NOTES

on
Mathematics in the Modern World

“Patterns & Numbers in Nature and the World”

Patterns – regular or repeated, recurring forms or designs
Ex:      ; 1,3,5,7,9,11 (prime numbers)

Symmetry – draw an imaginary line across an object and the resulting parts are mirror images of
each other
Ex: spiderwort ; starfish

Fractals – mathematical constructs with the infinite perimeter\

Ex: snowflakes ; Romanesco Broccoli

Spirals – common in plants and animals

Ex: shell ; red cabbage

Tessellations – patterns formed by repeating tiles over a flat surface

Ex: floor tiles ; pineapples

Fibonacci sequence (Leonardo Pisano/Fibonacci)

Ex: A Rabbit Problem (1(F1),1(F2),2(F3),3(F4),5(F5),8(F6),13(F7),21(F8),…)
(Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2)
n>3
F3 = F3-1 + F3-2 F4 = F4-1 + F4-2
= F2 + F1 = F3 + F2
=1+1 =2+1
=2 =3
Binet’s Formula
Fn =
Axioms – mathematical statements that are accepted to be true without proof
Theorems – mathematical statements that are true and can be proved using general concepts in
Mathematics
“Special Sets in Mathematics”
• ℕ - The set of Natural Numbers – {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, … }
• 𝕎 – The set of Whole Numbers – {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, … }
• ℤ - The set of Integers - {… − 𝟐, − 𝟏, 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, … }
𝟏 𝟑
• ℚ - The set of Rational Numbers – {𝟎, 𝟏, , , 0.44, …}
𝟐 𝟐
• ℝ - The set of Real Numbers

INDUCTIVE REASONING – the process of arriving at a conclusion based on a set of

observations
Ex (A):
1+3 = 2 Based on this observations,
7+5 = 12 we can say that “the sum of two odd
5+9 = 14 numbers is always even”.
Ex (B):
Observations:
𝑘 = 1, 2(1) = 2 Based on this observation,
k = 2, 2(2) = 4 every integer we substitute to k
𝑘 = 3, 2(3) = 6 will always result to an “even integer”.
Ex (C):
For every integer𝑘, 2𝑘+1 is always odd.
Observations:
𝑘 = 1, 2(1) + 1 = 3 Based on this observation,
k = 2, 2(2) + 1 = 5 every integer we substitute to k
𝑘 = 3, 2(3) + 1 = 7 will always result to an
“odd integer”.
Ex (D):
For every integer 𝑘 and 𝑛, The sum of 𝑛 and 𝑘 is always an integer.
Observations:
𝑛 = 1, 𝑘 = 2 1 + 2 = 3 Based on this observation,
𝑛 = 3, 𝑘 = −4 3 + (−4) = −1 “the sum of any integers will
𝑛 = 6, 𝑘 = −2 6 + (−2) = 4 will always result to an
Integer”.

Counterexample – a special kind of example that disproves a statement or proposition

Ex:
•Every perfect squares are greater than one.
Counterexample: 1 is a perfect square but 1 ≮ 1.
• Every even integers are not divisible by 3.
Counterexample: 6 is an even integer but 6 is divisible by 3.
• A null set is a Proper subset of every set.
Counterexample: {} is a set but {} ⊄ {} since {} = {} .
• All decimal numbers are rational numbers
Counterexample: √2 is a decimal number but √2 is not rational.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING – a logical process in which a conclusion is based on the
concordance of multiple premises that are generally assumed to be true.
Ex:
1. The sum of two even integers is always even.
2. The sum of two odd integers is always even.
Solution 1:
We let 𝑘, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, by last example, we know that 2𝑘 and 2𝑛 is always even. Therefore,
2𝑘 + 2𝑛 = 2(𝑘 + 𝑛)
= 2𝑚 where 𝑚 = 𝑘 + 𝑛
Thus, the statement is true.

Solution 2:
We let 𝑘, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, by last example, we know that 2𝑘 + 1 and 2𝑛 + 1 is always odd. Therefore,
(2𝑘 + 1) + (2𝑛 + 1) = 2𝑘 + 2𝑛 + 2
= 2(𝑘 + 𝑛 + 1)
= 2𝑚 Where 𝑚 = 𝑘 + 𝑛 + 1
Thus, the statement is true.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) – tried to advance the study of logic from a merely
philosophical subject to a formal mathematical subject
Augustus De Morgan (1806-1871) & George Boole (1815-1864) – contributed to the
advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical discipline

Proposition or statement – a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both true and
false
Ex:
Cebu City is the provincial capital of Cebu. (Proposition)
Give me the keys. (Not a proposition)
21 + 10 = 45 (proposition)
X < 1 (proposition)
The designation T (true) or F (false), one and only one of which is assignable to any given
statement, is called the truth value of that statement.
Ex:
9 is a prime number. F
 5+3=8T
X2+y2≥0T
10 < −3 F
Simple Statement expresses a single idea.
Ex:
I will stay at home.
I will go to the mall.
I will watch a movie.
Compound Statement expresses two or more ideas simple statements are connected by words
and phrases such as “and”, “or”, “if . . . then”, and “if and only if”.
Ex:
I will stay at home or I will go to the mall.
I will go to the mall and I will watch a movie.
Negation of p indicates the opposite of the proposition p denoted by ¬p read as “not p”.
Ex:
p: Fishes can swim. T
¬p: Fishes cannot swim. F
q: Birds can’t fly. False
¬q: Birds can fly. True
p ¬p
T F
F T
What is the negation of the following statements?
p: √ 2 is a rational number.
q: 6 is an odd number.
r: Ellie Goulding is an opera singer.
s: The dog does not need to be fed.
Answers:
¬p: √ 2 is not a rational number. /√ 2 is an irrational number
¬q: 6 is not an odd number. / 6 is an even number.
¬r: Ellie Goulding is not an opera singer.
¬s: The dog needs to be fed.
Conjunction of p and q formed by joining two propositions p and q with the word “and” denoted
by p ∧ q (read as “p and q”)
Ex:
p: I woke up early today.
q: I jogged for 30 minutes.
p ∧ q: I woke up early today and I jogged for 30 minutes.

p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
 F F F

Disjunction of p and q formed by joining two propositions p and q with the word “or” denoted by
p ∨ q (read as “p or q”)
Ex:
p: I am going to wash my clothes.
q: I am going to sleep all day.
p ∨ q: I am going to wash my clothes or I am going to sleep all day.
p q p∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Conditional usually expressed as “If p then q” denoted by p ⇒ q (read as “p implies q”) where p
is a hypothesis/premise and q is a conclusion.
Ex:
p: I have a big dinner.
q: I will exercise in the morning.
p ⇒ q: If I have a big dinner then I will exercise in the morning.
p q p⇒q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Biconditional expressed as p ⇔ q represents “p if and only if q.” equivalent to (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒

p)
Ex:
p: You pass the exam.
q: You get a score of 60% or higher.
p ⇔ q: You pass the exam if and only if you get a score of 60% or higher.
p q p⇔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

STATEMENT CONNECTIVE SYMBOLIC FORM TYPE OF

STATEMENT
Not p not ¬p Negation
p and q and p∧q Conjunction
 p or q or p∨q Disjunction
If p, then q If. . .then p⇒q Conditional
p if and only if q If and only if p⇔q Biconditional

Symbolic Form English Sentence

p ∧ (q ∨ ¬r) p, and q or not r
(p ∧ q) ∨ r p and q, or r
(p ∧ ¬q) ⇒ (r ∨ s) If p and not q, then r or s.

Existential quantifier indicates that the statement is true for at least one denoted by ∃; uses
the words “some”, “there exists” and “at least one”.
Ex: Some birds do not fly
Universal quantifier indicates that the statement is true for all or at all times denoted by ∀;
“none” or “no” indicates the non-existence of something “all” and “every”.
Ex: All prime numbers are greater than 1. / No prime number is less than 1.
Statement Negation
All X are Y. Some X are not
Y.
No X are Y. Some X are Y.
Some X are not All X are Y.
Y.
Some X are Y. No X are Y.
Ex:
Statement Negation
All dogs bark. Some dogs do not bark.
No human can fly. Some humans can fly.
Some cars are not expensive. All cars are expensive.
Some people are born lucky. No one is born lucky.

Implications in Logic
If p ⇒ q is a conditional where the proposition p is the hypothesis and the proposition q is the
conclusion, then
• ¬p ⇒ ¬q is called its inverse;
• q ⇒ p is called its converse;
• ¬q ⇒ ¬p is called its contrapositive

Ex: Determine the inverse, converse and contrapositive of the given implication:
I. If the snack is nutritious, then it provides a lot of energy.
p: The snack is nutritious.
q: The snack provides a lot of energy
 ¬p ⇒ ¬q: If the snack is not nutritious, then it does not provide a lot of energy.
q ⇒ p: If the snack provides a lot of energy then it is nutritious.
¬q ⇒ ¬p: If the snack does not provide a lot of energy then it is not nutritious.
Ex: Determine the converse and contrapositive of the implication:
II. If a polygon has four sides then it is a quadrilateral.
p: A polygon has four sides.
q: A polygon is a quadrilateral.
¬p ⇒ ¬q: If a polygon does not have four sides then it is not a quadrilateral.
q ⇒ p: If a polygon is a quadrilateral then it has four sides.

SET – a well-defined collection of distinct objects denoted by uppercase letters such as A, B, C,

D...
If an object a belongs to a set A, then we write a ∈ A, otherwise we write a ∈/ A.
A universal set U in a particular case is a set of all objects in a particular context.

Roster Method or Tabulation – a method in which the elements of a set are listed inside a pair
of braces {} and separated by commas.
A. Let S be the set consisting the four seasons. Then by roster method we write,
S = {winter,spring,summer, fall}.
B. The set P is the set of US states that border the Pacific Ocean. Then we write,
P = {California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, Hawaii}.

Rule Method or Set-builder Form – a method commonly used in describing infinite sets.
A. The set of integers greater than −3. By set-builder form, this can be written as
{x|x ∈ I and x > −3}.
B. The set of whole numbers less than 1000. By set-builder form, this can be written as
{x|x ∈ W and x < 1000}.
Null or Empty Set – a set which has no elements. This is denoted by {} or ∅.
Ex: X = {x|x is a 90 year old student in CNU}
Singleton or Unit Set – a set with only one element.
Ex: Y = {y|y is a whole number between 3 and 5} = {4}
Finite Set – a countable set or if it’s possible to write down the complete elements. A cardinal
number of a finite set is a number of elements in a set.
Ex: D is the set of counting numbers less than 10. We can write the set D in
D = {d|d ∈ N and d < 10}
Infinite Set – a set in which it’s not possible to write all the elements.
Ex:
• The set of real numbers R.
 • The set of whole numbers W which can be written as {0, 1, 2, 3 . . .}.
• The set of natural numbers N which can be written as {1, 2, 3, 4 . . .}.
•
Equal Sets – two sets having the same elements.
Let A and B be two sets. A = B if and only if every element of A is in B and every element of B
is in A.
Ex:
• The set A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and set B = {4, 8, 6, 2}. Then A = B.
• The set C = {} and set D = ∅. Then C = D
Let A and B be sets. Then A is a subset of B (written as A ⊆ B) whenever x ∈ A implies x ∈ B.
On the other hand, A ⊆ B is read as A is not a subset of B.
Theorem - A null set ∅ is a subset of every set.
Ex:
• If A = {d, a, y} and B = {m, o, n, d, a, y}, then A ⊆ B.
• If A = {d, a, y} and B = {m, o, n, d, a, y}, then A ⊆ B.
• If E = {u, v,w, x, y} and F = {w, x, y, z}, then F * E. This is because there is an element z
∈ F but z ∈/ E.
• ∅ ⊆ A, B, C, D, E and F
Let A and B be two sets. We say that A is a proper subset of B provided that A ⊆ B and A is
not equal to B which we write A ⊂ B. Otherwise, we say that A is not a proper subset of B that
is, if A = B.
Ex: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8,}, C = {1, 3, 5, 7} and D = {5, 1, 3, 7},
then
• B⊂A
• C⊂A
• C⊂A
For any sets A and B, the sets A and B are said to be disjoint sets if A and B have no elements
in common.
Ex: The following sets are disjoint sets
• The set of even numbers and the set of odd numbers
• The set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers.
• The set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers.
Let X be a set. A powerset of X denoted by P(X) is a set of all the subsets of the set X.
Ex:
• Let X = {a, b, c}, then 2 n = 2 3 = 8. Therefore, there are 8 subsets of the set X.
• The Set of P(X) = P(X) = {∅, {a} , {b} , {c} , {a, b} , {a, c} , {b, c} , {a, b, c}}