MATH 504 – COMBINATORICS (LOGIC OF NATURE AND PROOF)

Instructor: Elmar L. Ancog | Submitted by: Argie S. Claro

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1. Define Logic and the Nature of Proof.

Logic (from Greek: λογική, logikḗ, 'possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumentative') is the

systematic study of valid rules of inference, i.e. the relations that lead to the acceptance of
one proposition (the conclusion) on the basis of a set of other propositions (premises). More broadly,
logic is the analysis and appraisal of arguments. (Wikipedia)

Logic (merriam-webster) ;a proper or reasonable way of thinking about something : sound reasoning.
: a science that deals with the rules and processes used in sound thinking and reasoning

Nature of Proof
As practiced, a proof is expressed in natural language and is a rigorous argument intended to convince
the audience of the truth of a statement. The concept of proof is formalized in the field of mathematical
logic. A formal proof is written in a formal language instead of a natural language. (Wikipedia)
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2. Define Statements/Propositions. Give 5 examples of statements/propositions and 5 examples of
nonstatements.

A statement is an ordinary declarative sentence which is so precisely stated that it is either true (T) or false (F)
but not both. It could be simple or composite (compound). Simple statements are usually denoted by letters p,
q, r, etc.

Examples of statements: Examples of Nonstatements:

a. Maria Cristina Falls is in Iligan City a. Is it a sunny day?
b. The number √ 3 is irrational. b. x−2>3
c. 3 + 2 ≥ 4. c. Is 40 divisible by 3?
d. The product of 2 and 4 is 8. d. Find the perimeter of a square with each side of 4 cm.
e. ( 5 ) ( 1 ) ≠ 5+1 e. Hurry up!
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3. Enumerate, discuss, give 2 examples and show the truth tables of operations on statements.

 The truth table or falsity of a statement is called its truth value.

 A variable is a symbol in a statement which may be replaced by any element of a given universal set U.
 A constant is a fixed element of a set.
 An open sentence is a declarative sentence containing a variable ; it becomes a statement when the
value of the variable is specified.
 The truth set of an open sentence is the set of elements of the universal set U whose substitution to the
variable converts the sentence into a true statement.

Composite statement
Definition: The negation of a statement p is a statement whose truth value is precisely the opposite of
the truth value of p, and is denoted by ¬p.
Example: Here are four negations of the statement “ John is a boy.”
a. It is not true that John is a boy.
b. It is false that John is a boy.
c. John is not a boy.
d. John is a girl.
 Definition: Any two statements p and q combined by the word “and” (or its equivalent: but, yet, while,
etc.) form a composite statement called the conjunction of p and q, and is denoted by p ⋀ q .
Definition: Any two statements p and q combined by the word “and” (or its equivalent: but, yet, while, etc.)
form a composite statement called the conjunction of p and q, and is denoted by p ⋀ q .
Examples:
1. p: Alia is a Maranao.
p: Alia live is Cavity City.
p ⋀ q : Alia is a Maranao, but he lives in Cavity City.
2. APMC is in Aurora, and Aurora is in Zamboanga del Sur.
3. Rodrigo Duterte is a president of the Philippines while Sara Duterte is a Mayor of Davao City.
4. 8< π <7.

The conjunction p ⋀ q is true precisely when p and q are both true. Otherwise, p ⋀ q is false. In example above,
statement (2) is true; (3) and (4) are false.

Definition: Any two statements p and q combined by the word “or” forms a composite statement
called disjunction of p and q, and is denoted by p V q.
Example:
1. P : Alvin studies calculus.
q: Alvin studies psychology.
r: Alvin likes history.
pVr: Either Alvin studies calculus, or he likes history.
pVq: Alvin either studies calculus, or he studies psychology.
2. 3≥ 5
3. Either MSU is in Cebu City, or 3+3=5
4. Siargao is either an island, or a town.
5. Either 0 ∈ ∅ , or 2 is a positive integer.

The disjunction pVq is false precisely when p and q are both false. Otherwise, p V q is true. In Example above ,
statement (3) is false; (2), (4) and (5) are true.

Definiton: A composite statement of the form “ if p, then q” is called a conditional statement and is
denoted by p →q .
A conditional statement p →q can be expressed in any form of the following equivalent ways:
1. If p, then q.
2. p implies q.
3. p only if q.
4. p is a sufficient condition for q .
5. q is necessary condition for p .
A conditional statement p →q is always true except in the case when statement p is true but statement
q is false, a true statement cannot imply a false statement.
Examples: Find the truth value of each of these conditionals:
1. If 2+3=5 ,then 5−3=2.
2. If man has no brain, then fear is useless.
3. If all polygons are triangles, then Ricky is a girl.
4. If Cebu is in the Visayas, then Davao is in Luzon.
5. 2 x−1≥ 0 implies the x is a positive real number.
In example above, statement (4) is false; all the others are true.

Definition: A composite statement of the form “p if and only if q” is called a binomial statement and is
denoted by p ↔q .
Clearly, the biconditional p ↔q is equivalent to ( p → q)⋀(q → p). Hence, p →q is true precisely when
p and q have the same truth values, otherwise, it is false.
 Examples: Find the truth value of each of these statements:
1. 2 ∙6=12 if and only if 12 ÷2=6.
2. 6←2 if and only if 8< 0.
3. 32 +3=12 if and only if 32=9.
3
4. √ 27+9=√5 36 if and only if √3 27+ √ 9=6.
In example above, statements (1) and (2) are true while (3) and (4) are false.

As a summary, the truth values of the composite statements which involve two substatements p and q
in different cases are shown in the table below.

Truth Table
p q p⋀q pVq p →q p ↔q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T F T T F
F F F F T T

Example : Determine the truth table of each of the following composite statements.
1. If Iligan is in Mindanao, then Maria Cristina Falls is in Davao.
Let p be “Iligan is in Mindanao” and let q be “Maria Cristina Falls is in Davao.
p: Iligan is in Davao
q: Maria Cristina Falls is in Davao
Argument: p →q
∴ It is False.
p q p →q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

2. Ganddalf the Grey is the white wizard if and only if Frodo is ring bearer.
p: Ganddalf the Grey is the white wizard.
¬q: Frodo is not the ring bearer.
Argument: p↔ ¬q
p q ¬q p→ ¬q
T T F F
T F T T
F T F T
F F T F

4..Define Arguments, Validity of Arguments, give 5 examples and show the truth tables of the arguments.

 Logic is the science that evaluates arguments.

 An argument is a group of statements including one or more premises and one and only one conclusion.
 A premise is a statement in an argument that provides reason or support for the conclusion.
 A conclusion is a statement in an argument that indicates of what the arguer is trying to convince the
reader/listerner.
 Validity, in logic, the property of an argument consisting in the fact that the truth of the premises logically
guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Whenever the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, because
of the form of the argument.

Examples:
a. If my computer crashes, I’ll lose all my photos. I haven’t lost all my photos. Therefore, my computer hasn’t
crashed.
Premises:
p →q : If my computer crashes, I’ll lose all my photos.
q : I haven’t lost all my photos.
Conclusion:
q : My computer hasn’t crashed.
Argument:
[ ( p → q ) ⋀ q]→ q

P q p q p →q ( p →q ) ⋀ q [ ( p → q ) ⋀ q]→ q
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T

∴ It is valid.
b. Let p b “He is rich”, q be “He is happy”, and r be “He is healthy”.
1. He is happy if and only if he is rich and healthy.
Premises: q: He is happy.
Conclusion: p⋀ r : He is rich and healthy.
Argument: q ↔( p ⋀ r)
2. It is no true that if he is healthy, then he is rich.
Premises: r: He is healthy.
Conclusion: p: He is rich.
Argument: ¬(r → p)
3. If he is happy and not rich, then he is healthy.
Premises: q⋀ ¬ p: He is happy and not rich.
Conclusion: r : He is healthy.
Argument: (q⋀ ¬ p ¿ →r
4. He is neither rich nor healthy.
Premises: ¬ p : He is neither rich.
Conclusion: ¬ r: he is neither healthy.
Argument: ¬ p ⋀ ¬r
5. He is happy or healthy if he is not rich.
Premises: ¬ p : He is not rich
Conclusion: qVr: he is happy or healthy.
Argument: ¬ p →(q V r )

1. q ↔( p ⋀ r)
p q r p⋀r q ↔( p ⋀ r)
T T T T T
T T F F F
T F T T F
T F F F T
F T T F F
F T F F F
F F T F T
F F F F T
2. ¬(r → p)
p q r p →r ¬(r → p)
T T T T F
T T F T F
T F T T F
T F F T F
F T T F T
F T F T F
F F T F T
F F F T F
3. (q⋀ ¬ p ¿ →r
p q r ¬p q⋀ ¬ p (q⋀ ¬ p ¿ →r
T T T F F T
T T F F F T
T F T F F T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F T F T T F
F F T T F T
F F F T T T

4. ¬ p ⋀ ¬r
p r ¬p ¬r ¬ p ⋀ ¬r
T T F F F
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

5. ¬ p →(q V r )

p q r ¬p qVr ¬ p →(q V r )
T T T F T T
T T F F T T
T F T F T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F T F T T F
F F T T T T
F F F T F F
5. Define conditional and Its Variants

Conditional statement is symbolized by p →q , it is an if-then statement in which p is a hypothesis and q is a

conclusion. The logical connector in a conditional statement is denoted by the symbol →. The conditional is defined to
be true unless a true hypothesis leads to a false conclusion.

Derived conditionals
Associated with the conditional statement are three conditionals:
Converse of p →q : q → p
Inverse of p →q : - p →−q
Contrapositive of p →q : ¬ p → ¬q

Example: This example will clarify the proceeding definitions.

Conditional: If Manila is in Visayas, then Davao City is in Luzon.
Converse: If Davao City is in Luzon, then Manila is in Visayas/
Inverse: if Manila is not in Visayas, the Davao City is not in Luzon.
Contrapositive: If Davao City is not in Luzon, then Manila is not in Visaya.

6.Enumerate and Discuss the Rules of Inference or the

The rules of inference (also known as inference rules) are a logical form or guide consisting of premises (or
hypotheses) and draws a conclusion.

Mathematical logic is often used for logical proofs. Proofs are valid arguments that determine the truth
values of mathematical statements.

An argument is a sequence of statements. The last statement is the conclusion and all its preceding
statements are called premises (or hypothesis). The symbol “∴”, (read therefore) is placed before the
conclusion. A valid argument is one where the conclusion follows from the truth values of the premises.
Rules of Inference provide the templates or guidelines for constructing valid arguments from the statements
that we already have.

7.Provide 3 examples each rule (Proving the validity of the arguments)

The rules of inference (also known as inference rules) are a logical form or guide consisting of premises (or hypotheses)
and draws a conclusion.