BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 5
Elementary Logic
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of
Mathematics”
 48

Elementary Logic

Objectives of the Module

At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. identify propositions,
2. form compound propositions, and
3. express compound propositions in symbolic forms and vice-versa.

Logic is the discipline that deals with the methods of reasoning. It is regarded
as one of the oldest intellectual disciplines in the history of humanity. It was the Greek
philosopher Aristotle who pioneered logical reasoning. Throughout centuries, logic has
immensely influenced other fields such as philosophy, mathematics, science,
engineering, business, and law, to name a few.

Logic is essential in our daily lives. It helps steer us in the direction of the truth
and away from falsehood. Thus, it helps us in expressing our ideas and opinions and
in making decisions.
Propositions, Simple and Compound Statements
The first step to learning logic is to identify propositions. A proposition,
sometimes called a statement, is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but
not both. To represent propositions, the lower case letters like p,q,r,s,… are used.
These are called propositional variables.

The table shows examples of propositions and sentences that are not
propositions.

Propositions Not Propositions

1. Tarlac is a province in Region III.
(True)
2. Elephants have wings. (False)
3. 15 – 2x = 8, if x = 5. (False)
4. Twenty is less than fifty. (True)
5. 52 + 1 is a prime number. (False)
1. Where is your teacher? (a
question)
2. Open the door. (a command)
3. Ouch! (an exclamation)
4. This food is delicious.
(subjective)
5. 5x + 2y = 7 (There are no
assigned values to x and y.)

Propositions can either be a simple statement or a compound statement.

A simple statement is a single statement that does not have other statements
as parts.
A compound statement contains two or more statements joined by logical
connectives.
 49

Examples:
Two is a rational number. (simple statement)
Two is a rational number and four is an even number. (compound statement)

Try this!
Which of the following are propositions?
a. I am a freshman student.
b. Answer the exercises.
c. −9 + 15 = −6

Logical Connectives and Symbols

The table that follows shows the kinds of propositional logic, their corresponding
connectives, and symbols.
Propositional Symbolic
Connective Symbol/Term Read as
Logic Form
~ curl or tilde ~p
Negation not not p
¬ dash with a tail ¬p
Conjunction and/but ∧ caret mark p∧q p and q
Disjunction or ∨ wedge or vee p∨q p or q
if p, then q
if p, q
p implies q
Conditional/ p only if q
if..., then → right arrow p→q
Implication q if p
q whenever p
q is necessary
for p
p if and only if q
↔ double-headed
Biconditional if and only if p↔q p implies q, and
arrow
q implies p

The following examples show how these logical connectives are used to form
compound statements.
Note: The negation does not form a compound statement when used but it is
considered a connective since it alters the original statement.
A. Negation:

Proposition Negation
p: The traffic in EDSA is heavy. ~p: The traffic in EDSA is not heavy.
q: Today is Friday ~q: Today is not Friday.
r: I do not like milk tea. ~r: I like milk tea.
s: The students did not attend the ~s: The students attended the
webinar webinar.
t: 23 + 34  57 ~t: 23 + 34 = 57
 50

B. Conjunction:

Let p, q, r, and s be the following propositions:

p: Russel is not happy.
q: Russel is going to a party.
r: It is a holiday.
s: Jack is not invited.

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Russel is not happy but it is a holiday. p ∧r
2. It is not a holiday and Russel is happy. ¬r ∧¬p
3. Russel is going to a party but Jack is not invited. q∧s

C. Disjunction:

Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:

p: Jerald is a producer.
q: Jerald is a composer.
r: 2 > 5
s: 5 < 7

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Jerald is a producer or he is a composer. p∨q
2. Jerald is not a composer or he is a producer. ¬q ∨ p
3. 2 > 5 or 5 < 7 𝑟 ∨s

D. Conditional:

In "if p, then q", p is called the antecedent (hypothesis or premise), and

q is called the consequent (or the conclusion).

Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:

p: It is going to rain.
q: I will not go out.
r: Cherry is going to visit a friend.
s: All even numbers are integers.
t: Zero is an integer.
 51

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. If it is going to rain, then I will not go out. p→q
(in the if p then q form)
2. I will not go out if it is going to rain. p→q
(in the q if p form)
3. I will not go out whenever it is going to rain. p→q
(in the q whenever p form)
4. If it is not going to rain, then Cherry is going to ~p → r
visit a friend.
5. If it is not going to rain, then I will go out. ~p → ~q
6. If all even numbers are integers, then zero is an s→t
integer.

E. Biconditional:
Let p, q, and r be the following propositions:
p: Lewis is a singer.
q: Lewis is a vocalist.
r: Lewis is a recording artist.
s: Seven is a whole number.
t: 9 + 13=25

Compound Propositions Symbolic Form

1. Lewis is a vocalist if and only if he is a singer. q↔p
2. Lewis is a recording artist if and only if he is a r↔p
singer.
3. Lewis is not a recording artist if and only if he is ~r ↔ ~p
not a singer.
4. Seven is not a whole number if and only if ~s ↔ t
9+13=25.

Compound Statements and Grouping Symbols

When a compound statement is to be written in symbolic form, there are
instances when simple statements need to be grouped together. This is done by
using the parentheses.
The table below shows examples of compound statements with grouping
symbols.
Symbolic Form The parentheses indicate that:
𝑝 ⋀ (𝑞 ⋁ 𝑟) 𝑞 and 𝑟 are grouped together
(𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞)⋁~ 𝑟 𝑝 and ~𝑞 are grouped together
𝑝 and 𝑞 are grouped together.
(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞) → (~𝑟 ⋀ ~𝑠)
~𝑟 and ~𝑠 are grouped together.
 52

When a compound statement is to be written as an English sentence, the

statements inside the parentheses must be written on the same side of the comma.

Examples:
p: Cathy is good in Chemistry.
q: Cathy is good in Statistics.
r: Cathy is a scholar.
s: Cathy is an athlete.

English Sentence Symbolic Form

Cathy is not an athlete, but she is good in
~𝑠 ⋀ (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑟)
Chemistry and she is a scholar.
If Cathy is good in Chemistry and she is good in
(𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞) → 𝑟
Statistics, then she is a scholar.
Cathy is not good in Chemistry and she is not
good in Statistics, but she is a scholar and an (~𝑝 ⋀ ~𝑞)⋀ (𝑟 ⋀ 𝑠)
athlete.
 53

References

Aufmann, R.N., et. Al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World (14th ed.). Sampaloc,
Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Baltazar, E., Ragasa, C., & Evangelista, J. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.

Earnheart, R. and Adina, E. (2018). Math in the Modern World. Quezon City : C &E
Publishing, Inc.

Malang, P., Malang, B., & Tiongson, I. (2011). Discrete Structure. San Rafael, Bulacan
: HFM Publishing.

Rosen, K.H. (1988). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. New York : The
Random House.

Simpson, A. (2002). Discrete Mathematics by Example. McGraw-Hill Education:

United Kingdom.

Online References

Introduction to Propositional Logic. Geeks for Geeks. Retrieved last July 9, 2022 from:
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/proposition-logic/.
Uma, A.V. (2022) Logical Connectives and Quantifiers: Definition, Symbols, Usage,
Examples. Embibe. Retrieved last July 9, 2022 from
https://www.embibe.com/exams/logical-connectives-and-quantifiers/.
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 6
Truth Values and Truth Tables
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of
Mathematics”
 55

Truth Values and Truth Tables

Objectives of the Module
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. construct truth tables of compound propositions, and
2. determine whether the proposition is a tautology, a contingency or a
contradiction

Let us define truth value and truth table.

The truth value

• of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F)
• of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple statements
and its connectives.

A truth table is a table that shows the truth values of a compound statement
for all possible truth values of its simple statements.

Note: 1. The Truth Table of one simple statement consists of two rows showing
the possible truth values of the given statement.

Truth
Table
(Assertion)
p
T
F

Note: 2. The Truth Table of a compound statement containing two simple

statements starts with two columns of four rows showing the truth
values of every possible combination of the two given statements. The
third column shows the truth values of the given compound statement
and their connectives in all possible cases. This table is the so-called
standard truth table form.

Truth Table
Truth Value of the
p q
compound statement
T T
T F
F T
F F
 56

Study the following truth tables.

Negation:
Truth Table If a statement is true, its negation is
p ~p false.
T F If a statement is false, its negation is
F T true.
Conjunction:
Truth Table
p q p∧q
T T T The conjunction p ∧ q is TRUE when
T F F both p and q are true.
F T F
F F F

Disjunction:
Truth Table
p q p∨q
The disjunction p ∨ q is TRUE if at
T T T
least one of them (either p or q) is
T F T
true.
F T T
F F F

Conditional:
Truth Table
p q p→q
The conditional p → q is FALSE
T T T
when p is true, and q is false. It is
T F F
true in all other cases.
F T T
F F T

Biconditional:
Truth Table
p q p↔q
The biconditional p ↔ q is TRUE
T T T
when p and q have the same truth
T F F
values.
F T F
F F T

Let us determine the truth values of the following compound statements.

1. Five is an even integer and four is an odd number.

F ∧ F F ∧F
F F
 57

2. Sampaguita is our national flower or Narra is a vegetable.

T ∨ F
T ∨F
T
T

3. If California is a continent, then the Philippines is a province.

F → F
F→F
T
T
4. Five is a factor of 10 if and only if 10 is a multiple of 100.
T ↔ F
F T↔ F
F

Try this!

Given the following propositions with their corresponding truth values, what is
the truth value of the statement "Archie has fever and he has difficulty in breathing,
but he is infected with COVID 19".

p: Archie has fever. (T)

q: Archie has difficulty in breathing. (F)
r: Archie is not infected with COVID 19. (T)

Constructing Truth Tables

Now let us try to construct a truth table. Follow the steps, as shown in the
examples that follow.

Examples:
1. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p ∨ q) ∧ ~ p.

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Write the truth values of the disjunction p ∨ q on a new column.
Step 3: Negate p, then write the results on the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of p ∨ q (in step 2) and ~p (in step 3),
determine the truth values of (p ∨ q) ∧ ~p. Write the results in the last column.

p q p∨q ~p (p ∨ q) ∧ ~p
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T T T
F F F T F
 58

2. Construct the truth table for the compound statement (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p).

Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values in the next column.
Step 4: Write the truth values of the conditional p → q on another column.
Step 5: Using the truth values from the negation of p (in step 2) and the negation
of q (in step 3), determine the truth values of ~q ∨ ~p.
Step 6: Using the truth values of p → q (in step 4) and ~q ∨ ~p (in step 5), write
the truth values of (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p) in the last column.

p q ~p ~q p→q ~q ∨ ~p (p → q) ↔ (~q ∨ ~p)

T T F F T F F
T F F T F T F
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

Try this!

Construct a truth table for the compound proposition (p → ~q) ↔ (~p ∨ q).

Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

A tautology is a proposition where the truth values are always true in all
possible cases.

A contradiction is a proposition where the truth values are always false in all
possible cases.

A contingency is a proposition where the truth values are not always true nor
always false.

Examples:
1. Show that ~p ∨ (~q → p) is a tautology.
Solution:
Step 1: Start with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Negate q and then write the truth values on another column.
Step 4: Using the truth values from the negation of q (in step 3) and p (in step
1), determine the truth values of ~q → p.
Step 5: Using the truth values of the negation of p (in step 2) and ~q →p (in
step 4), find the truth values of the disjunction ~p ∨ (~q → p). Write the
results in the last column.
 59

p q ~p ~q ~q → p ~p ∨ (~q → p)
T T F F T T
T F F T T T
F T T F T T
F F T T F T

It shows that the truth values of ~p ∨ (~q → p) are always true.

Thus, ~p ∨ (~q → p) is a tautology.

2. Is the proposition p ∧ (p → ~p) a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency?
Look at the table below.

p ~p p → ~p p ∧ (p → ~p)
T F F F
F T T F

Since the truth values of p ∧ (p → ~p) are always false, then it is a contradiction.

3. Is (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) a tautology, a contradiction, or a contingency?

p q ~q p ∧ ~q p∨q (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q)
T T F F T F
T F T T T T
F T F F T F
F F T F F F

Since the truth values of (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) are not always true nor always false,
then (p ∧ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q) is a contingency.

Try this!

Tell whether the proposition (q ∨ ~p) →p is a tautology, a contradiction, or a

contingency.
 60

References

Aufmann, R.N., et. Al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World (14th ed.). Sampaloc,
Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Baltazar, E., Ragasa, C., & Evangelista, J. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.

Earnheart, R. and Adina, E. (2018). Math in the Modern World. Quezon City : C &E
Publishing, Inc.

Malang, P., Malang, B., & Tiongson, I. (2011). Discrete Structure. San Rafael, Bulacan
: HFM Publishing.

Rosen, K.H. (1988). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. New York : The
Random House.

Simpson, A. (2002). Discrete Mathematics by Example. United Kingdom : McGraw-

Hill Education.
 BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

MMW 101
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 7
Statements Related to Conditional
Statements and Logical
Equivalence
“Achieving Universal Understanding and
Peace Through the Language of Mathematics”
 62

Statements Related to Conditional Statements

and Logical Equivalence

Objectives of the Module

At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. determine whether propositions are logically equivalent, and
2. state the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of conditional statements.

Logical Equivalence

Two statements having the same truth values in all possible cases are logically
equivalent.

Symbolic form: p <=> q or p ≡ q (read as p and q are logically equivalent)

Examples:
1. Show that p → q and ~p ∨ q are logically equivalent.
Solution:
Step 1: Begin with the standard truth table form.
Step 2: Negate p and then write the results on a new column.
Step 3: Write the truth values of p → q in the next column.
Step 4: Using the truth values of the negation of p (in step 2) and q (in column
2), write the truth values of ~p ∨ q in the last column.

p q ~p p→q ~p ∨ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Since p → q and ~p ∨ q have the same truth values in all possible cases, they
are logically equivalent. In symbolic form: p → q ⇔ ~p ∨ q or p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q.
 63

2. Is ~p ∧ ~q logically equivalent to p ∨ q? Let us examine the truth table below.

p q ~p ~q ~p ∧ ~q p∨q
T T F F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F F T T T F

Since the truth values of ~p ∧ ~q in all cases are not the same as the truth
values of p ∨ q, then ~p ∧ ~q is not logically equivalent to p ∨ q or in symbols, ~p
∧ ~ q ⇎ p ∨ q.

3. Verify if ~(p → q) is logically equivalent to p ∧ ~q.

p q ~q p →q ~ (p → q) p ∧ ~q
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F

From the truth table, we can see that ~ (p → q) have the same truth values as
p ∧ ~ q. Therefore, they are logically equivalent.

Try this!

Is q ∧ ~p logically equivalent to ~p ∨ q? Use the truth table to show your

answer.
 64

The Converse, the Inverse, and the Contrapositive

There are three statements related to a conditional statement. These are the
converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.

Given: conditional statement p → q

Converse q→p Interchange the hypothesis (p) and the

conclusion (q).
Inverse ~p → ~q Negate both the hypothesis (p) and the
conclusion (q).
Contrapositive ~q → ~p Interchange the negated hypothesis (p) and
the negated conclusion (q).

Examples:

Write the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the following
conditional statements:
1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.
2. If you are smart, then you can get the job.

Solution:
1. If I get the loan, then I will buy a new motorbike.

Converse: If I will buy a new motorbike, then I get the loan.

Inverse: If I do not get the loan, then I will not buy a new motorbike.
Contrapositive: If I will not buy a new motorbike, then I do not get the loan.

2. If you are smart, then you can get the job.

Converse: If you can get the job, then you are smart.
Inverse: If you are not smart, then you cannot get the job.
Contrapositive: If you cannot get the job, then you are not smart.

Try this!

Tell the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive of the conditional
statement, "I feel nauseous whenever I stay up late at night."
 65

Truth Table for the Conditional and its Related Statements

The truth table for the conditional and its related statements is shown below.

Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

p q ~p ~q
p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

The table also shows that any conditional statement is logically equivalent to its
contrapositive, and its converse is logically equivalent to its inverse.

Notation:
p → q ≡ ~q → ~p
q → p ≡ ~p → ~q
 66

References

Aufmann, R.N., et. Al. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World (14th ed.). Sampaloc,
Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Baltazar, E., Ragasa, C., & Evangelista, J. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World.
Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.

Earnheart, R. and Adina, E. (2018). Math in the Modern World. Quezon City : C &E
Publishing, Inc.

Malang, P., Malang, B., & Tiongson, I. (2011). Discrete Structure. San Rafael, Bulacan
: HFM Publishing.

Rosen, K.H. (1988). Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. New York : The
Random House.

Simpson, A. (2002). Discrete Mathematics by Example. United Kingdom : McGraw-

Hill Education.