Math 10

Logic and Reasoning

Learning Outcomes
1. Determine whether a statement has truth value;
2. Negate simple and compound statements;
3. Describe the various forms of the conditional;
4. Use truth tables to determine the truth value of a statement;
5. Determine whether an argument is valid or invalid using Euler
diagrams or truth tables; and
6. Illustrate deductive and inductive reasoning.
Mathematical Statements
and Connectives
Mathematical Statements
• A statement that can be assigned a truth value and be classified
as TRUE or FALSE but NOT BOTH.
• It is commonly represented as a lowercase letter such as:
p, q, r, s, …

Example:
p: 1+1=2
q: 2+3=6
r: All roses are red.
s: The Philippines has more than 7,100 islands
The following are NOT mathematical statements:
• Happy Birthday!
• Message me.
• Can we be friends?
• 5+1
• x+3=0
• Mathematics is interesting
• 7 is a lucky number
How do we know if it is a
Mathematical Statement?
• Is it a Declarative Statement?
• Is it defining something?
• Do they have meaning?
• In terms of mathematical symbols are all elements defined?
• Is it quantifiable as TRUE or FALSE?
Exercise
1. Math 10 is a GE course. 1. Mathematical Sentence
2. What is your name? 2. NOT Mathematical Sentence
3. I am a UP student. 3. Mathematical Sentence
4. x<y 4. NOT Mathematical Sentence
5. Please open the door. 5. NOT Mathematical Sentence
6. π is a special number. 6. Mathematical Sentence
7. The chairs are pink or the earth is round. 7. Mathematical Sentence
8. 3+4–5 8. NOT Mathematical Sentence
9. If cats are mammals, then mice are reptiles 9. Mathematical Sentence
10. Let us Dance 10. NOT Mathematical Sentence
Operations on Statements:
The Connectives
The statements and notations that we defined can be connected or operated upon
with the following operations.

• Conjunction “p and q” p∧q

• Disjunction “p or q” pVq
• Conditional “If p then q” p→q
Statement p Is called the premise and q is called the conclusion
• Biconditional “p if and only if q” p↔q
The biconditional means p → q and q → p, that is, it is the conjunction of
the two statements. In symbols, p ↔ q = (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
• Negation “not p” ~p
Example
1. p∧q 2 + 4 = 6 and 1 + 5 = 7.
2. rVs All slimes are pyro or there are 7 elements in Genshin Impact.
3. p→s If 2 + 4 = 6 then there are 7 elements in Genshin Impact.
4. q↔r 1 + 5 = 7 if and only if all slimes are pyro.
5. ~p 2+4≠6

When we connect 2 Mathematical Statements, is the result still a mathematical

statement?
YES!
How do we determine if they
are TRUE or FALSE?
• The conjunction p ∧ q is TRUE if both p and q are true.
Otherwise it is considered FALSE.

• The disjunction p V q is TRUE if at least one statement (p, q or both) is TRUE.

It is false only if both statements are FALSE

• The conditional p → q is FALSE only when the premise p is TRUE and

the conclusion q is FALSE. Otherwise it is considered TRUE.

• The biconditional p ↔ q is TRUE if p and q have the same truth value,

either p and q are BOTH TRUE or BOTH FALSE.

• The negation ~p is TRUE if p is FALSE. If p is TRUE, ~p is FALSE.

Exercise
1. p∧q 2 + 4 = 6 and 1 + 5 = 7. 1. FALSE
2. rVs All slimes are pyro or there are 7 2. TRUE
elements in Genshin Impact.
3. p→s If 2 + 4 = 6 then there are 7 3. TRUE
elements in Genshin Impact.
4. q↔r 1 + 5 = 7 if and only if all slimes 4. TRUE
are pyro.
5. ~p 2+4≠6 5. FALSE

Hint:
Remember
• Mathematical statements can be compound, when operations are
performed with said statements.
• We use delimiters to group them together:
( ), [ ], { }

Example:
( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( r → ~q )
This is a disjunction of the conjunction ( p ∧ q ) and conditional ( r → ~q )
Example
Let p, q, r be TRUE statements
Determine the truth value of the following:
• pV(q∧r)
TV(T∧T)
TVT
T
Therefore, p V ( q ∧ r ) is TRUE.
Example
• p → ~q
T → ~T
T→F
F
Therefore, p → ~q is FALSE.
Example
• ( ~p ∨ q ) → ~r
( ~T V T ) → ~T
(FVT)→F
T→F
F
Therefore, ( ~p ∨ q ) → ~r is FALSE.
Exercise: (Let p, q and r be TRUE)
1. pV(q∧r) 1. TRUE

2. p → ~q 2. FALSE

3. p ↔ ~q 3. FALSE

4. ( ~p ∨ q ) → ~r 4. FALSE

5. ( ~p ∧ q ) ∨ ~( r → ~q ) 5. TRUE
Truth Tables
• We use Truth Tables to represent the possible truth values of
compound statements like the examples earlier.

• We have 4 cases
when dealing with
2 statements
Truth Tables
• Conjunction p∧q • Disjunction pVq • Conditional p→q
Truth Tables
• Biconditional p↔q • Negation ~p • If there is 1 statement,
there are 2 cases/rows.
• If there are 2 statements,
there are 4 cases/rows.
• If there are 3 statements,
there are 8 cases/rows.

• If there are n statements,

there are 2n cases/rows
Example
• p → ~q
• ( ~p ∧ q ) → ~r
Exercise
• (~ p ∨ q) ↔ (p → q)
Relations on Statements
• We learned that we can perform operations on statements
creating compound statements – which in theory have a truth value
BUT it may or may not make sense

• For example,
If all roses are red, then all violets are blue. (F → F)
This statement is considered TRUE but is not MATERIALLY TRUE

• We have conditionals p → q and biconditionals p ↔ q that actually make

sense or materially true – we consider the relations on these statements
to be an implication or an equivalence.
Implication ( ⇒ )
• We know that all cats are mammals.
This means that if an animal is a cat then it is a mammal.

• We can state it as “If it is a cat, then it is a mammal”

This is not just a compound statement rather it is a material implication

• We call this relation an implication because it suggests something that

makes sense and is true.

• Hence, if statement p (materially) implies statement q, we denote it by:

p ⇒ q (read as p implies q)
Equivalence ( ⇔ )
• On the other hand, some statements can also be equivalent.

• Usually used in definitions and compound statements, wherein the statement

can be restated in multiple ways.

• Consider the definition “A polygon is a triangle if and only if it has three sides”
p: A polygon is a triangle
q: A polygon has three sides
• These statements are equivalent and can be denoted by
p ⇔ q (read as p is equivalent to q)
Example:
• Using a truth table, show that ~ ( p ∧ q ) ⇔ ~p ∨ ~q
They have the
same truth
values,
therefore they
are equivalent
Exercise
• ~ ( p ∨ q ) ⇔ ~p ∧ ~q
They are
equivalent
Negation of Statements
Negation of Simple Statements
To negate simple statements, we add the word “not” appropriately,

Statement Negation
p: 1+1=2 ~p: 1+1≠2

q: 2+3=6 ~q: 2+3≠6

r: All roses are red ~r: Not all roses are red.

s: The Philippines has more than 7,000 ~s: The Philippines has at most 7,000
Islands Islands
Exercise
1. 100 is a multiple of 10. 1. 100 is not a multiple of 10.

2. x+y≤z 2. x+y>z

3. All trees are tall. 3. Not all trees are tall.

4. There are 12 months in a year. 4. There are not 12 months in a year.

5. Juan is at least 18 years old 5. Juan is less than 18 years old.

Negation of Compound
Statements
• To negate a conjunction or disjunction, we use the following equivalences:

1. ~( p ∧ q ) ⇔ ~p V ~q
2. ~( p V q ) ⇔ ~p ∧ ~q
Example:
1. The chairs are red and UP is at least 100 years old.
The chairs are NOT red or UP is less than 100 years old.
2. 1 + 1 < 5 or all roses are red.
1 + 1 ≥ 5 and NOT all roses are red.
3. Jose Rizal is both intelligent and nationalistic.
Jose Rizal is NOT intelligent or he is NOT nationalistic.
Exercise
1. The Philippines is an archipelago or cats are 1. The Philippines is NOT an archipelago
mammals. and cats are NOT mammals.

2. 1 + 1 = 3 and 5 > 1. 2. 1 + 1 ≠ 3 or 5 ≤ 1.

3. I like watching movies and reading books.

3. I don’t like watching movies or I don’t
like reading books.
4. p ∨ ( r ∧ q ) 4. ~p ∧ ( ~r V ~q )

5. ( p ∨ q ) ∧ ( ~r ∨ ~s )
5. ( ~p ∧ ~q ) V ( r ∧ s )
Negation of Statements with
Quantifiers
• We can negate statements with all, some and none.

Example:
1. p: All roses are red.
2. q: Some roses are red.
3. r: No roses are red.
Negation:
1. ~p: Not all roses are red.
2. ~q: No reses are red.
3. ~r: Not all roses are red.
Exercise
1. All cats are mammals 1. Not all cats are mammals.

2. Some of the islands are not inhabited. 2. None of the islands are not inhabited.

3. No man is an island. 3. Not all man is an island.

4. All UP students are honest or no politician is 4. Not all UP students are honest and not
corrupt. all politician is corrupt.

5. Some violets are blue and no roses are violets. 5. No violets are blue or not all roses are
violets.
The Conditional
Equivalent forms of the
Conditional
• The conditional p → q or "If p then q" is equivalent to the following statements:
q if p q is necessary for p
p only if q All p are q (Universal Statement)
p is sufficient for q Either not p or q

Example: Consider: If it is a bird then it flies.

It flies if it is a bird. Flying is necessary for it to be a bird
It is a bird only if it flies All birds fly
Being a bird is sufficient to fly Either it is not a bird, or it flies.
Exercise
q if p q is necessary for p • If you care for the environment, then you
should recycle.
p only if q All p are q
p is sufficient for q Either not p or q
• All animals are friendly.

• No insect is useless.
Converse, Inverse and
Contrapositive
A common mistake made in restating conditionals is interchanging the
premise and the conclusion (which is not necessarily the same statement)

Statement: HuTao is a pyro character.

p → q: If it is HuTao then it is pyro.

q → p: If it is pyro then it is HuTao.

~p → ~q: If it is not HuTao then it is not pyro.
~q → ~p: If it is not pyro then it is not HuTao
The correct answer is the last statement.
Hence we have the equivalent statements:
p → q ⇔ ~q → ~p

Now, given the conditional p → q, we say that:

• its converse is q→p
• its inverse is ~p → ~q
• its contrapositive is ~q → ~p
Example
Consider the statement:
All even numbers are divisible by two.

Conditional: If it is an even number, then it is divisible by two.

Converse: If a number is divisible by two, then it is an even number
Inverse: If it is not an even number, then it is not divisible by two.
Contrapositive: If it is not divisible by two, then it is not an even number.
Valid and Invalid
Arguments
Lewis Caroll Puzzles
(a) All babies are illogical.
(b) Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile. No baby can manage a crocodile
(c) Illogical persons are dispised.

(a) None of the unnoticed things, met with at sea, are

mermaids.
(b) Things entered in the log, as met with at sea, are
sure to be worth remembering.
(c) I have never met with anything worth
If I have met with it at the sea,
remembering, when on a voyage.
then it is not a mermaid.
(d) Things met with at sea, that are noticed, are sure
to be recorded in the log.
Euler Diagrams
An Euler (pronounced as “oiler”) Diagram is visual representation of a
statement like how Venn Diagrams represents sets.

For example:
p: Jose is a UP student

Let a circle represent the set of UP students and let x be Jose.

Example
All cats are mammals
Some dogs are hairy.
No even number is an odd number
As shown in the examples, the following are how we
interpret statements into Euler Diagrams

All A are B Some A are B No A are B

Exercise
1. Juan is a Math 10 student.
2. Maria is not a Filipino.
3. All actors are artists.
4. Some scientists are actors.
5. No professor is infallible.
6. Ducks are yellow.
7. If you are a Filipino, then you are honest.
Validity of Arguments
An argument consists of multiple premises (p1, p2, p3, …, pn) and a
conclusion q – considered to be a conjunction p1 ∧ p2 ∧ p3 ∧ … ∧ pn = p.

The argument p → q is valid if the premises are assumed to be true and

the conclusion holds

One way of determining the validity of the argument is to draw an Euler

Diagram.

The argument is valid if the conclusion is satisfied by the

Euler diagram representing all premises
Example
All dogs are hairy. Cotton is a dog. Therefore, Cotton is hairy.

Let Cotton be x
Since x is inside the set dogs and set hairy things, therefore the argument:
Cotton is hairy is VALID.
All dogs are hairy. My pet Cotton is hairy. Therefore, Cotton is a dog.

“Cotton is a dog” is not seen or contradicting in the diagram making it INVALID.

This means that being hairy does not automatically imply being a dog.
You can also show 2 different diagrams exhibiting the same premises.
It is INVALID because valid arguments should only yield one possible conclusion
All parrots are birds. Some birds are colorful. Therefore, some parrots are colorful.

INVALID
Even though it is a sound argument, the initial premises does not help
in proving its validity
All booms (B) are zooms (Z). All feeps (F) are meeps (M). No zoom is a meep.
Therefore, no boom is a feep.

The argument is VALID and is

shown in the diagram.

Although the statement does

not look sound, it is still valid
since it follows the correct
logic.
Exercise
• Ayaka is from Inazuma. Some people from Inazuma have Electro vision.
Therefore Ayaka has an Electro vision

• Some Pikachu are yellow. All Pikachu are electric type.

Therefore, some electric type are yellow.

• Some agents that can use smoke are Controllers. Some Duelist can use smoke.
No Controller is a Duelist.
Therefore, if Jett can use smoke then she is a Controller.
Valid Arguments Forms
• There are 3 general forms of valid arguments.

1. Modus Ponens

If it is a dog then it is hairy. p→q

Cotton is a dog. p
Therefore, Cotton is hairy Therefore q
 2. Modus Tollens 3. Syllogism

If it is a dog then it is hairy p→q If it is a cat, then it is a mammal p→q

My pet Donut is not hairy ~q If it is a mammal then it is an animal q→r
Therefore, Cotton is not a dog Therefore ~p Therefore, if it s a cat then it is an animal
Therefore p → r
We can also express those forms into statements

1. (Modus Ponens) [(p→q)∧p]→q

2. (Modus Tollens) [ ( p → q ) ∧ ~q ] → ~p
3. (Syllogism) [(p→q)∧(q→r)]→(p→r)

To check the validity of the statements above, we can construct truth

tables. If the statement is true for all cases, then the argument is
VALID – in which case we call the statement a TAUTOLOGY and the
conditional is in fact an IMPLICATION
1. Modus Ponens
2. Modus Tollens
3. Syllogism
Example
1. All UP students need to enroll in Math 10. Maria is a UP
student. Therefore, Maria has enrolled in Math 10.
(VALID – use Modus Ponens)

2. If I sing, then it rains. It is not raining. Therefore, I did not sing.

(VALID – use Modus Tollens)

3. If you love cats, then you love animals. If you love animals, then
you should be kind to animals. Therefore, if you love cats, you
should be kind to animals.
(VALID – use Syllogism)
Exercise
1. If it rains, I will sleep. I did not sleep. Therefore, it did not rain. 1. VALID (MT)

2. If it’s a reptile, then it’s cold-blooded. Barney is not cold- 2. VALID (MT)
blooded. Therefore, Barney is not a reptile.

3. All scientists are hardworking. If you are hardworking, then

3. VALID (S)
you contribute to our country’s economic growth. Therefore,
all scientists contribute to our country’s economic growth.
Fallacies
Fallacies are argument forms that are not true to all its cases.

For example:
1. All dogs are hairy. My pet Cotton is hairy. Therefore, Cotton is a dog

2. All cats are mammals. My pet Donut is not a cat. Therefore, Donut is not a mammal

Both these statements are fallacies since they are invalid argument forms, and they are namely
the fallacy of the converse and fallacy of the inverse.
 Fallacy of the Converse
All dogs are hairy p→q
Cotton is hairy q
Cotton is a dog Therefore p

Fallacy of the Inverse

All cats are mammal p→q
Donut is not a cat ~p
Donut is not a mammal Therefore ~q
Example
1. If you can add, then you can subtract. You cannot add. Therefore,
you cannot subtract.
Fallacy of the INVERSE

2. All UP students are diligent. Maria is diligent. Therefore, Maria is a

UP student.
Fallacy of the CONVERSE

3. If I sing, then it rains. If it does not rain, then birds sing. Birds are
not singing. Therefore, I am singing.
Fallacy of the CONVERSE
Other Fallacies
1. Ad Hominem – basing arguments to the character of the
opponent and not the argument itself. (Involves insults and
unrelated points to make the argument seem false)
2. Ad Populum – basing the validity of arguments to the number of
people that believe on it. (Band wagon Fallacy)
3. Appeal to Authority – basing the validity of arguments on how
famous the person who claimed it to be (most of the time, the
person claiming it is not an expert of the related field)
4. False Cause – this fallacious argument correlates two events that
are not necessarily related to cause one another.
5. Hasty Generalization – a generalization is made based on few
examples
Individual Activity
• A Discussion Thread will be created in Canvas and you are tasked to
provide a Mathematical Statement that follows any of the following
forms:
q if p q is necessary for p
p only if q All p are q (Universal Statement)
p is sufficient for q Either not p or q

• You need to post 1 Mathematical statement and reply to at least 2 of

your classmate’s statement with a statement of a different form.

• Theme:
“ We are transported to a Fantasy World full of mysteries and
adventure! ”
Group Activity
A. Give five (5) examples of conditional statements coming from
advertisements (TV, radio, magazines, newspaper or internet).

B. Give five (5) examples of fallacies found in advertisements ,

newspaper/magazine articles or internet. Explain why are these
fallacies and how they are used to mislead consumers.

C. Make a short advertisement (in words) and try to sell something to

us. Make sure to use proper conditional statements and DON’T
use any fallacy.
Group Activity
• Times New Roman, 12, single spacing
• Include names of Member that participated
• Maximum of 3 Pages.
Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
• Problem solving is done not only in formal mathematics courses or
limited to mathematicians and scientists.
• In addition, if you love solving sudoku puzzles, rubiks cube, logic, or
pattern problems, these recreational activities are also forms of
problem solving which basically involves finding a conclusion or answer
from known facts.
• We discuss here two processes of reasoning, deductive and inductive,
and use these to solve some problems.
Deductive Reasoning
• Also known as Logical Deduction, is a process of reasoning
from a GENERAL statement to a SPECIFIC instance.

Example:
All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal

• This is a classic example of a deductive argument which is a primary form

of deductive reasoning – also a valid argument form of modus ponens.
The other valid argument forms (modus tollens and syllogism) are also forms
of deductive reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning
• On the other hand, is a process of reasoning
from a SPECIFIC instance to a GENERAL statement.

Example:
2 is an even number. 12 is an even number. 22 is an even number.
Therefore, all numbers ending in 2 are even.

• This conclusion drawn in the example is true, BUT it is not ALWAYS the
case with inductive reasoning.
• Look at these numbers of the form 2p – 1, where p is a prime
number (p = 2, 3, 5, 7, …) We have:
22 – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3
23 – 1 = 8 – 1 = 7
25 – 1 = 32 – 1 = 31 • Hence, When a general
• We see that 3, 7 and 31 are prime numbers also. By inductive statement is concluded
reasoning, we can conclude that 2p – 1 is a prime number. from specific examples
using inductive reasoning,
• However, this is FALSE. Because when p = 11 this still needs to be
211 – 1 = 2048 – 1 = 2047 (23 x 89) formally established or
proved using known
which disproves the conclusion from inductive reasoning. facts, in which case,
deductive reasoning is
necessary.
Exercise
Find the next two (2) numbers, x and y, in the given sequences:
a. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, x, y a. x = 36, y = 49
b. 3, 9, 15, 21, 27, x, y b. x = 33, y = 39
c. 3, 15, 75, x, y c. x = 375, y = 1875
d. 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, x, y d. x = 66, y = 91
e. 2, 6, 22, 56, 114, x, y e. x = 202, y = 326
There are 3 Chibi Genshin Characters sitting on a bench: Klee, Qiqi and Diona.

You do not play Genshin Impact (Lucky for you) but you need to take a picture
of them. Klee always tells the truth, Qiqi sometimes tells the truth and Diona
never tells the truth.

The child on the left says, “Klee is in the middle”.

The child in the middle says, “I’m Qiqi”, and
The child on the right says, “Diona is in the middle”.

Determine the seating arrangement of the three.

Answer: https://youtu.be/12Y5TAYySNI QIQI DIONA KLEE
• Jose must take a cat, a mouse, and a sack of rice across a river with
his boat. The boat to be used can only accommodate Juan and either
the cat, mouse or the sack of rice. However, if left together, the cat will
eat the mouse. Also, if the mouse is left alone with the rice, it will eat the
rice. The cat does not eat rice. The mouse and rice are safe when Jose
is present.
• What is the minimum number of times Jose needs to cross the river so
he could get everything across?

• Answer: Seven