Chapter - 3 - Feedback Control Systems Performance and Characteristics

Linear Control Systems
CHAPTER 3
Feedback Control Systems
Performance and Characteristics
Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

Electronics and Communication Department
Misr International University (MIU)
1 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

Chapter Contents:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Test Input Signals.
3.3 Response of First Order systems.
3.4 Response of Second Order Systems.
3.5 Higher Order Systems Response.
3.6 Steady State Errors of Feedback Control Systems.
3.7 Stability Analysis Using Routh-Hurwitz Method
3.8 Sensitivity of Control Systems to Parameter Variations.

3.1 Introduction
Order of the system
Consider a system defined by the transfer function:
C ( s) bm s m bm1s m1 b0
T ( s)
R( s) (an s n an 1s n 1 a0 )
The order of this system is n which is defined by the
highest power s in the denominator as illustrated below:
1st order system: 2nd order system:
C ( s) 5 C ( s) 10s
2
R( s ) 4s 1 R( s ) s 4s 4
C ( s) 10s 2
4th order system: 4
R( s) 3s 2s 3 s 2 4s 3

The system type Number
It is defined as the number of poles at the origin of the
open loop transfer function G(s)H(s).
Consider the open loop transfer function of a system as :
bm s m bm 1s m 1 b0
G( s) H ( s) c
s (an s n an 1s n 1 a0 )
The system of type c and has an order of n+c
Examples
50
G( s) H ( s) System of type 0
( s 1)( s 4)
10s 3 2
G( s) H ( s) 2 4 System of type 2
s (3s 2s s 4s 3)
3 2

Type of system response
c(t ) ctr (t ) css (t )

transient response near t 0 steady state response
near t
3.2 Test Input Signals
Chose the proper typical test signal for your system
from signal shown in Fig. 3.1
shock absorber impulse
ON-OFF switch step function
linear valve ramp function
elevator acceleration function
ac-motor sinusoidal function
Fig. 3.1Test waveforms used in control systems

3.3 Response of First Order Systems
The First order System is described by the following differential equation:

dc(t )
ac(t ) br (t )
dt
Where r(t) and c(t) are the inputs and the outputs respectively, a and b
are constants. Take Laplace transform of both sides we have:
sC(s) + aC(s) = bR(s)
The Standard form system transfer function T(s) is given by:
C ( s) b k
T ( s)
R( s ) s a s 1 /
is called the time constant of the system. If k=1, the First Order
System block is as follows:

Block diagram of a first order system is shown in Fig. 3.2
R(s) 1 C (s)
+_
s
(a) closed loop transfer function
R(s) 1/ C (s)
(b) Total transfer function s 1/
Fig. 3.2
Unit impulse response of a first order system is shown in
Fig. 3.3
R(s) L (t ) 1
1/
output signal [ 1/ ]
G( s)
1 s 1/
c(t ) e t /

g (t ) L C (s)
1
1
c(t ) e t /

time [ t ]
Fig. 3.3 Impulse response of first order system

Refer to Fig. 3.4 first-order system response to a unit step, where a =
1/, tr is the rise time which is the time taken for the output to grow
from 0.1 to 0.9 of the final value, and ts is the settling time which is
the time taken for the output to grow to reach the final value
R( s) Lu (t )
1
s
1/ 1
C ( s)
s 1/ s
c(t ) L1C ( s)
t /
c(t ) 1 e
Fig. 3.4 Step response of
first order system

Unit-ramp response of first order system is shown in Fig. 3.5
steady-state error
R( s) Lr (t ) 2
r (t ) t 1
T s
T 1/ 1
output signal
C ( s)
s 1/ s 2
c(t ) L1C (s)

c(t ) t 1 et /
time [ t ]

c(t ) t 1 e t /

Fig. 3.5 Ramp response of first order system

Table 3.1 Summary of response of a LTI first order system
input: output:
unite ramp r t u2 (t )
c(t ) t 1 et /
d d
dt dt
unite step r t u(t ) u1 (t ) c(t ) 1 et /
d d
dt dt
unite impulse r t (t ) u0 (t ) c(t ) e
1 t /


3.4 Response of Second Order Systems
The second order System is described by the following differential equation:
2
d c(t ) dc(t )
a2 2
a1 a0 c(t ) br (t )
dt dt
Where r(t) and c(t) are the inputs and the outputs respectively, a0,a1, a2
and b are constants. Take Laplace transform of both sides we have:
a2 s C (s) a1 sC(s) a0 C (s) bR(s)

2
The Standard form system transfer function T(s) is given by:

b
T (s)
C (s)

b
a2
K 2
n
R( s) a 2 s 2 a1 s a0 a a s
2
2 s 2
s s
2 1 0 n n
a2 a2
n is called the natural frequency and is the damping ratio of the
system.

Example 3.1: For the second order system described by the closed
loop transfer function T(s), determine the natural frequency n and the
damping ratio .
C ( s) 4
T ( s) 2
R( s) s 8s 25
Solution: Compare with the standard equation we have:
2n 25 and 2 n 8 which gives n 5 and 0.8

Example 3.2: For the second order system described by the closed
loop transfer function T(s), n and .
Solution: Compare with the standard equation we have:
C ( s) 24 6
T ( s)
R( s) 4s2 12s 256 s
2
3s 64
3
n 64 2 n 3 k n 6 gives n 8 , 0.8 and k 0.75
2
and
16

The characteristic polynomial of a second order system is:
2 n s n (s s1)(s s2) 0
2 2
s
with the roots s1 and s2 are given by:
2 n 4 2n 4 2n
2
s1 , s1 n n 1
2
2
According to the types of the roots we have three cases:
Case 1: Over damped response ( > 1)

The two roots of the characteristic equation s1 and s2 are
real and distinct, the unit step response is calculated as
follows:
The output of this second order system in the s-plane is:
k 2n k1 k2 k3
C ( s) R( s)T ( s)
s( s s1)(s s2) s s s1 s s 2
The corresponding time domain output is given by:
c(t ) L1{C (s)} (k1 k 2 es1t k 3 es2t )u(t )

Example 3.3 Calculate and plot the output of the system
with the following transfer function:
2 Solution: With unit step input,
T (s) 2 its response is:
s 3s 2
1 1 2 1
C ( s) R( s)T ( s)
s( s 3s 2) s s 1 s 2
2

1 t 2t
c(t ) L {C (s)} [1 2 e e ]u(t )
This response is sketched in the Fig. 3.6
j
output signal

-2 -1
1 (b) Poles plot in s-plane
(a) Step response time [s]
Fig. 3.6 Behavior of an over damped second order system

(a) Step response (b) Poles plot in the s-plane

Case 2: Critically damped response ( = 1)
real and equal, the unit step response is calculated as
follows:
The output of this second order system in the s-plane is:
k 2n k1 k 2 k3
C ( s) R( s)T ( s)
s( s s1) 2
s s s1 (s s1) 2
Where:
d
k1 sC ( s ) | s 0 k 2
, [( s 2) 2
C ( s )] | s s1
and k ( s 2) 2
C ( s ) |s
ds 2 s1
c(t ) L1{C (s)} (k1 k 2 es1t k 3 te s2t )u(t )

5s 4
T ( s) 2
s 4s 4
Solution: The poles plot in the s-plane is shown in Fig. 3.7 With
unit step input, its response is given by:
5s 4 1 1 3
C ( s) R( s)T ( s)
s( s2 4s 4) s s 2 ( s 2) 2

2t 2t
c(t ) L {C (s)} [1 e 3te ]u(t )

The time domain output of this system is sketched in the
Fig. 3.7

output signal
1 (b) Poles plot in s-plane
(a) Step response time [s]
Fig. 3.7 Behavior of of a critically damped second order system

(a) Step response (b) Poles plot in the s-plane

0.25
T ( s)
s s 0.25
2
Solution: With unit step input, apply the partial fraction, its
response is given by:
0.25 1 1 0.5
C ( s) R( s)T ( s)
s( s 2 s 0.25) s s 0.5 ( s 0.5) 2
0.5t 0.5t
c(t ) L {C (s)} [1 e 0.5te ]u(t )

Case 3: Under damped response (0 < <1)
complex conjugates of on another as shown in Fig. 3.8 and
are given by:
2 n 4 2 2n 4 2n
s1 , s1 n j n 1 2 n j d
2
Where n is the undamped natural

frequency, is the damping ratio and
d is the damped natural frequency of
the system
cos 1
Fig. 3.8 The s- plane plot of

the pole for an underdamped
second-order system

the unit step response is of this second order system in the s-plane is:
k 2n k1 k2 k3
C (s) R(s)T (s) 2
s(s 2 n 2n) s s ( n j d ) s ( n j d )
1 t sin(

c(t ) L {C ( s)} (1 e n
t ))u (t )
1
2 d
A typical time response of a second-order underdamped system is

shown in Fig. 3.10 .The transient response as a function of the
damping ratio is shown in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.10 Step response of a second-order under-damped control system

0.5 0
0.1
0.6 0.2
0.7 0.3
output signal 0.4
0.8
time [s]
Fig. 3.11 The transient response as a function of the damping ratio

Transient-response specifications (refer to Fig. 3.10 and 3.12) are:
maximum
overshoot
Mp
5 or 10%
steady-state 0.5 allowable

value tolerance
td tr t p ts
settling time
peak time
delay time rise time
Fig. 3.12 Transient-response specifications

1- The rise time tr is the time taken by the waveform to
increase from 0 to 100% of the final value and is
calculated as follows:
nt r
c(tr ) 1 e sin( d t ) 1
sin( d t ) 0
tan d tr 0 tr
d
2- The rise time tr1 (10-90%) is used for under-damped
system and is defined as follows:
2.16 0.6
t r1
n
3- The peak time tp is the time at which the output reaches
it maximum and is calculated as follows:
dc(t )
0 sin d t p 0
dt t t p

t p corresponds to the one-half cycle of the d tp
d
At the peak time tp the maximum output is given by:

CMax 1 e (
1
2
)
sin( ) 1 e (
1
2
)

4- The maximum percent overshoot (P.O )is defined as
follows:
P.O
M pt
x100%
final value
)
M pt C max 1 e
(
1
2

1 2
P.O e x100 %
5- The equivalent time constant is defined as follows:

1
e
n
6. The settling time ts is defined as the time required for the
system to settle within a certain percentage as
shown in Fig. 3.12 and 3.13.
1 2% criterion:
1
1 e nt
1
2
4
1 2 t s 4 e
n
5% criterion:
3
t s 3 e
n
1
e n t
e
1 n
1
1 1 2
1 2
Fig. 3.13
T 2T 3T 4T

Second-order response as a function of damping ratio is
shown in Fig. 3.14
Fig. 3.14

Example3.6: For the control system shown in Fig. 3.15, determine k
and a that satisfies the following requirements:
a) Maximum percentage overshoot P.O =10%.
b) The 5% settling time ts = 1 sec.
R(s) k T (s) 1 C (s)

+_
sa s2
Fig. 3.15
Solution
The closed loop transfer function is given by
k 1
( )( )
sa s2
C ( s) k k
2
R( s) 1 ( k )( 1 ) ( s a)( s 2) k s s(a 2) (2a k )
sa s2

The maximum percent overshoot (P.O )is given by:

P.O e 1 2

10 0.6
100
For 5%, the settling time ts is given by:
ts
3

3
1 n 0.55
e n
a 2 2 2a k n 0.305
2
nand
From these two equations we get
a+2 =0.66 then a=-1.34 and k=2.985

Example3.7: For the RLC shown in Fig. 3.16, determine
the natural frequency n and the damping ratio for the
transfer function T(s)= I(s) / E(s).
L R
1 2
e( t) i
Fig. 3.15 RLC network
C
Solution
1
s
I (s) 1 Cs L

E ( s ) R Ls 1 LC s 2 RCS 1 2

R
s
1
s
CS L LC
Then
1 R R C
n and 2 n
LC L 2 L
Example 3.8: For the RLC shown in Fig. 3.17, determine the natural
frequency n and the damping ratio for the transfer function
T(s)= X(s) / F(s), if M = 1 kg, b= 4 Ns/m and k = 10 N/m.
x v(t )
K
Solution f (t )
The D.E for this system is given by: M
d 2 x(t ) dx(t )
M 2
fv Kx(t ) f (t )
dt dt fv
Fig. 3.15 RLC network
X ( s) 1 1/ m

F ( s) M s f v s k
2 fv k
s
2
S
m m
Then
1 fv 2
n 10 rad / sec and 2 n
k /m m 10
3.5 Higher Order Systems Response
The natural response of third- and higher-order systems consists of a sum of
terms, one term for each characteristic root:
- For each distinct real characteristic root, there is a real exponential term in the
system natural response.
- For each pair of complex conjugate roots, there is a an exponential sinusoidal
term in the system natural response.
- Repeated roots give additional terms involving power of time times the
exponential
Example 3.9: Analyze the system with the following transfer function:
8 s2 5 8 s2 5
T ( s) 4 3
s 9s 37 s 81s 52 (s 1)(s 4)(s 4s 13)
2 2
1 k1 k 2 k3 k 4 s k5
C ( s) T ( s)
s s s 1 s 4 ( s 2) 2 (3) 2
c(t ) k1 k 2 et k 3 e4t Ae2t cos(3t )
Example 3.9: Analyze the system with the following transfer
function:
7 s3 6 s2 9s 23
T ( s)
( s 1)(s 4)(s2 4s 13)(s 2 8s 17)
1 k1 k 2 k3 k4 s k5 k6 s k7
C ( s) T ( s) 2 2
s s s 1 s 3 s 4s 13 s 8s 17
1 n1t 2 n 2t
1 1
c(t ) k1 k 2 et k 3 e3t A1 e cos( d 1 t 1 ) A2 e cos( d 2 t 2 )
1 12 1 22
Where the natural frequencies and damping ratios are given by:
4 8
n1 13 3.6rad / sec , 1 0.55 and n 2 17 4.12rad / sec , 1 0.97
2 n1 2 n1

3.6 Steady State Errors of Feedback Control Systems
Stable system: the system is stable one if its impulse response g(t)
approaches 0 as time is very large g(t) 0 as t
Steady state error is the difference between the input

reference and the output for a prescribed test input as
t

Calculation of the steady state error
Consider the feedback control system shown in Fig. 3.16.
R(s) E (s) C (s)
G(s)
Fig. 3.16
H (s)
The closed loop transfer function is given by:

C ( s) G( s) H ( s)
T ( s)
R( s ) 1 G ( s ) H ( s )
The system error is equal to:
G( s ) H ( s ) 1
E ( s ) R( s ) C ( s ) H ( s ) R( s ) R( s ) R( s )
1 G( s ) H ( s ) 1 G( s ) H ( s )
By application of final value theorem the steady state error is:
sR( s)
ess lim e(t ) lim sE( s) lim
t s 0 s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s )

Types of The steady-state error
1- static position error constant Kp
The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step
input is
sR( s ) s 1 1
ess lim lim
s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) s 1 lim G ( s ) H ( s )
s 0
The static position error constant Kp is defined by

K p lim G( s) H ( s) G(0) H (0)
s 0
The steady-state error of the system for a unit-step

input is calculated as follows:
1
ess
1 K p
Calculation of static position error constant Kp
Case 1: For a type 0 system

K Ta s 1Tb s 1...
K p lim G( s) H ( s) lim K
s 0 s 0 T s 1T s 1...
1 2
1
ess
1 K
Case 2: For a type 1 or higher system
K Ta s 1Tb s 1...
K p lim G( s) H ( s) lim N
s 0 s 0 s T s 1T s 1...
1 2
ess 0

2- Velocity error constant Kv
The steady-state error of the system for a unit-ramp

input is
sR( s) s 1 1
ess lim lim lim
s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) s 2 s 0 sG( s ) H ( s )
The velocity error constant Kv is defined by
K v lim sG( s) H ( s)
s 0
1
ess
Kv

Calculation of the velocity error constant Kv
sK Ta s 1Tb s 1...
K v lim 0 ess
s 0 T1s 1T2 s 1...
sK Ta s 1Tb s 1... 1
K v lim K ess
s 0 s T s 1T s 1... K
1 2

sK Ta s 1Tb s 1...
K v lim N ess 0
s 0 s T s 1T s 1...
1 2

3. Acceleration error constant Ka
t2
r (t )
2
The steady-state error of the system for a unit-parabolic
input is
sR( s) s 1 1
ess lim lim lim 2
s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) s 3 s 0 s G ( s ) H ( s )
The acceleration error constant Ka is defined by
K a lim s 2G( s) H ( s) 1
s 0 ess
Ka

Calculation of the static acceleration error constant Ka
s 2 K Ta s 1Tb s 1... ess
K a lim 0
s 0 T1s 1T2 s 1...
K a lim 0
s 0 sT1s 1T2 s 1...
1
K a lim 2 K
s 0 s T s 1T s 1... K
1 2

s 2 K Ta s 1Tb s 1... ess 0
K a lim N
s 0 s T s 1T s 1...
1 2

Table 3.2 Summary of steady-state errors in terms of gain
Input step input ramp input acc. input

t2
r (t ) 1 r (t ) t r (t )
Type # 2
1
type 0
system 1 K p

1
type 1
system 0
Kv
type 2 1
system 0 0 Ka

Example 3.10: Find the steady state error of the system
shown in Fig. 3.17, when the reference input r(t) is:
a) (t) b) u(t) c) t u(t)
R(s) E (s) 5 C (s)
s4
Fig. 3.17
Solution 2
s 1
The steady state error is given by

1
ess lim sE( s) lim
s 0 s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s )
R( s )
1
a) For r (t ) (t ) ess lim s .1 0
s 0 5 2
1
s 4 s 1
( s 4)(s 1) 1 4
b) For r (t ) u (t ) ess lim s .
s 0 ( s 4)( s 1) 10 s 14
c) Similarly for r(t) = t u(t), ess =
Example 3.11: Find the steady state error of the system
shown in Fig. 3.18, when the reference input r(t) is:
a) (t) b) u(t) c) t u(t)
R(s) E (s) 10 C (s)
s ( s 4)
Fig. 3.18
Solution
The steady state error is given by

1 1
ess lim sE( s) lim
s 0 s 0 1 G ( s ) H ( s )
R( s) lim
s 0 1 G ( s ))
R( s )
s( s 4)
a) For r (t ) (t ) ess lim s .1 0
s 0 s( s 4) 10
s( s 4) 1
b) For r (t ) u (t ) ess lim s . 0
s 0 s( s 4) 10 s
s( s 4) 1 4
c) For r (t ) tu (t ) ess lim s . 2
s 0 s( s 4) 10 s 10
Example 3.12: For the system shown in Fig. 3.19, determine:
a) The system type number b) static position error constant Kp
c) The velocity error constant Kv d) ess, when r(t) is: u(t) and t u(t)
R(s) E (s) 10 C (s)

s ( s 5)
Fig. 3.19
Solution 2
s3
a) The open loop transfer function is given by

20
G( s) H ( s) The system type number =1
s( s 5)( s 3))
20
b) lim G( s) H ( s) lim s
s 0 s 0 s( s 5)( s 3)
20s 20
c) k v lim sG( s) H ( s) lim
s 0 s 0 s ( s 5)( s 5) 15
1 1 15
d ) ess ( step ) 0 ess (ramp)
1 k p k v 20
3.7 Stability Analysis Using Routh-Hurwitz Method
Consider the closed loop transfer function of a system as :
bm s m bm 1s m 1 b0 N ( s)
T ( s) n 1

an s an 1s a0
n
( s )
Where N(s) is the numerator of the transfer function and
(s) or Q(s) is denominator or the characteristic equation
or polynomial of the system which is given by:
( s) Q( s) an s n an1s n1 a0
For the system described by T(s) to be stable, the root of
the characteristic equation must lie in the left half plane.
The Routh-Hurwitz criteria or test is a numerical procedure
for determining the number of right half-plane (RHP) and
imaginary axis roots of the characteristic polynomial.
The Routh-Hurwitz Method Stability Criteria
The method requires two steps:
Step #1: Generate a date table called a Routh table as follows:
Consider the characteristic equation which is given by:
(s) Q(s) a4 s 4 a3 s 3 a2 s 2 a1s a0
Rules for Routh table creation Table 3.3 Initial layout for Routh table
Any row of the Routh table
can be multiplied by a
positive constant without
changing the values of the
rows below.
To avoid the division by
zero, an epsilon is
assigned to replace the
zero in the first column.

Further rows of the schedule are then completed as follows:
Table 3.4 Completed Routh table

Step #2: Interpret the Routh table to tell how many closed-loop
system poles are in the:
- left half-plane - right half-plane.
The number of roots of the polynomial that are in the right half-
plane is equal to the number of sign changes in the first column.
Notes:
1- If the coefficients of the characteristic equation have differing
algebraic, there is at least one RHP root. For Example:
(s) Q(s) 7s 5 5s 4 3s 3 2s 2 s 10
Has definitely one or more RHP roots.
2- If one or more of the coefficients of the characteristic equation have
zero value, there are imaginary or RHP roots or both. For Example:
(s) Q(s) s 6 3s 5 2s 4 8s 2 3s 17
has imaginary axis roots indicated by missing s3 term.

Example 3.13: For the system shown in Fig. 3.20, determine T(s) and
then apply the Routh-Hurwitz Method to check the its Stability .
R(s) E (s) 1000 C (s)

( s 2)(s 3)(s 5)
Fig. 3.20
Solution :
Step #1: Find the system closed loop transfer function T(s) then
determine the characteristic equation.
1000
G(s) ( s 2)( s 3)( s 5) 1000
T ( s) 3
1 G( s) H ( s) 1 1000 s 10 s 31s 1030
2
( s 2)( s 3)( s 5)
Therefore, the characteristic equation is given by:
( s ) 10 s 31s 1030
3 2
s
Step #2: Generate the Routh table as follows:
Note: Any row of the Routh table can be multiplied by a positive

constant without changing the values of the rows below.
Table 3.5 The Completed Routh table for Example 3.13
Divide
by 10
system poles are in the right half-plane There are two sign changes
in the left column, therefore, Q(s) has two RHP roots and hence it is
unstable.
Example 3.14: Apply the Routh-Hurwitz Method to check the stability
of a system whose characteristic equation is given by:
( s) s5 2 s4 3 s3 6 s2 5s 3
Step #1: Generate the Routh table as follows:
Table 3.6The Routh table for example 3.14

Note:
To avoid the division by
zero, an epsilon is
assigned to replace the
zero in the first column.

system poles are in the right half-plane. To begin the interpretation, we
must assume a sign, positive or negative, for the quantity as
illustrated in Table 3.6.
There are two sign changes in the left column, therefore, Q(s) has two
RHP roots and hence it is unstable.
Example 3.15: Apply the Routh-Hurwitz Method to determine the
stability of a the closed loop system whose transfer function is given by:
10
T ( s)
3s 5 s 6 s 3 s 2s 1
5 4 3 2
Solution: Generate the Routh table as follows:

There are two sign changes in the

left column, therefore, Q(s) has two
RHP roots and hence it is unstable

Chapter - 3 - Feedback Control Systems Performance and Characteristics

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Chapter - 3 - Feedback Control Systems Performance and Characteristics

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Linear Control Systems

Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

1 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

2 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

3 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

4 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

c(t ) ctr (t ) css (t )

6 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

The First order System is described by the following differential equation:

7 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

Fig. 3.3 Impulse response of first order system

9 Chapter #3 Sys Characteristics Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim

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c(t ) L1C (s)

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a2 s C (s) a1 sC(s) a0 C (s) bR(s)

The Standard form system transfer function T(s) is given by:

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2n 25 and 2 n 8 which gives n 5 and 0.8

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Case 1: Over damped response ( > 1)

c(t ) L1{C (s)} (k1 k 2 es1t k 3 es2t )u(t )

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1 (b) Poles plot in s-plane

(a) Step response time [s]

Fig. 3.6 Behavior of an over damped second order system

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The output of this second order system in the s-plane is:

The corresponding time domain output is given by:

c(t ) L1{C (s)} (k1 k 2 es1t k 3 te s2t )u(t )

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The corresponding time domain output is given by:

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1 (b) Poles plot in s-plane

(a) Step response time [s]

Fig. 3.7 Behavior of of a critically damped second order system

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The corresponding time domain output is given by:

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Where n is the undamped natural

Fig. 3.8 The s- plane plot of

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The corresponding time domain output is given by:

A typical time response of a second-order underdamped system is

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Fig. 3.11 The transient response as a function of the damping ratio

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steady-state 0.5 allowable

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5- The equivalent time constant is defined as follows:

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R(s) k T (s) 1 C (s)

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Steady state error is the difference between the input

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The closed loop transfer function is given by:

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