Propositions:

A proposition is a declarative sentence (that is, a sentence that declares a fact) that is either
true or false, but not both. It is also called a statement.

Remember! Questions, exclamations and commands are not propositions.

Example 1 All the following declarative sentences are propositions.

1. Washington is the capital of the United States of America.
2. Toronto is the capital of Canada.
3. 1 + 1 = 2.
4. 2 + 2 = 3.
5. The sun rises in the east.
6. We shall have a meeting tomorrow.
7. Ali is a name.

Propositions 1,3,5,6 and 7 are true, whereas 2 and 4 are false.

Some sentences that are not propositions are given in Example 2.

Example 2 Consider the following sentences.

1. What time is it?
2. Read this carefully.
3. x + 1 = 2. (value of x is unknown)
4. x+ y = z. (values of variables are unknown)
5. Do you speak English? (question)
6. Open the door. (command)
7. What a hot day! (exclamation)
8. Solve this paper. (order)
9. Please, give me the book. (request)
10. May Allah bless you.
Sentences 1,2,5,6,7,8,9,10 are not propositions because they are not declarative
sentences. Sentences 3 and 4 are not propositions because they are neither true
nor false. Note that each of sentences 3 and 4 can be turned into a proposition if
we assign values to the variables.

Notation:
the conventional letters used for propositional variables are p, q, r, s etc. The truth
value of a proposition is true, denoted by T, if it is a true proposition, and the truth value of a
proposition is false, denoted by F, if it is a false proposition.

Propositional Calculus:
The area of logic that deals with propositions is called the
propositional calculus or propositional logic. It was first developed systematically
by the Greek philosopher Aristotle more than 2300 years ago.
Negation:

Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p (also denoted by p), is the

statement “It is not the case that p.” The proposition ¬p is read “not p.” The truth value of the
negation of p, ¬p, is the opposite of the truth value of p.
For example, find the negation of the propositions.

Statement Negation

¬p: Today is not Friday. Or

p: Today is Friday.
¬p: it is not the case that today is Friday.

q: banana is a vegetable. ¬q: banana is not a vegetable.

r: Paris is in France. ¬r: Paris is not in France.
s: All students are good. ¬s: Some students are good.
t: No student is intelligent. ¬t: Some students are intelligent.
u: Some fruits are not good for health. ¬u: All fruits are good for health.
v: Some animals can fly. ¬v: No animal can fly.
w: 5+4=9 ¬w: 5+4 ≠ 9
z: 3 > 2 ¬z: 3  2

The Truth Table for

Note:
the Negation of a
o All  Some + Not (change in negation case)
Proposition.
o All + Not / No / no one  Some or Some one
p ¬p
Truth table: T F
F T
A method to show the relationship of propositions is called truth
table.

Logical operators: (connectors)

They are used to form new compound propositions from two or more existing
propositions. The logical operators are also called connectives.
For example, p: today is Friday.
q: it is raining today.
Compound proposition is,
r: today is Friday and it is raining today.
Logical operators ( connectives)
 Conjunction (AND)
 Disjunction (OR)
 Exclusive or (XOR)
 Implication (if- then)
 Biconditional (if and only if)

Conjunction:
Let p and q be propositions. The conjunction of p and q is the compound proposition. It
is denoted by p ∧ q and read as “p and q.” The conjunction p ∧ q is true when both p and q are
true and is false otherwise.
The Truth Table for the Conjunction
For example,
of Two Propositions.
p: “it is cold.”
p q p∧q
q: “it is raining.”
T T T
p ∧ q: “it is cold and it is raining.” T F F
F T F
F F F
Disjunction:
Let p and q be two statements. The disjunction of p and q is the compound
proposition.it is denoted by p ∨ q and read as “p or q.” The disjunction p ∨ q is false when
both p and q are false and is true otherwise.
The Truth Table for the Disjunction of
For example,
Two Propositions.
P: “it is cold.”
Q: “it is raining.” p q p∨q
p ∨ q: “it is cold or it is raining.” T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Implication: (Conditional statement)

Let p and q be propositions. The compound proposition “if p then q” denoted by p → q is
called implication or conditional statement. The conditional statement p → q is false when p
is true and q is false, and true otherwise. In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the
hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and q is called the conclusion (or consequence).
In English sentences, following ways to express the conditional statement:
“if p, then q” “p implies q”
“if p, q” “p only if q”
“p is sufficient for q” “a sufficient condition for q is p”
“q if p” “q whenever p”
“q when p” “q is necessary for p”
“a necessary condition for p is q” “q follows from p”
“q unless ¬p
Example 1
p → q: “If the earth is round then the travels round the sun.”

Solution: - p: “the earth is round.”

q: “the earth travels round the sun.”

in example 1 p is true, q is true and the conditional statement is also true.

Example 2 The Truth Table for the

Conditional Statement p → q.
p → q: “if i am elected, then I will lower the taxes.”

P: “I am elected.” p q p→q
T T T
q: “ I will lower the taxes.” T F F
F T T
Biconditional Proposition: F F T

Let p and q be propositons. The biconditional proposition “p if and only if q” denoted

by p ↔ q biconditional proposition.The biconditional statement p ↔ q is true when p and q
have the same truth values, and is false otherwise. Biconditional statements are also called bi-
implications The Truth Table for the
There are some common ways to express p ↔ q:
Biconditional p ↔ q.
“p is necessary and sufficient for q”
p q p↔q
“if p then q, and conversely”
T T T
“p if and only if q” Or “p iff q.”
T F F
F T F
Note that p ↔ q has exactly the same truth value as F F T

(p → q) ∧ (q → p).

Example: Let p be the statement “You can take the flight,” and let q be the statement
“You buy a ticket.” Then p ↔ q is the statement
“You can take the flight if and only if you buy a ticket.”
This statement is true if p and q are either both true or both false.