Introduction

In our daily lives, when we are faced with problems or just a situation
which require a decision, we are often reminded to apply logic and reasoning for
the most desired results. Hence, this is the basic reason why logic and reasoning
are so essential in our lives. (http://danpatch.ecn.purdue.edu).

Logic is generally based on deduction which is a method of exact

inference. It is a study of correct reasoning that consist of language and
reasoning. Reasoning practically in our daily lives involves deciding what to do
and when successful, issuing in an intention. Our task in a situation, for example,
whether to travel by a plane or a ship to visit families this holiday, is to find the
best acceptable sequence of permissible events and actions that will enable us
to move from just planning the journey to actually accomplishing by arriving to
our families. As we take each step by step thought and action, we are reminded
to do so logically and with good reasoning for the best results (www.aaai.org).
 LOGIC STATEMENT AND QUANTIFIERS
Key Concepts

Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It is concerned with the

principles of correct reasoning. The term "logic" came from the Greek
word logos, which is sometimes translated as "sentence", "discourse",
"reason", "rule", and "ratio".
Statement / Proposition – is a declarative sentence that is true or
false but not both.

Which of the following are statements /propositions? Why?

1. 2+3 = 6
2. Please open the door.
3. x + 3 = 7.
4. Manila is the capital of the Philippines.
5. Oh, the house is burning!
6. Have you done your homework?

Answer:
1. 2+3 = 6. It is a statement/proposition. It is a false statement
2. Please open the door. It is not a statement. It is an imperative
sentence.
3. x + 3 = 7. It is not a statement. The statement is either true or false.
4. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. It is a statement. Because it
has a truth value.
5. Oh, the house is burning! It is not a statement. It is an exclamatory
sentence.
6. Have you done your homework? It is not a statement/proposition. It
is an interrogative sentence.

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 138

Name: Date:
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Try this!

Direction: Determine whether the following sentences are statements/

propositions. If it is a statement, state the truth value.

1. Today is Wednesday.

2. Melchor is a Priest.

3. 8+5 = 13

4. How old are you?

5. Bangkok is the capital of Thailand.

6. Please buy me a viand.

7. Turn off your cellphone.

8. Ten is an even number.

9. 2x + 4 = 6

10. Today is my birthday.

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 139

 LOGIC CONNECTIVES AND SYMBOLS

Logical Connectives Connectives Statement Symbols

not p ~p
Negation Not
it is false that p
p and q
p but q
Conjunction And p also q p˄q
p in addition q
p moreover q
Disjunction Or p or q p˅q

If p then q
Conditional/Implication If …then…
p implies q p→q
p only if q
p therefore q
p if and only if q p↔q
p is equivalent to q
Biconditional If and only if
p is necessary and
sufficient for q
Exclusive-or Exclusive-or p exclusive-or q p⨁q

1. Negation (~ , ¬), the truth value of the negation is always the reverse of the
truth value of the original statement. Denoted by ~p (not p).
Truth Table for Negation
p ~p
T F
F T
Illustrative Example:
p: Today is Monday.
~p: Today is not Monday.

2. Conjunction (˄, and) is true only when both p and q are true, otherwise it is
false. Denoted by p ˄ q (p and q).
Truth Table for Conjunction
p q p˄q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 140

Illustrative Example:
p: Dog is a mammal
q: 3+6 is 8.
Dog is a mammal and 3+6 is 8.
Since “dog is a mammal is a true statement and the statement 3+6 is
8 is false, the conjunction of the compound statement is False.

3. Disjunction (˅, or) is false only when both p and q are false, otherwise it is
true denoted by p ˅ q (p or q).
Truth Table for Disjunction
p q p˅q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Illustrative Example:
p: Dog is a mammal
q: 6-2 is 5.
Dog is a mammal or 6-2 is 5.
Since “dog is a mammal is a true statement and the statement 6 -2 is
5 is false. The disjunction of the compound statement is True.

4. Conditional/Implication (→) is false only when p is true and q is false,

otherwise it is true denoted by p → q (if p then q).
Truth Table for Implication
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Illustrative Example:
p: If -2-2 is 4 then
q: 4 is 5+1.
If -2-2 is 4 then 4 is 5+1.

Since the statement “-2-2 is 4” and “4 is 5+1” are both false, therefore
the conditional of the compound statement is true.

5. Biconditional (↔) – is true only when both p and q have the same truth
values denoted by p ↔ q (p if and only if q).

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 141

 Truth Table for Biconditional
P Q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Illustrative Example:
p: 8+9 =18
q: 10 – 8 = 3.

Either 8+9 =18 or 10 – 8 = 3.

Since the statement 8+9 =18” and “10 – 8 = 3” are both false,
therefore, the biconditional of the compound statement is true.

6. Exclusive-or (⨁) is false only when both p and q have the same truth
values, the reverse of biconditional, denoted by p q (p exclusive-or).
Truth Table for Exclusive-or
p q p⨁q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Illustrative Example:
p: 8+9 =18 if and only if
q: 10 – 8 = 3.

8+9 =18 if and only if 10 – 8 = 3.

Since the statement 8+9 =18” and “10 – 8 = 3” are both false,
therefore, the exclusive-or of the compound statement is false.

Truth Table for Three Simple Statements. Use this as reference if there
are three statements.
p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 142

Illustrative Examples:
Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
1. p ˅ q → ~p

p q ~p p˅q p˅q→~p
T T F T F
T F F T F
F T T T T
F F T F T

2. (p ˄ q) ↔ (r →~p)

p q r ~p p˄q r →~p (p ˄ q) ↔ (r →~p)

T T T F T F F
T T F F T T T
T F T F F F T
T F F F F T F
F T T T F T F
F T F T F T F
F F T T F T F
F F F T F T T

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 143

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

Try this!

Direction: Answer the following

I. Let p and q are the propositions. Let p: 18 is divisible 6 by 6, and let q: 18

divisible 6 by both 2 and 3. Express the following compound proposition in
English sentence. And state whether the proposition is true or false.
1. ~p
2. ~q
3. q → p
4. p ↔ q
5. p ˅ q
6. ~q → ~q
7. p ˄ q
8. ~p ↔q
9. q → -p
10. ~p ˅ q

II. Write each of the following symbolic statements in words. Consider the
following statements:

p: you get a high grade in MMW.

q: you study hard in MMW.
r: you will receive an award.
s: you submit your project/homework on time.
t: you go to school early in the morning.
u: you do more time on cellphone games.
1. ~u ˄ q
2. q → p
3. (t ˄ s) → r
4. (~q ˄ ~p) → ~r
5. ~t → ~s
6. r ↔ (q ˄ p)
7. u → p
8. [(s ˅ ~u) ˄ q] → p
9. ~r ↔ (~q ˄ ~p)
10. (q ˅ p) ↔ (s ˄ t)

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 144

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III. Determine the truth value of the given statement.

1. If x is odd, then x3 is odd.

2. x<10 if and only if x< 9.
3. If 2x+2 = 3 then x = 1
4. If n is a prime number, then n+1 is prime.
5. If 51 is divisible by 3 then 51 is divisible by 6.
6. If 3 is a rational number, then 1/3 is rational.
7. 0 and -3 is a whole number.
8. x + 3 ˃ 5 if and only if x ˃ 3.
9. -x2 is positive if and only if x is positive.
10. 5 is an odd number or 5 is an even number.

IV. Complete the truth table of the following compound statements.

1. p ˄ q → p

p q p˄q p˄q→p
T T
T F
F T
F F

2. (p ˅ q) ˄ (~p ˅ ~q)

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 145

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3. (p ˄ q) ˅ (p ˅ q)

p q p˄q p˅q (p ˄ q) ˅ (p ˅ q)
T T
T F
F T
F F

4. (p ↔ q) → (~p ˅ q)

p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

5. (p ⨁ q) → (p ˅ ~q)

p q p+q ~q p ˅ ~q (p ⨁ q) → (p ˅ ~q)
T T
T F
F T
F F

6. (~p ˅ ~q) → r

p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 146

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7. ~ (p → r) ˄ (q ˅ p)

p q r p→r ~ (p → r) q˅p ~ (p → r) ˄ (q ˅ p)
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

8. [p ˅ (~p ˄ q)] → ~q

p q

V. Construct the truth tables for each of the following compound statements.

1. p ˅ q → ~p
2. ~p ˄ ~q
3. (p → q) ˄ ~q
4. q ˄ (~p ˅ ~q)
5. (p ˄ q) ˄ (r ˅ p)
6. (p →q) ˄ → r
7. (p ↔ q) ↔ (~p ↔ ~q)
8. [p ↔ (p ⨁ q)] ˄ r
9. ~ (~ r ˅ ~q) ˅ (~ p → q)
10. (~p →p) ↔ [(q ˄ r)]

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 147

 CONVERSE, INVERSE AND CONTRAPOSITIVE
Statement If p, then q
Converse If q, then p
Inverse If not p, then not q
Contrapositive If not q, then not p

Illustrative Example:
Conditional Statement: If it floods, then they cancel classes.
"It it floods" is the hypothesis.
"They cancel classes" is the conclusion.

To form the converse of the conditional statement, interchange the

hypothesis and the conclusion.
Converse, the converse of the conditional statement is “If q then p.”
“If they cancel classes, then it floods”

To form the inverse of the conditional statement, take the negation of both
the hypothesis and the conclusion.
Inverse, the inverse of the conditional statement is “If not p then not q.”
“If it does not flood then they do not cancel classes”

To form the contrapositive of the conditional statement, interchange the

hypothesis and the conclusion of the inverse statement.
Contrapositive, the contrapositive of the conditional statement is “If not q then
not p.”
“If they do not cancel classes then it does not flood”

Illustrative Example:
If two angles are congruent, then they have the same
Statement
measure.
If two angles have the same measure, then they are
Converse
congruent.
If two angles are not congruent, then they do not have the
Inverse
same measure.
If two angles do not have the same measure, then they are
Contrapositive
not congruent.

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 148

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

Try this!

Direction: State the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the following

statements.

1. If x +5 equals 10, then x equals 5.

Converse:
Inverse:
Contrapositive:

2. If today is my birthday, then I am 25 years old.

Converse:
Inverse:
Contrapositive:

3. Max will be coming home only if he receives his salary.

Converse:
Inverse:
Contrapositive:

4. If you sleep early then you wake up with a beautiful smile.

Converse:
Inverse:
Contrapositive:

5. If Martina did not eat delicious food, then she has normal laboratory test.
Converse:
Inverse:
Contrapositive:

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 149

 TRUTH TABLE AND TAUTOLOGIES
Key Concepts
Tautology is a compound statement that is true for all possible combinations
Contradiction is a compound proposition that is always false.
Contingency is a proposition that is neither a tautology nor contradiction .

Illustrative Example:
Construct the truth table for each of the following compound statements
and determine whether it is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

1. (p ˄ q) ˄ ~p
p q p˄q ~p (p ˄ q) ˄ ~p
T T T F F
T F F F F
F T F T F
F F F T F

Since all the truth values of the compound statement are false, then it is a
contradiction.

2. (~p → ~q) ˅ (p ˄ q )
p q ~p ~q (~p → ~q) p ˄q (~p →~q) ˅ (p ˄ q)
T T F F T T T
T F F T T F T
F T T F F F F
F F T T T F T

Note that the truth value of the statement (~p → ~q) ˅ (p ˄ q) are
combinations of true and false, therefore the compound statement is
contingency.

3. (q ˄ ~p) → q
p q ~p q ˄~p (q ˄ ~p) → q
T T F F T
T F F F T
F T T T T
F F T F T

Observe that the truth values of the compound statement (q ˄ ~p) → q are
true; thus, it is a tautology.

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 150

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

Try this!

Direction: Construct the truth table for each of the following compound
statements. State whether it is tautology, contradiction, or
contingency.

1. (p ˄ q) ˅ ~p

2. ~p ˅~q → p

3. p → q ˄ ~ q

4. (p ˅ ~q) ↔ (~p ˄ ~q)

5. (q ˅ ~p) → (~p ↔ ~q)

6. (p ˅ q) ˄ (~p ˅ ~q)

7. (p ˄ q) ⨁ (p ˅ q)

8. [(p ˅ q) → q] ˄ ~p

9. ~(p ˄ q) ↔ (~p ˅ ~q)

10. [p→(~q ˅ p)] ˅ p

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 151

 LOGICAL EQUIVALENCE
Key Concept
Two statements are said to be logically equivalent if they have the same truth
value.
Illustrative Example:
1. ~(p ˅ q) and ~p˄~q
p q ~p ~q ~(p ˅ q) ~p˄~q
T T F F F F
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T F F
The truth value of p˅~q and ~p˄~q are the same, therefore, they are
logically equivalent.
2. Is ~ (p ˅~q) ≡ ~p ˄ q?
3. Show that ~ (p ˄ q) ≡ ~p˅~q
4. Show that (~p˄~q) ≡ ~ (p ˄ q)

Common Words Associated with Various Connectives

Quantifier Symbol Translation
Existential ∃ There exists
There is some
For some
Universal ∀ For all
For each
For every
For any
Given any
Unique Existential ∃! There is a unique
There is one and
only one
Existential Quantifier ∃ (which means “there exists”)
Example: There exist a real number x such that x˃3.
∃x, x˃3.

Universal Quantifier ∀ (which means “for all”).

Example: For all real number x such that x is a prime number.
Let P(x) be “a prime number”
∀x, P(x).

Unique Existential ∃! (which means there is one and only one / unique)
Example: There is one and only one prime number which is even.
Let P(x) be “a prime number which is even.
∃!P(x).

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 152

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

Try this!

Direction: Determine whether each statement is Existential Quantifier (EQ)

Universal Quantifier (UQ) or Unique Existential Quantifier (UEQ).
Determine also the truth value.

1. Every Tuesday is a holiday.

2. There is exist a number x such that x2 is even.

3. For some negative number x, x2 is positive.

4. Given any real number x, x – 2 is positive.

5. There is one only even number which is a prime number.

6. ∀x, xϵ R / x2˃0.

𝑥
7. ∃x, ϵZ
2

8. ∃!x 1 + x = 0

9. ∀x, y ϵR, x2 + y2 = 1

10. ∃x, x2 – y =0.

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 153

 SYMBOLIC ARGUMENTS
Key Concept
An argument consists of premises and conclusion. An argument is valid if
the conclusion is true, otherwise, it is invalid.

An argument can be written h→ m in symbolic form.

h
∴ m

Illustrative Examples:
Write an argument in symbolic form.
1. I will work hard or I will resign. I will work hard. Therefore, I will not
resign.

Let h and m represent respectively the statement “I will work hard”

and “I will resign”. The symbolic form of the arguments is
h˅m
h
∴ ~m

2. If he/she does not join on the tour, he/she will miss it. He/she does not
miss it. Therefore, he/she joins in the tour.

Let p and q represent the statement “He/She does not join on the
tour” and “he/she will missed it”.

p→q
~q
∴ ~p

Determine the validity of the Arguments

1. Let p represent the statement “Jacky is beautiful” and q represents the
statement “Jacky is a girl”.
In symbolic form the argument is
P→q 1st premise
p 2nd premise
∴q conclusion

Truth Table
First premise Second premise Conclusion
p q P→q p q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F F F F

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 154

 In Row 1 all the premises are true so it is the only row we examine, and
because the conclusion is true in row 1, therefore the argument is valid.

2. If it floods, then classes will be cancelled. It is not flooding. Therefore, the

classes will not be cancelled.

Let f represent “it floods” and g represent “classes will be

cancelled”, the symbolic form is,
f→g
~f
∴ ~g

Truth table
1st premise 2nd premise 3rd premise
f g f→g ~f ~g
T T T F F
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T

The conclusion in row 3 is false and the premises are both true, therefore
the argument is invalid.

3. Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.

p ˄ ~q
~q
∴p

Truth table
st
1 premise 2nd premise Conclusion
p q p ˄ ~q ~q p
T T T F T
T F T T T
F T F F F
F F T T F

∴ the argument is valid.

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 155

Name: Date:
Program and Section: Score:

Try this!

Direction: Answer the following.

I. Write the following statements in symbolic form.

1. If you’re in love (m) you’re inspired (n). You are inspired. Therefore,
you’re in love.

2. If I did not wear my uniform (~u) I can’t get inside the school (~s). I
enter the school. Therefore, I wear my uniform.

3. I am going to SM City for shopping (p), or I will be watching a movie at

Robinsons (q). I went to SM City. Therefore, I did not watch a movie at
Robinsons.

4. I love to cook adobo (a) or I cook spaghetti (~p). I did not cook
spaghetti. Therefore, I cooked adobo.

5. I eat banana (b) and I do not eat green mango (~g). I did not eat
banana. Therefore, I ate green mango.

II. Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid.

1. p ˄ ~q 2. ~p ˅ ~ q 3. p → ~q 4. (p˄~q) → (p →q) 5. (p↔q) ˅ ~q

~q ~p q p p→q
∴p ∴ ~q ∴ ~p ∴ ~p ∴ -p→ ~q

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 156

 LOGICAL ARGUMENTS AND EULER DIAGRAMS
The following figures show Euler diagrams that illustrate the four possible
relationships that can exist between two sets.

P P P Q P

Q Q Q

Some P’s All P’s are Qs No P’s are Qs Some P’s

are not Qs are Qs

Use Euler Diagram to Determine the Validity of an Argument

1. All BSIT students enrolled Algebra.

Max is a BSIT student.
∴Max enrolled Algebra.

Algebra Algebra

BSIT Students BSIT Students

M M

BSIT students is a subset of the set algebra, and Max is the subset of the
set BSIT students. Therefore, the arguments is valid.

2. Some integers (Z) are whole number (W).

4 is an integer.
∴4 is a whole number.

Z Z Z
4 4
W W W

Second figure supports the arguments, but the 3 rd figure show that 4 can
be placed in one of two regions, thus the argument is invalid.

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 157

Name: Date:
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Try this!

Direction: Answer the following.

I. Draw the Euler Diagram and determine whether the following argument is
valid or invalid.

1. No composite number are prime.

12 is not prime
∴12 is a composite number

2. All BSMath students are freshmen.

These students are BSMath.
∴These students are freshmen.

3. All Professors have doctorate degree.

All Deans have doctorate degree.
∴ All Deans are professors.

4. Some students are working students.

All students are diligent.
∴ Some working students are diligent.

5. All whole numbers are positive.

All counting numbers are positive
∴ All counting numbers are whole numbers.

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II. Find a valid conclusion for each of the following arguments.

1. Some dogs have fleas.

All fleas like animals.
∴?

2. No triangles are rectangles.

All rectangles are parallelogram.
∴?

3. All natural numbers are greater than zero.

100 is a natural number.
∴?

4. If I’m hungry, I eat delicious food.

I don’t eat pork sisig.
∴?

5. Some students like Math.

Juan Miguel is a student.
∴?

Worktext: Mathematics in the Modern World 159