Polymer Properties

Elongation Poissons
in 50 mm ratio
Material UTS (MPa) E (GPa) (%) ()
ABS 2855 1.42.8 755
ABS (reinforced) 100 7.5 0.35
Acetals 5570 1.43.5 7525
Acetals (reinforced) 135 10 0.350.40
Acrylics 4075 1.43.5 505
Cellulosics 1048 0.41.4 1005
Epoxies 35140 3.517 101
Epoxies (reinforced) 701400 2152 42
Fluorocarbons 748 0.72 300100 0.460.48
Nylon 5583 1.42.8 20060 0.320.40
Nylon (reinforced) 70210 210 101
Phenolics 2870 2.821 20
Polycarbonates 5570 2.53 12510 0.38
Polycarbonates (reinforced) 110 6 64
Polyesters 55 2 3005 0.38
Polyesters (reinforced) 110160 8.312 31
Polyethylenes 740 0.10.14 100015 0.46
Polypropylenes 2035 0.71.2 50010
Polypropylenes (reinforced) 40100 3.66 42
Polystyrenes 1483 1.44 601 0.35
Polyvinyl chloride 755 0.0144 45040

TABLE 10.1 Approximate range of mechanical properties for various engineering

plastics at room temperature.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
H H H H H H H H
Heat, pressure,
C C C C C C C C Polyethylene
catalyst

Polymer
H H H H H H H H n
Mer
(a) (b)

Monomer Polymer repeating unit

Structure
H H H H

C C C C Polyethylene

H H H H n

H H H H

C C C C Polypropylene

H CH3 H CH3 n

H H H H

C C C C Polyvinyl chloride

H Cl H Cl n

H H H H

C C C C Polystyrene

H C 6H 5 H C6H5 n
FIGURE 10.1 Basic structure of some
Fl Fl Fl Fl polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b)
C C C C
Polytetrafluoroethylene polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene
(Teflon)
molecules; (c) molecular structure of various
Fl Fl Fl Fl n
polymers. These molecules are examples of
(c) the basic building blocks for plastics.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Effect of Molecular Weight
Commercial
polymers

Tensile and
impact strength

Property

Viscosity

104 107
Molecular weight, degree
of polymerization

FIGURE 10.2 Effect of molecular weight and degree of polymerization

on the strength and viscosity of polymers.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Polymer Chains

(a) Linear (b) Branched

(c) Cross-linked (d) Network

FIGURE 10.3 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure; thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons,
polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as polyethylene. (c) Cross-
linked structure; many rubbers and elastomers have this structure. Vulcanization of rubber produces this structure.
(d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked; examples include thermosetting plastics such as epoxies
and phenolics.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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 Effect of Temperature
Glassy
100% crystalline Glassy Increasing
cross-linking
Elastic modulus (log scale)

Elastic modulus (log scale)

Leathery Increasing
crystallinity Leathery

Rubbery Rubbery
A m
or o
ph

N
ou cro
s ss -
linkin
Viscous Viscous g

Tg Tm Tm
Temperature Temperature
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.4 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) cross-
linking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Crystallinity

Amorphous
region

Crystalline
region

FIGURE 10.5 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. Note that the crystalline region
(crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer,
and less ductile is the polymer.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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 Glass-Transition Temperature

Material Tg ( C) Tm ( C)
Amorphous Nylon 6,6 57 265
Polycarbonate 150 265
Specific volume

polymers
Polyester 73 265
Partly
g: Polyethylene
Coolin crystalline
rapid polymers High density -90 137
Low density -110 115
slow Polymethylmethacrylate 105
Polypropylene -14 176
Polystyrene 100 239
Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) -90 327
Polyvinyl chloride 87 212
Tg Tm Rubber -73
Temperature
FIGURE 10.6 Specific volume of polymers as a TABLE 10.2 Glass-Transition and Melting
function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such Temperatures of Selected Polymers
as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition
temperature, Tg, but do not have a specific melting
point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as
polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply at their
melting points during cooling.

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 Strain
Deformation of Polymers

Strain
Increasing viscosity
Rigid and
t0 t1 t0 t1 brittle
Time Time (melamine, Tough and ductile
(a) (b) phenolic) (ABS, nylon)

Stress
Soft and flexible
(polyethylene, PTFE)
Strain

Strain

Recovered strain Recovered 0

strain
Strain
t0 t1 t0 t1
Time Time
(c) (d)

FIGURE 10.7 Various deformation modes for

FIGURE 10.8 General terminology describing the
polymers.: (a) elastic; (b) viscous; (c) viscoelastic
behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE is
(Maxwell model); and (d) viscoelastic (Voigt or Kelvin
polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon, a trade name).
model). In all cases, an instantaneously applied load
Source: After R.L.E. Brown.
occurs at time to, resulting in the strain paths shown.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Temperature Effects
C
218 0 32

225C
10 70 Low-density High-impact
0 polyethylene polypropylene
60
Stress (psi x 103)

Impact strength
50
Polyvinyl chloride
6 25

MPa
40

4 30
50
65 20
2 80 10 Polymethylmethacrylate

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 32 90
Strain (%) Temperature (F)

FIGURE 10.9 Effect of temperature on the stress-

FIGURE 10.10 Effect of temperature on the
strain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic.
impact strength of various plastics. Note that
Note the large drop in strength and increase in
small changes in temperature can have a
ductility with a relatively small increase in
significant effect on impact strength. Source: P.C.
temperature. Source: After T.S. Carswell and H.K.
Powell.
Nason.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Viscosity of Melted Polymers
v t Viscous behavior:
! "
dv
y
= =
dy
t

FIGURE 10.11 Parameters used to

describe viscosity; see Eq. (10.3).
104
! = 1000 s-1
104 P ol y c a r b o n a t

Ac
e

ry

Apparent viscosity (Ns/m2)

lic
A cry
Ri li c ( 2 Ri
Viscosity (Ns/m2)

103 gid 40
C) gi
d
PV 103 L DP E (
1 7 0 C
C

PV
)

C
Nylo
Polypro n

(1
pylene

90
N ylon (2 85 C)

C
102 Low d
FIGURE 10.12 Viscosity of some

)
ensity
polye 102
thylen
thermoplastics as a function of (a) e
Polypropylene (230C)
temperature and (b) shear rate.
Source: After D.H. Morton-Jones. 10
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320
10
1 10 102 103 104
Temperature (C) Shear rate, ! (s-1)
(a) (b)

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Polymer Behavior in Tension
mm
0 25 50 75 100 125
16
Molecules are
being oriented
100 14

12
80
Stress (MPa)

10
(psi x 103)

60
8

40 6

Load
g
4 din
Loa
20 d ing
2 loa
Un

0 0 Elongation
0 1 2 3 4 5
Elongation (in.) FIGURE 10.14 Typical load-
(a) (b) elongation curve for elastomers.
The area within the clockwise
FIGURE 10.13 (a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source: loop, indicating loading and
After R.P. Kambour and R.E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tension-test unloading paths, is the hysteresis
specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen). loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the
capacity to dissipate energy, damp
vibration, and absorb shock
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. loading, as in automobile tires and
Kalpakjian Schmid
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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7 machinery.
 Applications for Plastics
Design Typical Applications Plastics
Requirement
Mechanical Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonates,
strength blades, impellers, pistons. polyesters, polypropylenes, epoxies, poly-
imides.
Wear Gears, wear strips and liners, bear- Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polyimides,
resistance ings, bushings, roller-skate wheels. polyurethane, ultrahigh-molecular-weight
polyethylene.
Frictional prop-
erties
High Tires, nonskid surfaces, footware, Elastomers, rubbers.
flooring.
Low Sliding surfaces, artificial joints. Fluorocarbons, polyesters, polyethylene, poly-
imides.
Electrical All types of electrical components and Polymethylmethacrylate, ABS, fluorocarbons,
resistance equipment, appliances, electrical fix- nylon, polycarbonate, polyester, polypropy-
tures. lenes, ureas, phenolics, silicones, rubbers.
Chemical Containers for chemicals, laboratory Acetals, ABS, epoxies, polymethylmethacry-
resistance equipment, components for chemical late, fluorocarbons, nylon, polycarbonate,
industry, food and beverage contain- polyester, polypropylene, ureas, silicones.
ers.
Heat resistance Appliances, cookware, electrical com- Fluorocarbons, polyimides, silicones, acetals,
ponents. polysulfones, phenolics, epoxies.
Functional and Handles, knobs, camera and battery ABS, acrylics, cellulosics, phenolics,
decorative cases, trim moldings, pipe fittings. polyethylenes, polpropylenes, polystyrenes,
features polyvinyl chloride.
Functional and Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs, Acrylics, polycarbonates, polystyrenes, poly-
transparent fea- food-processing equipment sulfones. laboratory hardware.
tures
TA B L E 1 0 . 3 General
Housings and Power tools, housings, sport helmets, ABS, cellulosics, phenolics, polycarbonates, recommendations for plastic
hollow shapes telephone cases. polyethylenes, polypropylene, polystyrenes. products.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Reinforced Polymers

Laminate

Foam
Particles
(a)

Honeycomb

Short or long Continuous fibers

fibers, or flakes
(b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 10.15 Schematic illustration of types of reinforcing plastics. (a) Matrix with particles;
(b) matrix with short or long fibers or flakes; (c) continuous fibers; and (d) and (e) laminate or
sandwich composite structures using a foam or honeycomb core (see also Fig. 7.48 on making
of honeycombs).

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Properties of Reinforcing Fibers
40
Tensile Elastic Density Relative
Type Strength (MPa) Modulus (GPa) (kg/m3 ) Cost
Thornel P-100 Spectra 2000 Boron 3500 380 2600 Highest
Carbon
30 High strength 3000 275 1900 Low
Strength/density (m x 104)

High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low

Glass
Kevlar 29 Kevlar 49 E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest
Celion 3000 S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest
Kevlar 129 Spectra 900
20 Kevlar
29 2800 62 1440 High
High-tensile 49 2800 117 1440 High
S-glass graphite
Thornel 129 3200 85 1440 High
P-55 Nextel
Boron 312 1630 135 2700 High
10 E-glass
High-modulus 610 2770 328 3960 High
graphite Spectra
900 2270 64 970 High
Titanium 1000 2670 90 970 High
Steel Aluminum Note: These properties vary significantly, depending on the material and method
0 of preparation. Strain to failure for these fibers is typically in the range of 1.5% to
0 5 10 15 20 5.5%.
Stiffness/density (m x 106)

FIGURE 10.16 Specific tensile strength (ratio of tensile

strength-to-density) and specific tensile modulus (ratio of
modulus of elasticity-to-density) for various fibers used in TABLE 10.4 Typical properties of reinforcing fibers.
reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specific strength
and stiffness available.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites
Material Characteristics
FIBER
Glass High strength, low stiffness, high density; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and
S (magnesiaaluminosilicate) types are commonly used; lowest cost.
Graphite Available typically as high modulus or high strength; less dense than glass; low
cost.
Boron High strength and stiffness; has tungsten filament at its center (coaxial); highest
density; highest cost.
Aramids (Kevlar) Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all fibers; high cost.
Other Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron
nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, and molybdenum; see Chapters 3, 8,
9, and 10.
MATRIX
Thermosets Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are pheno-
lics, fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides.
Thermoplastics Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets, but lower resistance to temper-
ature.
Metals Aluminum, aluminumlithium alloy, magnesium, and titanium; fibers used are
graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron.
Ceramics Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; fibers used are
various ceramics.

TABLE 10.4 Types and General Characteristics of Reinforced Plastics and Metal-Matrix and
Ceramic-Matrix Composites

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Fiber Spinning
Polymer
chips

Feed
hopper
Spinneret

Cold air

Melter/extruder
Melt
spinning

Bobbin

Stretching
FIGURE 10.1 The melt spinning process for producing polymer
Twisting and
winding fibers. The fibers are used in a variety of applications, including
fabrics and as reinforcements for composite materials.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Composite Material Microstructure

Matrix Tungsten
diameter 0.012 mm
Kevlar fibers
Boron
diameter 0.1 mm
Graphite fibers

Matrix

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.18 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing
fibers. Source: After J. Dvorak and F. Garrett. (b) Cross-section of boron-fiber-reinforced composite
material.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Effect of Fibers
60 400 6
300

Tensile strength (psi x 103)

s
er

Impact energy (ft-lb/in.)

50 5
s fib
40
Carbon fibers 300
4 g las
ng 200
rs Lo
fi b e

MPa

J/m
30 ss 3
la 200 fibers
n gg t g la
ss
20 Lo s Shor
ss fiber 2 100
rt gla 100
10 Sho 1 Carbon fibers

0 0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Reinforcement (%) Reinforcement (%)
(a) (b)

6 40 60 400
Flexural modulus (psi x 106)

Flexural strength (psi x 103)

rs
5 50 ibe
nf rs
30 a rbo s fibe 300
40 C s
4
rs g gla s
fibe Lo n fiber

MPa
s

GPa
3 on 30 las
arb
20
h o rt g 200
C S
2 ort 20
a n d sh 10 100
1 Long fiber
s 10
g l a ss
0 0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Reinforcement (%) Reinforcement (%)
(c) (d)
FIGURE 10.19 Effect of the percentage of reinforcing fibers and fiber length on the mechanical properties of
reinforced nylon. Note the significant improvement with increasing percentage of fiber reinforcement. Source:
Courtesy of Wilson Fiberfill International.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Strength and Fracture of Composites
2.0
Unidirectional

Tensile strength (psi x 105)

1.5 1000

Orthogonal

MPa
1.0
Random
500
0.5

0 0
20 40 60 80
Glass content (% by weight)
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.20 (a) Fracture surface of glass-fiber-

reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are 10 m (400 FIGURE 10.21 Tensile strength of glass-reinforced
in.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b) polyester as a function of fiber content and fiber
Fracture surface of a graphite-fiber-reinforced epoxy direction in the matrix. Source: After R.M.
composite. The fibers are 9-11 m in diameter. Note Ogorkiewicz.
that the fibers are in bundles and are all aligned in the
same direction. Source: Courtesy of L.J. Broutman.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Plastics Processes
Process Characteristics
Extrusion Long, uniform, solid or hollow, simple or complex cross-sections; wide range
of dimensional tolerances; high production rates; low tooling cost.
Injection molding Complex shapes of various sizes and with fine detail; good dimensional
accuracy; high production rates; high tooling cost.
Structural foam Large parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; low production rates; less
molding expensive tooling than in injection molding.
Blow molding Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and low
cost for making beverage and food containers.
Rotational molding Large hollow shapes of relatively simple design; low production rates; low
tooling cost.
Thermoforming Shallow or deep cavities; medium production rates; low tooling costs.
Compression molding Parts similar to impression-die forging; medium production rates; relatively
inexpensive tooling.
Transfer molding More complex parts than in compression molding, and higher production
rates; some scrap loss; medium tooling cost.
Casting Simple or intricate shapes, made with flexible molds; low production rates.
Processing of Long cycle times; dimensional tolerances and tooling costs depend on the
reinforced plastics specific process.

TABLE 10.6 Characteristics of processing plastics and reinforced plastics.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Extrusion

Barrel Barrel Wire filter Melt

liner heater/cooler screen thermocouple
Hopper Thermocouples
Throat
Barrel Breaker
plate
Thrust bearing
Adapter
Throat-cooling Die
channel Feed section Melt section Melt-pumping section Screw
Gear reducer Motor
box

FIGURE 10.22 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Extrusion Mechanics
Pitch
Barrel
H Flight
!
W
D
w Drag flow:
2HD2N sin cos
Barrel Qd =
2
FIGURE 10.23 Geometry of the
pumping section of an extruder Pressure flow:
screw.
W H3 p pDH 3 sin2
Qp = =
3 12 (l/ sin ) 12l
Flow rate, q x 10-5

Extruder characteristic
2
Die characteristic
(m3/s)

Operating point

Qdie = K p
1

Die characteristic
0
0 5 10 15
Pressure (MPa)
K for circular cross-sections:
FIGURE 10.1 Extruder and die
characteristics for Example D4d
10.5. K=
128ld
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Blown-Film Manufacture
Pinch rolls

Wind-up Guide rolls

Blown
tube

Mandrel
Extruder

Die

Air
(a)
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.25 (a) Schematic illustration of production of thin film and plastic bags
from a tube produced by an extruder, and then blown by air. (b) A blown-film
operation. Source: Courtesy of Windmoeller & Hoelscher Corp.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Tube Extrusion
Spider die
Breaker plate
Polymer melt
Extruder barrel
A
Section AA
B Section
BB
Screen pack

Melt flow Spider legs (3)

direction v
B
Spider legs (3)
Mandrel Air channel
A
Air in
(a)

Co-extrusion blow molding

Extruder 1

Plastic melt:
two or more layers

Parison FIGURE 10.26 Extrusion of plastic tubes. (a)

Extrusion using a spider die (see also Fig.6.59) and
pressurized air; (b) coextrusion of tube for
Mandrel
producing a bottle.
Extruder 2
(b)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Injection Molding
Hopper
Powder,
Pellets Heating
zones Nozzle Mold

Vent

Piston
(ram)
Cylinder Press
Cooling (barrel) Ejector pins (clamp)
zone Injection force
chamber Torpedo
(spreader) Sprue

Molded
part Vent
(a)

FIGURE 10.27 Injection molding with (a) a plunger and (b)

Rotating and reciprocating
screw a reciprocating rotating screw. Telephone receivers,
plumbing fittings, tool handles, and housings are examples
(b) of parts made by injection molding.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Mold Features
Gate Cavity

Sprue
Main
runner
Part

Gate

Cold slug well Branch

runner

Cavity Main Sprue Guide Branch Guide pin

runner pin runner
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.28 Illustration of mold features for injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, with
important features identified; (b) injection molding of four parts, showing details and the volume
of material involved. Source: Courtesy of Tooling Molds West, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Mold Types
Stripper
Plate Gate Plate Plate plate Plate

Part
Sprue Sprue
bushing Sprue bushing
Ejector Ejector
pins pins

Part
Parts
Runner
(a) (b)

Hot plate;
Runner stays molten
Plate
Plate

Sprue
bushing Ejector
pins
FIGURE 10.29 Types of molds used in
Parts injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, (b)
three-plate mold, and (c) hot-runner mold.
(c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Insert Molding

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.30 Products made by insert injection molding. Metallic components are embedded in these
parts during molding. Source: (a) Courtesy of Plainfield Molding, Inc., and (b) Courtesy of Rayco Mold and
Mfg. LLC.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Reaction-Injection Molding
Heat
exchanger
Stirrer
Displacement
cylinders
Heat
exchanger Monomer 2

Pump

Recirculation
Stirrer loop

Monomer 1 Mixing
Pump head
Mold
Recirculation
loop

FIGURE 10.31 Schematic illustration of the reaction-injection-molding process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Extruder Heating
passages

Blow Molding
Extruded Tail
Knife
parison

Bottle
mold

Blown bottle
Mold closed
and bottle blown
Blow pin

(a)

Blow pin
removed

Blow pin

Injection-molding
Parison
machine
Blown
Cooling bottle
passages

Parison mold Parison transferred

to blow mold
(b)

2 Blown-mold station

Core-pin opening
Blow-mold (Blown air passage)
bottom plug
Blow mold
Blown bottle
Parison
Blow-mold 1 Preform
neck ring mold station
Indexing
direction FIGURE 10.32 Schematic illustrations of (a) the blow-
Transfer
head molding process for making plastic beverage bottles and
3 Stripper station
Reciprocating-screw extruder
(b) a three-station injection-blow-molding machine.
Stripper plate
Bottle Preform Preform
neck ring mold

(c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Rotational Molding

Inlet

Outlet
vent Pressurizing
Primary fluid
axis

Mold

Spindle

Secondary
axis

FIGURE 10.33 The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash cans,
buckets, carousel horses and plastic footballs can be made by this process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

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2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Thermoforming

Heater
Clamp Vacuum line
Ram
Plastic Mold
sheet Clamp
Ring
Mold Plastic
sheet
Vacuum
line
(a) Straight vacuum (b) Drape vacuum (c) Force above sheet (d) Plug and ring forming
forming forming

FIGURE 10.35 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are commonly
used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Compression Molding
Heating
elements

Punch
Open

Charge
Mold
Knockout
(ejector pin)
Land Overlap

Flash Closed
Molded
part

(a) (b) (c)

Part

Plug

(d)

FIGURE 10.35 Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive,
and (c) flash. The flash in part (c) is trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part
with undercuts. Such designs also are used in other molding and shaping operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Transfer Molding

Sprue

Transfer plunger

Transfer pot and

molding powder
Punch

Molded
Knockout parts
(ejector) pin

1. Insert polymer in mold 2. Mold closed and 3. Mold open and molded
cavities filled parts ejected

FIGURE 10.36 Sequence of operations in transfer molding of thermosetting plastics. This process
is particularly suitable for making intricate parts with varying wall thicknesses.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Casting, Potting, Encapsulation & Calendering

Mold Coil Mold

Liquid
plastic
Electrical
coil
Mold
Housing
or case
1. 2. 3.

FIGURE 10.37 Schematic illustration of (a) casting, (b) potting, and (c) encapsulation of plastics.

Rubber feed

Calender rolls

Finished film
FIGURE 10.38 Schematic illustration of calendering.
Sheets produced by this process are subsequently used Takeoff or
stripper roll
in processes such as thermoforming.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Reinforced Plastic Components

FIGURE 10.39 Reinforced-plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown
are front and rear forks, a rear swing arm, a wheel, and brake disks.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Manufacture of Prepregs

Continuous
strands
Surface FIGURE 10.40 (a) Manufacturing
treatment
process for polymer-matrix composite.
Source: After T.-W. Chou, R.L.
Spools
Resin McCullough, and R.B. Pipes. (b) Boron-
epoxy prepreg tape. Source: Textron
Systems.

Backing paper
(a) (b)

Resin Carrier
Chopper paste film

FIGURE 10.41 Manufacturing process Continuous Compaction

strands belt
for producing reinforced-plastic sheets.
The sheet is still viscous at this stage
and can later be shaped into various Resin
products. Source: After T.-W. Chou, R. L. paste
McCullough, and R. B. Pipes.

Carrier
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. film
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Vacuum and Pressure Molding

Clamping Air pressure

bar Clamp 345 kPa (50 psi)
Atmospheric
pressure Gasket

Vacuum Vacuum
trap trap Metal or
Flexible bag Flexible bag plastic mold
Steam or
Mold hot water
Mold Gel Resin Mold Gel Resin and
release coat and glass release coat glass
Room-temperature or oven cure Hand or spray lay-up
Hand or spray lay-up
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.42 (a) Vacuum-bag forming. (b) Pressure-bag forming. Source: After T. H. Meister.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Open Mold Processing
Roving Resin
Roller Brush

Lay-up of Chopped glass

resin and roving
reinforcement
Spray
Mold
Mold

(a) (b)

Mold

FIGURE 10.43 Manual

methods of processing
Gantry crane reinforced plastics: (a) hand
lay-up and (b) spray-up. These
methods are also called
Boat hull open-mold processing. (c) A
boat hull made by these
Mold processes. Source: Courtesy
of Genmar Holdings, Inc.

(c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Filament Winding
Continuous roving

Traversing resin bath

Rotating mandrel
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the filament-winding process. (b) Fiberglass being wound over
aluminum liners for slide-raft inflation vessels for the Boeing 767 aircraft. Source: Advanced Technical Products
Group, Inc., Lincoln Composites.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Pultrusion

Saw Preforming die

Heated die
Pultrusion
cut to length
Prepreg
feed system
Infiltration tank
Cured
Puller pultrusion
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the pultrusion process. (b) Examples of parts made by
pultrusion. Source: Courtesy of Strongwell Corporation.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Processing of RP Parts

(a) (b)

Side view

Model
Model
Support
FIGURE 10.46 The computational steps
involved in producing a stereolithography file.
(a) Three-dimensional description of the part.
(b) The part is divided into slices. (Only 1 in 10
is shown.) (c) Support material is planned. (d)
A A set of tool directions is determined for
Support manufacturing each slice. Shown is the
A
extruder path at section A-A from (c), for a
fused-deposition modeling operation.
(c) (d)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Rapid Prototyping Processes
Supply Process Layer Creation Phase-Change Materials
Phase Technique Type
Liquid Stereolithography Liquid-layer cur- Photopoly- Photopolymers (acrylates,
ing merization epoxies, colorable resins, and
filled resins)
Polyjet Liquid-layer cur- Photopoly- Photopolymers
ing merization
Fused-deposition Extrusion of Solidification by Thermoplastics (ABS, poly-
modeling melted plastic cooling carbonate, and polysulfone)
Powder Three-dimensional Binder-droplet No phase Polymer, ceramic and metal
printing deposition onto change powder with binder
powder
layer
Selective Layer of powder Laser-driven Sintering or Polymers, metals with
laser sinter- melting binder, metals, ceramics,
ing and sand with binder

TABLE 10.7 Characteristics of rapid-prototyping processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Tensile Elastic Elongation
Strength Modulus in 50 mm

RP Materials
Process Material (MPa) (GPa) (%) Notes
Stereo- Somos 7120a 63 2.59 2.3-4.1 Transparent amber; good general
lithography purpose material for rapid prototyp-
ing.
Somos 9120a 32 1.14-1.55 15-25 Transparent amber; good chemical
resistance; good fatigue properties;
used for producing patterns in rub-
ber molding.
WaterShed 11120 47.1-53.6 2.65-2.88 3.3-3.5 Optically clear with a slight green
tinge; similar mechanical properties
as ABS; used for rapid tooling.
Prototool 20Lb 72-79 10.1-11.2 1.2-1.3 Opaque beige; higher strength poly-
mer suitable for automotive com-
ponents, housings, and injection
molds.
Polyjet FC 700 42.3 2.0 15-25 Transparent amber; good impact
strength, good paint absorption and
machinability.
FC800 49.9-55.1 2.5-2.7 15-25 White, blue or black; good humidity
resistance; suitable for general pur-
pose applications.
FC900 2.0-4.6 47 Gray or black; very flexible mate-
rial, simulates the feel of rubber or
silicone.
Fused- Polycarbonate 52 2.0 3 White; high-strength polymer suit-
deposition able for rapid prototyping and gen-
modeling eral use.
ABS 22 1.63 6 Available in multiple colors, most
commonly white; a strong and
durable material suitable for general
use.
PC-ABS 34.8 1.83 4.3 Black; good combination of mechan-
ical properties and heat resistance.
Selective Duraform PA 44 1.6 9 White; produces durable heat- and
laser sinter- chemical-resistant parts; suitable for
ing snap-fit assemblies and sandcasting
or silicone tooling.
Duraform GF 38.1 5.9 2 White; glass-filled form of Duraform
PA, has increased stiffness and is
suitable for higher temperature ap-
plications.
SOMOS 201 17.3 14 130 Multiple colors available; mimics
rubber mechanical properties TABLE 10.8 Mechanical properties of
ST-100c 305 137 10 Bronze-infiltrated steel powder. selected materials for rapid prototyping.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Stereolithography and FDM

UV light source

UV curable
liquid FIGURE 10.47 Schematic illustration of the
stereolithography process. Source: Courtesy of 3D
c Liquid surface Systems.
b
Formed part
a
Vat
Thermoplastic
Platform or wax filament

z
y

x
Plastic model
Heated FDM head
FIGURE 10.48 (a) Schematic illustration of moves in xy plane
created in
minutes
the fused-deposition modeling process. (b)
The FDM Vantage X rapid prototyping
machine. Source: Courtesy of Stratasys, Inc. Table
moves in
z-direction Fixtureless
foundation

Filament supply

(a) (b)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Support Structures

Gussets Island Ceiling within an arch Ceiling

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.49 (a) A part with a protruding section that requires support material. (b) Common
support structures used in rapid-prototyping machines. Source: After P.F. Jacobs.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Selective Laser Sintering
Galvanometers

Laser Optics

Environmental-
control unit
Process chamber

Roller mechanism

Powder- Part-build
feed cylinder
Process-control cylinder
computer

Motor Motor

FIGURE 10.50 Schematic illustration of the selective-laser-sintering process. Source: After C. Deckard and P.F. McClure.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Three-Dimensional Printing
Powder Binder

1. Spread powder 2. Print layer 3. Piston movement

FIGURE 10.51 Schematic illustration of the three-
dimensional-printing process. Source: After E. Sachs and M.
Cima.

4. Intermediate stage 5. Last layer printed 6. Finished part

FIGURE 10.52 (a) Examples of parts produced

through three-dimensional printing. Full color parts
also are possible, and the colors can be blended
throughout the volume. Source: Courtesy ZCorp,
Inc.

(a) (b)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 3D Printing of Metal Parts
Binder deposition Infiltrating metal, permeates into P/M part

Microstructure detail

Unfused
powder
Binder

Metal
powder

Particles are loosely sintered Infiltrated by

Binder is burned off lower-melting-point metal
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 10.53 The three-dimensional printing process: (a) part build; (b) sintering, and (c) infiltration steps
to produce metal parts. Source: Courtesy of the ProMetal Division of Ex One Corporation.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Rapid Manufacturing: Investment Casting

1. Pattern creation 2. Tree assembly 3. Insert into flask 4. Fill with investment

Crucible
Molten
Heat
metal

5. Wax meltout/burnout 6. Fill mold with metal 7. Cool 8. Finish

FIGURE 10.54 Manufacturing steps for investment casting that uses rapid-prototyped wax parts as
patterns. This approach uses a flask for the investment, but a shell method can also be used. Source: 3D
Systems, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Sprayed Metal Tooling Process
Aluminum-filled
Metal epoxy
spray
Alignment tabs Flask
Pattern Coating

Base plate

(a) (b) (c)

Finished mold half

Molded part

Pattern

Base plate Second mold half

(d) (e)

FIGURE 10.55 Production of tooling for injection molding by the sprayed-metal tooling process. (a) A pattern and base plate are
prepared through a rapid-prototyping operation; (b) a zinc-aluminum alloy is sprayed onto the pattern (See Section 4.5.1); (c) the
coated base plate and pattern assembly is placed in a flask and back-filled with aluminum-impregnated epoxy; (d) after curing, the
base plate is removed from the finished mold; and (e) a second mold half suitable for injection molding is prepared.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Example: RP Injection Manifold

FIGURE 10.56 Rapid prototyped model of an injection-manifold design, produced

through stereolithography. Source: 3D Systems.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Design of Polymer Parts
Original Distortion Modified
design design

(a)
FIGURE 10.57 Examples of design modifications to eliminate or
Thick minimize distortion of plastic parts. (a) Suggested design changes
to minimize distortion. Source: After F. Strasser. (b) Die design
(exaggerated) for extrusion of square sections. Without this
Pull-in (sink mark) design modification, product cross-sections would not have the
Die shape
desired shape because of the recovery of the material, known as
die swell. (c) Design change in a rib to minimize pull-in caused
Thin by shrinkage during cooling. (d) Stiffening of the bottom of thin
Extruded product plastic containers by doming, similar to the process used to
make the bottoms of aluminum beverage cans and similar
(b) (c) (d)
containers.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Costs and Production Volumes
Typical Production Volume,
Equipment Production Tooling Number of Parts
Process Capital Cost Rate 10 Cost 102 103 104 105 106 107
Machining Med Med Low
Compression molding High Med High
Transfer molding High Med High
Injection molding High High High
Extrusion Med High * Low
Rotational molding Low Low Low
Blow molding Med Med Med
Thermoforming Low Low Low
Casting Low Very low Low
Forging High Low Med
Foam molding High Med Med
*Continuous process.
c
Source: After R. L. E. Brown, Design and Manufacture of Plastic Parts. Copyright !1980 by John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

TABLE 10.9 Comparative costs and production volumes for processing of plastics.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
 Case Study: Invisalign Orthodontic Aligners

(a)
(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.58 (a) An aligner for orthodontic use,

manufactured using a combination of rapid tooling and
thermoforming; (b) comparison of conventional
orthodontic braces to the use of transparent aligners.
Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.

(b) (c)

FIGURE 10.59 Manufacturing sequence for Invisalign orthodontic

aligners. (a) Creation of a polymer impression of the patient's
teeth; (b) computer modeling to produce CAD representations of
desired tooth profiles; (c) production of incremental models of
desired tooth movement. An aligner is produced by
thermoforming a transparent plastic sheet against this model.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7