn kim loi vng hn c trn u hn, ng thi quan st mi

hn d, mt ngoi mi hn p.
Phng php ny c dng khi hn cc tm mng hoc kim loi vt hn
d chy.
b/ Ch hn kh
Khi hn kh, da vo tnh cht ca vt liu, kch thc, kt cu vt hn,
v tr mi hn v kiu mi hn chn ch hn hp l, bao gm chn gc
nghing m hn, cng sut ngn la v ng knh que hn ph.
Gc nghing m hn so vi
mt phng hn c chn t l thun
vi chiu dy vt hn, vi nhit
chy v h s dn nhit ca vt liu
vt hn. 80 - 90o 0o
V d hn ng = 6080o, hn ch 10o.
Bt u hn gc nghing ln, kt thc gim.
Cng sut ngn la: cng sut ngn la tnh bng lng kh tiu hao
trong mt gi, c chn t l thun vi chiu dy vt hn, vi nhit chy v
h s dn nhit ca vt liu vt hn.
Khi hn thp ccbon thp, ng thau, ng thanh chn P = (100120).S
[lt/h] i vi hn tri v P = (120150).S [lt/h] i vi hn phi, trong S l
chiu dy vt hn [mm].
ng knh que hn: ph thuc vt liu hn v phng php hn. Khi
hn thp cc bon chn theo cng thc kinh nghim sau:
S S
Hn tri: d = + 1 [mm]; Hn phi: d= [mm]
2 2
5.4.5. Ct kim loi bng kh

a/ Thc cht v iu kin ct c bng kh
Thc cht ca qu trnh ct kim loi bng kh l t chy kim loi ct
bng dng xy, to thnh cc xt v thi chng ra khi mp ct to thnh rnh
ct. S qu trnh ct kim loi bng kh c trnh by trn hnh sau:
Khi bt u ct, kim loi mp ct c nung O2
nng n nhit chy nh nhit ca ngn la C2H2+O2
nung, sau cho dng xy thi qua, kim loi b
xy ha mnh lit (b t chy) to thnh xt. Sn
phm chy b nung chy v b dng xy thi khi
mp ct. Tip theo, do phn ng chy ca kim loi
to nhit mnh, lp kim loi tip theo b nung nng
nhanh v tip tc b t chy to thnh rnh ct.
nng - 2002
ct bng kh, kim loi ct phi tho mn mt s yu cu nht nh:

Nhit chy ca kim loi phi thp hn nhit nng chy.
Nhit nng chy ca xt kim loi phi thp hn nhit nng chy ca
kim loi.
xt kim loi phi c chy long tt, d tch khi mp ct.
dn nhit ca kim loi khng qu cao, trnh s tn nhit nhanh lm cho
mp ct b nung nng km lm gin on qu trnh ct.
Tm li: Thp cc bon thp c < 0,7% C rt thun li khi ct bng kh v

chng c nhit chy thp hn nhit chy.
Thp cc bon cao do nhit chy xp x nhit chy nn kh ct hn,
khi ct thng phi nung nng trc ti 300 - 600oC.
Thp hp kim crm hoc crm-ni ken c xt crm Cr2O3 nhit chy
ti 2.000oC nn rt kh ct.
Nhm, ng v hp kim ca chng do dn nhit nhanh nn cng khng
th ct bng kh, tr khi dng thuc ct.
Gang khng th ct bng kh v khi chy to ra xt silic SiO2 c st
cao.
b/ M ct
ct bng kh ch yu s dng cc m ct dng nhin liu kh. S
cu to chung ca chng c trnh by trn hnh sau:
6 5
4 2
7
3 1
H.5.12. S m ct kh
1. ng dn kh axtylen 2. ng dn kh xy 3. van axtylen 4. van xy 5.
van kh xy 6. ng dn kh xy. 7. ng dn hn hp kh C2H2- O2
nng - 2002
5.5. Hn in tip xc
5.5.1. Thc cht, c im

Hn in tip xc l mt phng php hn p lc, s dng nhit do bin
i in nng thnh nhit nng bng cch cho dng in c cng ln i qua
mt tip xc ca hai chi tit hn nung nng kim loi.
Khi hn, hai mp hn c p
st vo nhau nh c cu p, sau cho 3
dng in chy qua mt tip xc, theo P
nh lut Jun-Lenx nhit lng sinh
ra trong mch in hn xc nh theo 1
2
cng thc: Q = 0,24. R. I . t . Nhit ny
2
4
nung nng hai mt tip xc t n
trng thi do, sau cho lc tc dng 5
lm cho hai mt tip xc ca hai vt
hn tip cn nhau, xut hin mi lin H.5.13. S hn in tip xc gip mi
kt kim loi v s khuych tn ca cc 1,2/ Vt hn ; 3/ C cu kp phi; 4/ Bn my;
5/ My bin p
nguyn t hnh thnh nn mi hn.
Hn tip xc c nhng c im sau:
Thi gian hn ngn, nng sut cao do d c kh ha v t ng ha.
Mi hn bn v p.
Thit b t, vn u t ln. i hi phi c my hn cng sut ln.
5.5.2. Cc phng php hn in tip xc
a/ Hn tip xc gip mi
Hn tip xc gip mi l phng php hn m mi hn c thc hin
trn ton b b mt tip xc ca hai chi tit hn.
Khi hn gip mi in tr, sau khi hai chi tit hn c p st vo nhau
vi lc p s b t 1015 N/mm2, tin hnh ng in nung kim loi mp hn
n trng thi do, ct in v p kt thc vi lc p t 3040 N/mm2 to
thnh mi hn.
nng - 2002
b/ Hn im:
Hn im l phng php hn tip xc m mi hn c thc hin theo
tng im trn b mt tip xc ca hai chi tit hn.
a/ b/ c/
H.5.14. Cc phng php hn in tip xc
a/ Hn tip xc gip mi; b/Hn im; c/ Hn ng
Khi hn im hai pha, cc tm hn c t gia hai in cc hn. Sau

khi p s b v ng in, dng in trong mch ch yu tp trung mt din
tch nh trn mt tip xc gia hai tm nm gia cc in cc, nung nng kim
loi n trng thi nng chy. Tip theo ct in v p vi lc p ln, to nn
im hn. Khi hn im mt pha, hai in cc b tr cng mt pha so vi vt
hn (b). S nung nng cc im hn do dng in chy qua tm di ca vt
hn. tng cng dng in chy qua cc im hn, ngi ta b tr thm tm
m bng ng. Sau khi im hn c nung chy, tin hnh p vi lc p
ln ta nhn c hai im hn cng mt lc.
c/ Hn ng
Hn ng l phng php hn tip xc m mi hn l nhng im hn
ni tip nhau lin tc. V thc cht, c th coi hn ng l mt dng ca hn
im, trong qu trnh hn do vt hn dch chuyn lin tc gia hai in cc to
thnh cc im hn ni tip nhau.
Khi hn ng ngi ta s dng cc in cc kiu con ln, nh vt hn
c th d dng chuyn ng dch chuyn im hn. Theo ch hn ngi ta
phn ra ba kiu hn ng: hn ng lin tc, hn ng gin on v hn
bc.
Khi hn ng lin tc, trong qu trnh vt hn chuyn ng, in cc
thng xuyn p vo vt hn v ng in lin tc. Phng php ny n gin
v cng ngh nhng vt hn b nung nng lin tc, d b cong vnh, vng nh
hng nhit ln v in cc b nung nng mnh, chng mn, nht l khi ng
hn di.
nng - 2002
Khi hn ng gin on, vt hn chuyn ng lin tc, nhng dng in

ch c cp theo chu k, thi gian cp t 0,010,1 giy, to thnh cc on hn
cch qung.
Khi hn bc, vt hn dch chuyn gin on, ti cc im dng vt hn
c p bi cc in cc v cp in to thnh im hn.
5.6. Cc phng php hn c bit
5.6.1. Hn ma st
Hn ma st l phng php hn p 1
lc. Nhit sinh ra do ma st gia 2 mt 4
tip xc sinh nhit lng nung nng mi P P
hn n trng thi de v dng lc p
to mi hn. 3
Hn ma st c nng sut cao, gi 2
thnh h, c dng hn ni cc H.5.15.S hn ma st
1. Gi kp; 2,3. Chi tit hn; 4. Mi hn
thanh, thi kim loi, cc dng c ct ...
5.6.2. Hn siu m
Hn siu m l phng php hn p
lc, di tc dng ng thi ln vt hn
cc dao ng c hc vi tn s siu m
vi lc nn thch hp mi hn t n
trng thi do v to thnh mi hn.
Dng cao tn t my pht siu m
truyn vo bin t 1 to ra tn s siu m
(dao ng siu m) truyn qua b truyn H.5.16.S hn siu m
2, n dng c 3 vo vt hn 4 lm cho 1.Bin t; 2.B truyn dao ng;
3.Dng c; 4.Tm hn; 5.n by
mi hn t n trng thi do.
Ti trng P qua n by v dng c 5 to lc nn lm cho cc phn t hn
thm thu vo nhau to thnh mi hn.
Hn siu m dng hn cc vt nh, mng (< 0,1 mm), nhng kt cu
phc tp khng cn lm sch ch hn, thi gian hn ngn, cc phng php khc
kh thc hin c.
nng - 2002
5.6.3. Hn plasma h quang

Trng thi plasma ca vt cht c
ngun nng lng rt ln, trong vt
cht t trng thi kh chuyn qua trng
thi plasma to ra nhit hng chc
nghn C nung nng chy mi hn.
nhn c trng thi ion ca kh,
ngi ta s dng ng phng h quang 1 H.5.17.S hn plasma h quang
chy gia in cc 2 (vnfram) v ming 1.ng phng h quang; 2.in cc W;
phun t trong ng hnh tr. 3.Ming phun; 4.ng dn; 5.Dng tia plasma
p lc ca kh tr c tc dng ko di h quang lm xut hin dng tia

hp c mc ion ho rt mnh v to ra nhit cao. Nhit ca ngn la
plasma h quang c th dng hn hoc ct kim loi vi nhng chiu dy khc
nhau.
5.6.4. Hn x in
Hn x in l phng php hn nng chy nh nng lng nhit ca vng
x hn chy lng c in tr rt ln. Khi dng in i qua vng x lng, nhit
lng to ra theo nh lut Jun-Lenx rt ln lm cho kim loi vt hn v in
cc hn nng chy.
in cc trong hn x in c nhim v gy h quang lm nng chy
x hn v b sung kim loi cho mi hn. Hn x in l phng php ti u
hn vt hn c chiu dy ln, hn p, hn phc hi cc chi tit my mn.
Vng x lng 4 c in tr ln cung
cp nhit lng nung nng chy mp
hn ca cc vt hn 1 v cc hn 3. Khi
ng c to thnh mi hn 8. Cc tm
chn 2 km cc ng dn nc lm ngui
v ng c kim loi lng vng hn to
thnh mi hn 8. Gi in cc c ng
dn in cc, c nhim v a in cc 3 H.5.18.S hn x in
vo vng hn 5 v to ra h quang 6. 1.Tm hn; 2.Tm chn; 3.Dy hn;
Trong qu trnh hn thuc hn c phu 4.X lng; Kim loi lng; 6.H quang;
7.Phu thuc; 8.Mi hn
7 cung cp vo bo v mi hn.
Ngoi ra cn nhiu phng php hn c bit khc nh hn bng chm tia
in t, hn cm ng, hn bng lade v.v...cng c ng dng trong cng nghip
tin tin.
nng - 2002

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gio trnh: c kh i cng 1

Cc khi nim c bn v sn xut

Ti nguyn Qung, nhin liu,

Ch to vt Luyn kim Thp, gang, ng,

Ch to phi c, cn, rn dp,

Gia cng ct Tin, phay, bo,

H.1.1.S qu trnh sn xut c kh

1.1.2. Qu trnh thit k

1.1.3. Qu trnh sn xut

1.1.5. Dng sn xut

mt hng rt a dng, s lng mi loi rt t v th phn xng, nh my

1.1.6. Khi nim v sn phm v phi

1.1.7. Khi nim v c cu my v b phn my

1.2. Khi nim v cht lng b mt ca sn phm

1.2.1. nhn b mt (nhm)

Gia cng na tinh v tinh t cp 46 (Rz = 4010, Ra = 2,5): tin, phay,

Cc gi tr thng s nhm b mt (TCVN 2511 - 78)

1.2.2. Tnh cht c l ca lp b mt sn phm

1.3. Khi nim v chnh xc gia cng c kh

1.3.1. Khi nim v chnh xc gia cng

1.3.2. Dung sai

D (d) - Kch thc danh ngha ca chi tit.

b/ Dung sai kch thc

H.1.5. Dung sai kch thc trc v l

c/ Min dung sai

H.1.6. V tr cc min dung sai ca Trc v L

Mi kch thc c ghi gm 2 phn: kch thc danh ngha v min

d/ Sai s hnh dng v v tr

Sai lch v tr tng i l s sai lch v tr thc ca phn t c kho st

1.3.3. Lp ghp v phng php lp ghp

b/ Phng php lp ghp

Lp trung gian: l loi lp + 0,021

1.3.4. Phng php o v dng c o

Panme: dng o ng knh ngoi, l, rnh...vi chnh xc cao, c th t

Vt liu dng trong c kh

a/ bn: l kh nng ca vt liu chu tc dng ca ngoi lc m khng b

Ti thi im khi P t n gi tr no lm cho thanh kim loi c F0 b

b/ cng: l kh nng chng ln ca vt liu khi chu tc dng ca ngoi lc.

cng Brinen dng o vt liu c cng thp (< 4500 N/mm2)

H.2.2. S th nghim o cng

cng Rcoen: (H.2.2.b) c xc nh bng cch dng ti trng P n

cng Vicke (HV) dng mi o 1 (hnh chp gc vt = 1360) bng kim

d/ dai va chm (ak): C nhng chi tit my lm vic thng chu cc ti

2.1.4. Tnh cng ngh

a/ Tnh c: c c trng bi chy long, co, ho tan kh v tnh

b/ Phn loi thp ccbon

Mc thp Mc thp k (kG/mm2) 0,2 (%)

Theo TCVN 1765-75 nhm thp ny c k hiu bng ch CT vi con s

b/ Phn loi thp hp kim

b/ Thp hp kim dng c

c/ Thp hp kim c bit

2.3.2. Phn loi gang

b/ Gang xm: l loi gang m hu ht ccbon trng thi graphit. Gang xm

c/ Gang cu: c t chc nh gang xm nhng graphit c dng thu nh thnh

d/ Gang do: l loi gang c ch to t gang trng, chng c bn cao,

2.4. Kim loi v hp kim mu

2.4.2. Nhm v hp kim nhm

b/ Hp kim nhm bin dng

2.5. Hp kim cng

a/ Nhm mt cacbit: WC + Co gm cc k hiu: WCCo2; WCCo4; WCCo6;

3.1.3. phm vi s dng

Trong ngnh c kh khi lng vt c chim n 90% m gi thnh ch

c trong khun ct c c bit