The Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem

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When talking about models I mentioned that there are some interesting results about their cardinality. The
Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem is one of them. What it says is simply that, if a countable first-order theory has at least
one infinite model, then, for every infinite cardinal, that theory has a model of cardinality . Not only that. It also
happens that every theory with arbitrarily large finite models has a countably infinite model.

What this means is that first-order specifications of theories can never pin down a model up to isomorphism. That is
to say that the first-order definition of Peano Arithmetic can never actually talk about the model of the Natural
Numbers. Ill talk about this specifically later when I mention the nonstandard models of Natural Numbers.

First, lets talk about a theory. When talking about models, I didnt use this exact word, but a theory is an informal
term that defines that which a model is about. So the Peano Axioms, with its constants (0, 1, 2, ) and variables is
a theory. In other words, a theory is a set of formulas that are true. And a countable theory is a theory that has only
countably many axioms (i.e. a finite number of them or as many of them as there are natural numbers).

Then, given any theory K, we call K an extension of K if every theorem thats true in K is also true in K (and in this
case we say that K is a subtheory of K). Every theory is a trivial extension of itself. An example of a famous
extension is the non-Euclidean extension to geometry. Euclidean geometry is also an extension of geometry.

Then we can define a scapegoat theory K as a theory that has a term t with no free variables such that for every
well-formed formula (wf) B(x) we have that K x B(x) B(t). That is, we create a term thats a scapegoat such
that for every wf which is known to be false for some element is false for that scapegoat term.

Then we can prove a few theorems:

Lemma. Every theory K has an extension K such that K is a scapegoat theory with countably infinitely many closed
terms (i.e. terms without variables).

Add a countably infinite set of constants {b 1, b 2, b 3, } to K. The theory K 0 is K plus that set of constants plus one
instance of each logical axiom that involve the symbols of K and the new constants. That is, if there are axioms
about the constants of K, you create a copy of those axioms in K0 for the new constants. K0 is clearly consistent if K
is consistent. Then enumerate all wfs of K that only have one variable: {F1(x), F 2(x), F 3(x), }. Now consider the wf
Sk : x Fk(x) Fk(bk).

Call the theory Kn the one defined by K0 plus S1, S1, , Sn as axioms. In this case, we define K as K0 plus one
Sk for each bk we added to K. Then K is the desired extension K. Q.E.D.

Lemma. Every theory K with a countable model has a countably infinite model.

Just take the scapegoat theory K we created and find a model M. Since the domain of M is countably infinite
(because of the set of constants we added) and M is clearly a model of K it follows that K has a countably infinite
model. Q.E.D.

Upward Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem. If are cardinal numbers such that K has a model of cardinality then
K has a model of cardinality .

Suppose we have a model M of K whose domain D has cardinality . Then let a set D D of cardinality be the
domain of a new model M. Choose a fixed element c of D. Were going to make every element of D \ D behave as
c. For any sequence (d1, d 2, d 3, ) from D, if B is the version in M of B from M, then B(d 1, d 2, d 3, ) is true if and
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only if B(u1, u 2, u 3, ) is true, where u k = dk if d k is in D and u k = c otherwise. That is to say that all of our new
symbols are going to be exactly copies of this old symbol c. Then, clearly this is a model of K of cardinality .

This is to say that for all cardinalities of a model of a theory, we can construct a new model thats larger. Now we
need to prove the Downward Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem, which says that any countable theory with a model with
an arbitrarily big cardinality has a model with all smaller infinite cardinalities. Q.E.D.

Downward Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem. If a countable theory T has a model of cardinality where is an

infinite cardinal, then T has a model of cardinality .

This one is easy. Since T is a countable theory, the least cardinality of its model is |T|, and thatd be a model that is a
strict interpretation of T and its consequences. If T is finite, the Upward Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem says that T
has a countably infinite model. If T is countably infinite, then its least model is already countably infinite. Then, by
the Upward Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem, T has models of all infinite cardinalities above 0, and particularly it has a
model of cardinality . Q.E.D.

Corollary. If |T| = and , T has a model of cardinality .

This follows directly from the Upward Lwenheim-Skolem Theorem. Q.E.D.

So what this means is that, in first-order logic, you cannot pin down the exact models of a theory, up to isomorphism.
All theories have infinitely many models of infinitely many infinite cardinalities, and you cant tell them apart from the
point of view of the theory itself.

Notes

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