ore eee IN Pere n | BY i FORREST M. MIMS, IL FIRST PRINTING — 1983 SECOND PRINTING — 1984 THIRD PRINTING — 1985 FOURTH PRINTING —1986 FIFTH PRINTING ~1987 SIXTH PRINTING —1987 SEVENTH PRINTING -—1988 EIGHTH PRINTING —1991 NINTH PRINTING — 1991 TENTH PRINTING — 1992, a ELEVENTH PRINTING — 1993 i TWELFTH PRINTING — 1994 COPYRIGHT © 1983..BY FORREST M. MIMS, TL see ALL. R\GHTS RESERVED PRINTED INTHE. UNITED STATES OF AMERICAOF. AND. ANY. Le ING JAC KI A, THIS... OOK CIILDREN. HAPPY. TD. SUGGESTIONS... IS FORTHE. ENTERTAINMENT AMD EDIEICATION _ ITS... READERS... WHILE REASONABLE CARE HAS BEEN. at EXERCISED.w. ITH RESPECT TD.WITS ACCURACY, THE AUTHOR RADIO... SHACK ASSUME NO. RESPONSIBICLTY... FOR... ERRORS, JOKUSSIONS. OR APPLICATION. SUITABILITY _O& _ITS_CONTENTS.....FORANY. NEITHER Do__we_ASSUME_ANY_LIAB/LITY..FOR. DAMAGES RESULTING FROM USE __OF __INFoRHMATION._IN. THIS. BOOK... USE.,....MANUFACTURE.. OR SALE _OF INCORPORATES, PATENTS, CAUTION +. THIS. ELECTRICAL _SAFETY WHICH MUST _BE JESSENTIAC THAT. CAREFUL SUPERVISION WORKING WITH LINE = Powe RED. CIRCUITS... AND... SOLDERING. DYE TO. THE. MANY. CUSTOMER... RADIO SHACK To ANSWER Coustom. ¢iRcuIT DESIGNS, TECHNICAL ADVICE ASSISTANCE, ETC.) 4. NOWLEDGE THANKS IM ADVANCE. IBuT PLease. PERSONAL COPYRIGHTS.....OR.OTHER... RIGHTS. RECEWvE ANY. IT _1$__YOuR RESPONSIBILITY. __TO__ DETERMINE. ANY DEVIC THAT JN. FORMATIONL....N.THIS. BOOK _IM FRINGES ANY. BOOK. IN CLUDES... SEVERAL... REFERENCES.._TO. HEEDED.. ITU: BE GIVEN... ELECTRONIC IRONS. ___ INQUIRIES. RECEIVED By _ ANDTHE AUTHOR, —_IT_1S_IMPOSS1BLE REQUESTS —_£OR ADDITIONAL ._INFORMATION..... TROUBLE SHOOT=..... GuT__THOUGH _WE__cANNoT INQUIRIES, WE wide BE. IMPRESSIONS.OR.__ INDWLDUAL —1D._THOSE of You wo. waite! REMEMBER WE ARE UNAZLE TO Give You. REPLY.—-|GETING__STARTED. IN ELECT. (1. ELECTRICITY. SEE aea eee eseeEEe eee PUTTING... ELECTRICITY TQ_WwORK BACK...1O.. BASICS. |. STATIC. eceerReiTy ae LECTRICAL CURRENT. ——| pire _-MEASURING AC. AND.00.. ELECTRICAL. c1RWITS PULSES, WAVES. SIGNALS...AND_.NOISE.. ——j2 ELECTRONIC... COMPONENTS. _WIRS_AND. CABLE. SWITCHES RELAYS MOVING. COI. METERS MMICROPHONES...AND.SPEAMERS RESISTORS é CAPACITORS. RESISTOR.AND. CAPACITOR APPLICATIONS. Pee TRANS FORMERS |S. SEMICONDUCT. a SLC ON. = JAE .DLeDE —--THE...TRANSISTOR... BIPOLAR. TRANSISTORS. F\ELO-EFECT... TRANSISTORS UNISUNCTION. TRANSISTOR... THYRISTOR... -SILLCON= CONTROLLED... RECTIFIERS. TRIACS. 4, PHOTONIC. ~SEMICONBUCTORS AGHT.. OPTICAL. COMPONENTS KOW._CONVEX... LENSES. | .--SEMICONDUCTOR.._ LIGHT. SouRCES _ GAT... EMITTING plopes.. SEMICONDUCTOR... LIGHT. DETECTORS. PAOTORESISTIVE LIGHT DETECTORS. PN. TUNCTION LIGHT DETECTORS __. PHOTODIODESIS. INTEGRATED. CIRCINTS 6. DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS. MECHANICAL... Swit... GATES. __THE_.BINARY.. CONNECTION DIODE... ATES. RANSIS TOR. GATES. GATE. SYMBoLs DATA _AIGAWAYS How... GATESARE USED COMGINATIONAL LOGIC. CIRCUITS. SEQUENTIAL .LOGIC CIRCUITS. A COMBINATIONAL= SEQUENTIAL. LOGIC._SYSTEM DIGITAL _T¢__ FAMILIES IZLINEAR INTEGRATED. CIRCUITS THE BASIC. LINEAR..CLRCUIT. z OPERATIONAL... AMPLIFIERS. __-TIMERS. FUNCTION. GENERATORS. VOLTAGE... REGULATORS. OTHER. LINEAR T0*s B. CIRCUIT. ASSEMBLY “TIPS. TEMPORARY... C1RCWITS PERMANENT... CIRCUITS HOW... 7. SOLDER. ee POWERING ELECTRONIC...CIREVITS.__ 9.100 ELECTRONIC. CIRGHINS. ——-DIODE.._ciRewiTS__ SMALL SIGHAL DIODES. AND RECTIELERS. ZENER...DIODE... CIRCUITS. |... TRANSISTOR.....CIRCVITS : non B\POLAR.... TRANSISTOR... CARCUITS IDNCTION. FET AND POWER MOSFET. CIRCUITS. __UN\TUNSTION..TRANSISTOR..cIReWITS. TAYRISTOR CIRCUITS. 2 SCR_cuReuITS. TRIAG. CIRCUITS. PROTONIC..ciRCUITS. co GAT. EMITTING. DIGITAL E60. CIROVITS TT CUR CUITS.. — CMDS...cIRQUITS. LINEAR..1.c...c1ReuITs. 7 [oper aTionaL.. AMPLIFIER Cop=Anie) ciRCUITS. COMPARATOR CREDITS... VOLTAGE REGULATOR TIMER _ciReuiT s_ -SIRCUITS, _- SEMACONDUETOR...LIGHT DETECTOR. ciRouiITs 11 “0 1b. {er t17_. 118-121. ai ggseeeees 122-123.— {GETTING STARTED IN ELECTRONICS es WELCOME...TO THE... WORLD...OF ELECTRONICS, ONE..OF THE .FALTEST. -|@ROWING OF TODAY'S" HIGH= TECH" FIELDS AND AN EDUCATIONAL - JAND ENTERTAINING... OBEY. THIS. ROOK wILt TAKE YoU.EROM STATIC. ELECTRICITY. TO. S0cID= STATE ELECTRONICS. ALONG. 3HE WAY. WE'L COVER ELECTRICITY, ELECTRONIC COMPONENITS...AND..INTEGRATED. ——lcineurrs _(re’s). CHAPTERS 3-7 SHOW HOW COMPONENTS.AMD..IC's [ARE USED To _FORM. ELECTRONIC... CIRCUITS.._CHAPTER...9. GIVES PLANS. FOR 100. CIRCUITS... EACH.OF WHICH. TIVE. GUILT._AND...TESTED..."PRGE JARRow Ss” (EBD) THROUGHOUT...TAE B0OK..REFER..YOU..1DRELATED. TOPICS... IN FUTURE CHAPTERS. CLIKE. WORKING...VERSIONS...0F AMY... EXAMPLE. é [CiRCUITS IN CHAPTERS 3-7)..T HOPE You.FiND THIS 200K USEFUL, Hee __|E0UCATIONAL.ANO, EsPeciALey,.FUA! Feet M. Mint, 1D : GOING. ELIRTHER IN ELECTRONICS. —-}L_-HoPE.This_Book.ENCOURAGES...YoU..1D_GO. FURTHER IN. ELECTRONICS. ; BEGIN. .BY. GETTING RADIO..SHACK'S..\SEMICONDUCTOR. REFERENCE of ANDBOOK."..ANO..KENGINEERS MINI ~ NOTEBOOK" SERIES. READ ELECTRONICS MAGAZINES LIKE COMPUTERCRAET, RADIO“ ELECTRONICS, BYTE AND. QST. Nov. MAY. ALSO..WISH.7D READ." ELECTROMCS NOTEBOOK," A COLUMA) Z - RITE EACH MONTH FOR COMPUTERCRAET. MANY OF THESE COLUMNS - _.|WAVE BEEN COMPILED. IN A SERIES OF B00KS,. INCLUDING “THE {FORREST MIMS CIRCUIT..SCRAPBOOK” CMCGRAW- HILL, 1983) AND ——MEORREST MIMS! CIRCUIT SCRAPBOOK IL. CHOWARD. W. SAMS, 198.6). {ESE _B00ks..DESCRIGE IN DEIAIL. SEVERAL OF THE. CIRCUITS..IN..THIS |B 00K. AND__MANY..OTHER. CIRCUVITS..QUESTIONS.?. THIS .BOoK..WILL. RAISE —~|MANY.L.IE YOU..CANYT FIND. ANSWERS IAL THE REFERENCES. ABOVE, TRY. — |A.GOOD. LISRARY...FINDING...ANSWERS..MAY TAKE. TIME,.6UT.You'Lt LEARN. IMUCH.IN. TE. PROCESS. PERHAPS YOU'LL EVEN..CONSIDER,... FORMAL HRAINING. FORA. CAREER IN. ELECTRONICS... - —{A-SPECIAL NOTE. TO EDUCATORS BOOK CAN GIVE. YOUR STUDENTS ABASIC. .KNOWLEDGE.OF ELECTRONICS. YoU CAN ASSIGN..THE..B00K FOR OUTSIDE. READING... ——{AND_TEST STUDENTS _AS THEY. PROGRESS...OR__YOU...CAN. DEVELOP. faa COURSE... COMPLETE..WITH. DEMONSTRATIONS... EXPERIMENTS... JAND..LECTURES... THANKS. TD. RADIO SHACK'S . SOLDERLESS... MODULAR mem [SockETS,..YOU_AND..YOUR... STUDENTS SHOULD .8£ ABLE...TO__ ASSEMBLE. i EST. VERSIONS OF VIRTUALLY EVERY. CIRCUIT. IN. CHAPTER... - [(X100_ SLecTRONIC.ciRcuITS"),. INCIDENTALLY, VOLUME. BUYERS .CAN.... : RECEIVE A PRICE. DISCOUNT._FROM RADIO. SHACK...ON THIS. ..B00K..AND. {ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS... SEE THE LATEST RADIO. SHACK..CATALOG {FOR DETAUS.«.... CPRICE..DISCOUNTS_ARE OPTIONAL AT. RAQIO_.SHACK. DEALERS... AND. FRANCHISE. STORES.)I. ELECTRICITY. TAE_ONLY. DIFFERENCE. BETWEEN. A folr oF. : AGATNING ANO THE —|SPARK BETWEEN. YOUR. H-FINGER..AND..A.OOOR - KNOB..ON.....A....ORY...DAY. 1S. QRANTITY,... Be wane TO. THOSE... WHO. FLY... ARE ELEeTRIGITY..... ee BRITE INTHE. RAIN, BEN TAMIN... FRANKLIN... FIRST. You... BETTER...5AY "BYE!" ON EIR MED. TNIS WTA AIS Denuse...iT'S... WOT VERY. SANE. FAMOUS... KITE. EXPERIMENT, (x... NEON, OE hae, TD... METAL, Z z DOORKNOB...OR : : oe WATER....P/PE. HERE'S A NEAT WAY TO"See" ELEarRICITY. WITHOUT. BEING ZAPPED! GRASP._ONE LEAD... FROM. A...NEON LAMP, WALK ALROSS. A... CARPET. WHE WEARING. HARO. SOLED. .SHOES. AND TOUCH. THE... SECond. LEAD.FROM THE LAMP. To. A. .METAL OBIECT. THE. LAMP. wild FLASH. (UNLESS...THE.. RELATIVE. HUMIDITY. 13. HIGH)s OF COURSE... You... cawnoT.."See". Eceereicity! You. SEE. ITS. EEERCT. UPON. AIR. AND. THE. NEON IN THE LAMP. THE. EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY..WHICH. CAN... 6E__SEEN ARE MANY, HERE ARE. SOME __ MORE + aie| PUTTING. ELECTRICITY. TO WORK ace ——LAkk. MATTER..HAS.. ELECTRICAL. PROPERTIES. THATS WHY SCIENTISTS. OVER THE. PAST. FEW. CENTURIES HAVE —_-| BEEN ABLE. TO.INVENT. HUN OREDS..OF GADGETS _ THAT. | GENERATE... STORE, CONTROL AND. SWITCH. ELECTRICITY. THESE. DEVICES. HAVE. COMBINED TO. CARRY. US INTO eae HN. Je. THE Youre PAGES. = —. ANKLOUS. JTHAT FOLLOW TO..GET Youle FIND STARTED —}OUT..Kow. WORKING WITH THESE. AND. ELECTRONIC... PARTS. OTHER ELECTRONIC _AnLD..CIRCUITS,.SKIP.. : PARTS. WORK, AND. = AMEAD TO CHAPTER. ; You'ee LEARN... How & TWO. WHEN. YOU BAVE TD. USE. THEM. IN TIME, GE SURE TO. ; GO... OVER.THE. REST. = WOE TAS CHAPTER. u —YOUTeG LEARN. SOME, ae —BASIC._FACTS.. ABOUT. i __|WORKING ELECTRONIC. [SIGHT FLASHERS 4 TIMERS, a eiRcviTs. Like, AMPLIFIERS, DIGITAL. L0G. -ELECTRIGITY.THAT...wikt : ICiRCuITS,..PawER... SUPPLIES, SOUND. GENERATORS... AND G1VE.YOU...A.. SOLID. | MANY....OTHERS... AFTER FOUNDATION... FOR. FURTHER. [You CommeTe ms 800k, \e ~~ LEARNING... AND_..YOU'LL. a |Your 66. ABLE..7E FIMD...OUT.. HOW... IDENTIFY. AMO... USE. ALL CREATE... AYO. DETECT THE. COMPONENTS..5 How. ELECTRIC) TY..WITH JON. THIS... PAGE! THEY. -OROLNARY. HOUSEHOLD. ——-[uscLuee..A..TRANS FoR MER, MATERIALS. | DIsPes,. RESISTORS, CAPACITORS ,. ZENER _[Di09es, TRANSISTORS, [VOLTAGE REGULATORS. |ANO.INTEGRATEDBACK TO. BASICS - ELECTRICITY 1S AN ESSENTIAL... INGREDIENT __o: THE BEST. WAY..TO. UNDERSTAND. THE NATURE. OF. ELECTRICITY (S.7D. EXAMINE. THE. SMALLEST. COMPONENT._OF VERY ELEMENT, THE. ATOM. NUCLED S. THS.. (PROTONS AND... ATOM. NEUTRONS) SIMPLEST ATOM HYOROGEN AND HELIUM, _tITHWM ATOMS HAVE EN CIRCLE _OF....3... PROTONS. LITHIUM ATOM, __4_NEVTRONS @ ELectRons HAVE... A NEGATIVE LE CTRI. © PROTONS... HAVE... POSITIVE ELECTRICAL CHARS, © NEUTRONS. HAVE...NO.. ELECTRICAL... CHARGE. CL IONS — Nog macey..AM. ATOM. HAS...AN EQUAL. NUMBER OF ELECTRONS. AND... PROTONS. THE CHARGES. CANCEL... : GIVE THE. ATOM. ..NQ.. NET. ELECTRICAL... CHARGE. IT'S OSSIBLE......TO. DISLODGE. ONE. RR MoRE. ELECTRONS. FROM. [MOST ATOMS. THIS... CAUSES. |e ATOM ..TO_HAVE..A_ NET. | POSITIVE... CHARGE... IT'S THEN. ALLED. A. POSITIVE JQM... ME ja. STRAY. ELECTRON....COMEINES. WITH. A. NORMAL. ATOM, THE. ATOM. HAS A NET...NESATIVE ae CHARGE...ANO..1S, CALLED. A POSITIVE. EON oa NESATIVE. JON. CD ELECTRONS — FREE ELECTRONS. CAN. MOvEAT "HIGH... SPEED. THROUGH... METALS, GASES. AND A VACUUM... OR. THEY. CAN REST. ON...A. SURFACE. 8I] MORE ABOUT FREE ELECTRONS — MANY. TRILLIONS lof ELectRonS can RESTON A... SURFACE... OR. TRAVEC ITHROUGH SPACE OR MATTER AT. NEAR. THE... SPEED lor. tigur (1c, 000 miLes. PER Second)! nen POOOOAE fotcictelcicteloyaal ELECTRONS — A_.GROUP...OF.. NEGATIVE... ELECTRONS. eel A_-SURFACE CAUSES THE... SUREACE...T0..... BE.NEGATIVELY. __[ CHARGED. SINCE _.THE ELECTRONS. ARE_NOT.... MOVING y.... THE —_[sureace CAN _BE__SAID.TD_HAVE.A. NEGATIVE STATIC | ELECTRICAL CHARGE. |] MOVING ELECTRONS —. A... STREAM OF... MOVING... ELECTRONS. [is CALLED... AN. ELECTRICAL CURRENT... RESTING... ELECTRONS loan Quickly FORM. AN ECECTRICALCURREWT....IF_... PLACED NCAR. A CLUSTER....OF_Pos/TIVE JON S,.... THE... POSITIVELY. CHARGED JONS WILL. AT-TRACT.....THE ELECTRONS... WHICH ee RUS INTO THE MOLES OR. VOIDS _BY_._THE __ MISSING ELECTRONS. “<> ELECTRON MECHANICAL. FRICTION,.... LIGHT, HEAT OR A CHEMICAL. May. REMOVE... ELECTRONS... FROM “A_SURFACE.,..THIS...._CAUSES...THE.... SURFACE... TO. BE Posi~ [TIVELY CHARGED... SINCE THE. POSITIVELY... CHARGED... ATOMS __| ARe.AT. REST, THE SURFACE ..CAW..6E....SAID...TO.. HAVE. ___|A_. posite serie ELECTRICAL... CHARGE. POSITIVE. TONS Wid. PoSLTIVE STATIC ELEC* TRICAG CHARGE. qSTATIC... ELECTRICITY. YOU GENERATE. STATIC ELECTRICITY. EVERY... TIME You... WALK ACROSS A CARPET, PULC__TAPE _FROM..A.. ROLL... REMovE YouR CLOTHING. OR....DRY. LOTHES.IN. A DRIER, MUCH OF THE TIME..YOU._DOM'T. EVEN... REALIZE IT_UNLESS THE AIRS. ORY. AND THE STATIC. CHARGE SUDDENLY ICRACKLES.,....POPS__ AND. FLASHES ITS... WAY..TD__A__NEW HOME. THESE STATIC CHARGES ARE CAUSED... BY. MECHANICAG FRICTION. BACK IW G00...B.0..4... THALES... OF GREECE... EXPE IMENTED. WITH THE ___STATIC. ELECTRICITY PRODUCED... WHEA). AMGER. IS RUBBED __WITH...WooL., DCAMSER— once UPON A mime BAP. FLOWING FROM. TREES MARDENED. INTO. CLEAR_GOLDEN. INODULES...WHICH_WERE._EVENTUALLY. BURIEO._IN_THE EARTH... SOMETIMES, BEFORE..ITRARDENED. INTO. AMSER, THE... STICKY... SAP. ENTOMBED. SITS OF... PLANT. MATTER, INSECTS IAND...EVEN. DROMETS oF waTER! JA. KINO. OF NATURAL... CASTING. PLASTIC, AMSER..IS_EASILY ELECTRIFIED..BY FRICTION, IT THEN... ATTRACTS....BITSOF PAPER. FAMous FACT: THE EveeTRon| IS NAMED. AFTER THE GREEK| WORO FOR AMBER | O ELECTRIFIED. PLASTIC... AND GLASS.— RUN. A. PLASTIC_comg — THROUGH..YOUR.HAIR._ON._A.DRY...DAY....AND. YOU'LL TRANSFER ELECTRONS FROM YOUR. HAIR. TO... THE... COMB. RUB A.GLASS. soe ROD. WITH SILK...OR_ THE... SYNTHETIC... FIBERS OF A PAINT. BRUSH. = ANO.YOU'LL REMOVE ELECTRONS... FROM. THE 6245S. GOTH... THE. : NEGATIVELY... CHARGED... COMB....AND..THE..... POSITIVELY... CHARGED. GLASS..ROD. WIkk.4 LIKE. AMBER, ATTRACT. ....BITS..OF.. PAPER. You. Can ELEOTRIFY...OR. CHARGE. MANY... MATERIALS. 6Y._RUBBING ~|THEM... WITH FUR... WO0b,..ETC,.. METAL? .NO, THE CHARGE LEAKS. AWAY. COMB (AFTER. STROKMG HAIR) GLASS ROD (auseed Wim Sik). SA Positive 2 ___CHARGE, e_|THE....COMB.. AND. GLASS. AND. prvcikE CHARGES. | 70... DETECT. AND. MEASURE... STATIC... ELECTRICITY. 1 OPPOSITE. AND LIKE CHARGES. =-HOW Do WE KsoWw ROD. HAVE OPPOSITE CHARGES? ELECTRICITY iS LIKE. FUNDAMENTAL... RULE_OF IThaT.PRovES.. THE. RULE. NO. CHARGE USE FOAM..PLAST.IC. PACKING. MATERIAL. [REMEMBER : UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT — LIKE... CHARGES REPEL — “|G THe ececTRoscoPe — THE FIRST__INSTRUMENT. DESIGNED WAS THE ELECTROSCOPE... YOU. CAN. EASILY... MAKE. ONE. “Pies, BOT TUE. ALUMINUM, FM. BE SURE THE FOLDED... Fol... STRIP.1S. CLEAN. AND ORY... You...TOUCH... A... CHARGED. OBJECT TO_.THE....UIRE» HALVES.OF. THE OW STRIP Wie. BE GVEA... AND. Wile. THEREFORE FLY APART...DC CONDUCTORS AND INSULATOR You. CAN USE. lyour... ELECTROSCOPE..TD. PROVE THAT ELECTRONS TRAVEL _ ITHROVGA.... SOME MATERIALS BUT __NoT OTHERS. HINT i_TRY THIS..ON...A.QRY DAY! ELECTRONS CAN TRAVEL THROUGH _ MOIST... AIR__SD__THE CHARGE ON _YouR ELECT ROSCOPE. WIL QUICKLY. LEAK AWAY. ON HUMID DAYS. SHARGED. PLASTIC... ROD TOUCH. THE CHARGED. --ROD__TO_THE WIRE -ANO._THE _ELECTROW SCOPE WILE. RESPOND. _ CHARGED. _-PLASTIG..ROP.. ie -BLECTROSCOPE. oo WILL... OT.. RESPOND —-Rop._TRucHES THE NYLON CORD, THIS. DEMONSTRATION sHows —-_|THROUGA_.._ SOME _mATERIALS TAROUGH. WHICH ELECTRONS... MATERIACS._ THROUGH.{ELECT RICAL. CURRENT A REGION OF HIGH. OR POTENTIAL To ———[ewares_Flows_ [THROUGH _A__coA [AS AN ELECTRICAL > ENT.IT THEN RESUMES. S its STATIC. STATE ON THE. {O)__TH AGNETAC | FLOWING... THROUGH. _-AROUND.THE WIRE. THE..FIELD,—-BUT_Yo. OBSERVE ITS. EEE CT. ORIENT..A__ COMPASS. So. _[irs__NEEWE PoNTs TO. TRE NORTH CN). MARK, PLACE..A cope R WIRE OVER. AND. PARALLEL. = TO. THE NEEDLE. THE OonNE CT. A FLASHLIGHT... CELL. ACROSS. THE _WiRe - : TRE NEEDLE. WILL MOVE AWAY FROM.....ITS...NORTH= Sour __ ORIENTATION... (LEAVE THE _WiRE. CONNECTED... FOR..ONLY._ AN ISSTANT...TO_ PREVENT... THE..CELL. FROM. OVERHEATING!) THE PHYSICAL (OR MECHANICAL) = z MAGNETIC _ a __|comeass._NEEOLE_IN.A__MAGNETL [oF __curRENT __FLowin 6. iz JS._.THE._BASIS..OF | WiR. THIS. THE MOVING..COle CURRENT METER USED.IN..THE. ANALOG MUCTIMETER.. {TO PROVIDE. HIGH... SENSITIVITY, THE. IWIRE_IS..WRAPPED.AS..A COIL,DIRECT. CURRENT ELECTRICITY a NT a OF TWO PLONS. THROUGH 16 IT. FLOW NL ———_PNLY__ONE DIRECTION, WHETHER STEADILY OR IN PULSES, ——_}IT'S_cAUED_DIRECT CURRENT (oc). IT's IMPORTANT ro ——_—_}8£__-ABLE.__ID SPECIFY THE QUANTITY AND. POWER OF A ——___{DIRECT._CURRENT, WERE. ARE THE KEY TERMS + —_|O current (nr) = “current is THE QuaNTITY oF ELecTRONS PASSING. A GIVEN POINT. THE _UsNT. OF CURRENT is orHE ——_—AMPERE. __ONE _AMPERE 1S 6,280,000, 000,000, 000, 000 (o28-%10'%) SiecTRONS PASSING A’ POINT IN ONE SECOND. Ce VOLTAGE CV og E) == VOLTAGE 1S EcecTRicaL PRESSURE oR JFORCE. VOLTAGE. 1S SOMETIMES REFERRED To AS. POTENT I Ab. [THE TWO ENDS Of A CONDUCTOR. THROUGH WHICH CURRENT 1S FLOWING, -1SCALLED POWER. THE UNIT of PowEeR IS THE WATE. THE PoweR OF A DIRECT CURRENT ISIS VOLTAGE PrIMES ITS CURRENT, eee ESIST.TO. SOME DEGREE THE FLOW_OF. JNIT..OF RESISTANCE 1S THE OHM (2). DIEFERENCE OF ONE VOLT WILL FoRce. A CURRENT. OF ONE. AMPERETNAOUGH A RESISTANCE OF ONE OHM. THE RESIS=_ ANCE OF A. CONDUCTOR IS ITS. VOLTAGE DROP. DIVIDED BY AIK. CURRENT FLOWING THROUGH THE CONDUCTOR. N_PIsumminG.up—= THis 1s TAE_"WATER ANALOGY" + LATERL USING. TRICITY. 3: _|CONNECTED ae TALS | QUuALIEIEs. DICTIONARY. LGM. ONE. ERY» AN ay WILL BECOME A._MAGNET WNTH THE POWER. SOME. MAGNETISM.) DIRECT CURRENT THERE ARE SO MANY USES _FOR._QIRECT. CURRENT NOSINGLE._ROOK GAN DESC RIRE. z HERE'S. A PAGE OF SEVERAL DESIGNED... AROUND. A_ SINGLE... ——|wige cars. __../EASIAY.. MAKE.FROM._A In¥a 7. B=INCH._SECTION OF __A_ SODA... AT__LEAST....30> FEST oF AUse LACQUER — COATED WIRE... —— You. CAM. STRAW (iT BATTERY CONTACTS. ELE GAN. UNDER... a ALUMINUM. Fo! ASSIGNMENT EXPLAIN. IN. 2S_ WORDS OR LESS. How. THIS THING ACTUALLY. WORKS.MAKING... DIRECT. CURRENT ELECTRICITY. A SURPRISING. NUMGER OF... WAYS. EXIST FOR PRODUCING DIRECT. CURRENT... _HERE...ARE. THE SIGGIES. OC CHEMICAL... GENERATORS. SOLUTION S___THAT_CONTAIN.....MANYJONS FOR. EXAMPLE, DISSOLVE. TABLE SALT.IN WATER AND THE SALT wit BREAK DOWN... INTO. POSITIVE... SoDlUM..IONS.. AND... NEGATIVE CHLORINE IONS. 1F_TWO..DISSIMUAR.. METAL PLATES. ARE IMMERSED INTHE SALT. SOLUTION, THE POSITIVE .LONS. TowarRo. ONE. PLATE _AND..THE NEGATIVE. GRATE TOWARO..THE_oTHER.._IE CONNECTED... TOGE THER BY A ComducTOR, A CURRENT Witt. FLOW... THROUGH__..THE__. SOLUTION. (ASJONS). THE... CONDUCTOR. CAS. ELECTRONS). GENERATOR. 1S CALLED... A .WEX cede. ces THE. ELECTROLYTE 1S. ABSORBED..BYPAPER.OR FORMED INTO. A PASTE ARE CALLED....ORY... CELLS, MERE ARE SOME CHEMICAL... GENERATORS. YOU. CAN MARE. HAVE euwy. COPPER. = FOUt 08 — Pe__oARo Mee ZING OR MAGwEsIUM* “= copren.. ro * i Sact paper ( Paper |OK..TO...DRY. TOWEL +. SALT. WATER) PAPER. AND ACTIVATE WITH WATER wu. CONNECT Two ORE CELLS IN ERIES TO. FORM A BATTERY. WITH LIAGE EQUAL TO. SUM. OF. CELL. VOLTAGES. 16|THE... com_TO_. DESIGNED. | A___SMALL___D@___MoToR, ——|wie.._B& PRODUCED | WRAPPED | STEEL ——_| HEATED _By. MATCH. TUNeT on s_. ——_| Gom.sTAN TAN PRODI |C]_ ELECTROMAGNETIC THROUGH. A. CONDUCTOR -FIELD._ AROUND. | Bor WAYS. So. ComoveroR WHICH. LELELD.....YOU..CAN, | ELECTROMAGNETIC __ GENERATION WITH loo _oF.. WIRE __AND A SMALL. MAGNET... (THE Cole SHOWN. ON PAGE 15 works LFINE.) CONN Ecr.. JTHE LEADS A METER _ \TO__SENs: : MICROAMPE RES. INSERT. A STEEL NA z THROUGA..THE._¢otd. eee = [AND STROKE..THE... HAGNET....... BACK. AND. FORTH. ACROSS... THE THE METER Widé..._ INDICATE... FEW..MICRO AMPERES THE... POLARITY... (DIRECTION) OF .THE...CURRENT. BACK... STROKES... WANT... MADE GENERATOR? SUST._ROTATE...THE _SHAET OF “Plastic. STRAW |MOST SUCH. MOTORS. _ DISSIMILAR CURRENT. wiRe AROUND....THE ENDO A. Nfld... Witt... GENERATE... FEw. THOUSAND THS. OF... A VOLT... WHEN. THE. FLAME. OF A... (KE. 1 ROM AND. SE. MUCH. HIGHER_BACK.AT. THE "GEwERaToR ” MAGNET. 1S. STROKED. }COIL,.... ELECTRONS IN. TH DIRECTION... AND A |THE... BACKSTROKE, AWAY FROM._THE COIL, Flow. 1s. STROKED _-HOME! ON __THE. INLE, ~BACK __AND- CORRENT._WHIGH. ALTERN IS___PRODUCED._ ALTERNATIN. ROTATING. CURRENT. CAC). Ao IN A OUTPUT ROTATING Cold MO SINE WAVE. MeAsuREMEN: AC VoLTAGE__is..usuALLY._ -|SPECIELEO AT OA vAcue EQUAL. ALTERNATING CURRENT_.ELECTRICITY PRECEEDING, IN_ reer —THE. REVERSED, THEREFORE + ORTH. “ALONG. it’s ¢ALCED. AN TO.THE._O¢ _vorAce._. MADE COLAND. PAGE... ONE... DIRECTION. WIRE BRE MOVED IN. ONE GURRENT IS. PRODUCED. ON SS__THE___ MAGNET__1S_ DIRECTION...OF. IF THE TH Colby A. IN)... DIRECTION...OR. ALTERNATING. CURRENT. JS...USUALLY PRODUCED BY. MAGNETIC. FIELO, MAGNET WHEN THE —ALOWG.THE E ATES. TALS S.A. (518 WAVE. L 1 VouTAGE r i L 1 t + 90° 180°. AG... SINE. WAVE VOLTAGE. VOLTAGE... PEAK RMS. = —}CAPARCE. OF. DOIN.G_._THE. SAME. WORK... FOR. A. SINE, WAVE THIS. VALUE. 1S. 0.707. TIMES. — THE PEAK. VoLTAGE...IT's. a Hate eacceo... THE _RMS..CROOT > MEAN.= SQUARE) VOCTAGE.. THE PEAK = —_ VOMTAGE. (OR CURRENT). JS..1.41 TIMES. THE. RMS. VALVE. - {HOUSEHOLD LINE. VOLTAGE... IS SPECIFIED ACCORDING. TO... 1TS_. RMS... VALUE...THEREFORE.,.. A HOUSEHOLD... VOLTAGE..OF120-VTS CORRES PONDS...TD.A. PEAK. VOLTAGE..OF...120..& 4.41. OR Io4.2- VETS. a OWHY.AC_iS USED — ACIS ZETTER SUITED. THAN_DC FOR. {TRANS MISSION WIRE CARRYING. -|WIRE. THIS 1S 18 THROUGH... AC will, THE PRINGIELE. Lo. inoue NG..DISTANCE. POWER. _LIWES. A. CE... A. CURRENT.._IN _A__NEARBY BEHIND THE. TRANS FORMER...__ [MEASURING AC. AND DC Ov... CAN... EASILY. _ -MEASURE...AC AND. DC. _ MOLTAGE...AND. CURRENT. WITH. AN. INSTRUMENT. ~~ CALLED THE MULTIMETER. = ANALOG. MUCTIMETERS cee coon USER MOVING... COIL : ; WL METER... DIGITAL..MuETIn e MErERs...HAVE.AvigiTAL.|& £ = —REAQOUT,..THE _MULTIMETER, |e S. g [8.8 SiNéLe Most io ° A) IMPORTAMT... ELECTRON IS, © a _ TEST... INSTRUMENT. —-[C_ANALOG.MULTIMETER —.. D_DIGITAL... MULTIMETER — LESS. EXPENSIVE, SOMEWHAT. HIGHLY. ACCURATE... AND. LESS... PRECISE. THAN....DIG/TAL, EASIER....TD.. READ. THAN. TYPES. BEST.._BY..FAR.. FOR. ANALOG... TYPES. BEST. FOR ——-LOBSERYIN.G....THE.TRENE.OF..A. FINDING... THE... PRECISE. VAWE | SLOWLY... CHANGING... VOLTAGE gon OF A VOLTAGE 4... CURRENT. QURREWT.OR..RESISTAN CE. vn OR... RESIS TANCE, Ica. NG UP... MULTIMETERS. — THEY'RE INDISPENSABLE | EVEN IF You. HAVE..ONLY...A... PASSING INTEREST. You... SHOULD COMSIDER BUYING. ONE... BECAUSE. IT HAS... MANY USES. in. te Home, 0n HE SOB. AND... WEA. WORKING WITH. APPLIANCES, | Ans MOTOR... VEHICLES... IF... YOURE... SERIOUS... ABOUT ELE CTROMICS, ONSIDER...... BUYING.....A. QUALITY... HIGH TPE DANCE MULTIMETER. THAT WILE. HAVE AITTLE.. OR, NO. EFFECT ON THE... DEVICE...oR. | CIR QUIT. You RE... MEASURING. IDEAUY,. YOU. SHOULD HAVE. GOTH. |THE. AMA LOG. AMD O1GITAL.. TYRES. eee ECTRICAL SAFETY = GAN Kibel IF, You ~|Want.To 22. AROUND. LONG [ENOUGH TD... ENIDY...EXPERL = MENTING... WITH..ELECTROMCS, ~TREAT.._ ELECTRICITY. THE._RESPECT iT. WE'LL LOOK. AGAIN. LATER. Se Face Nu of rN FORMER EXPERIMENTERELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AN _ECECTRicac. cI RCUUT 1S. ANY ARRANGE MENTTHAT PERMITS _ JAN ELECTRICAL..CURRENT..TO. FLOW... A CIRCUIT. CAN. BE AS SIMPLE. AS...A_ BATTERY. CONNECTED.TO.A LAMP OR : AS _COMPLICATED....AS.A.DIG/TAL.....COMPUTER. QA BASIC... CIRCUIT =. mis BASIC. CIRCUIT... CONSISTS OF A... SOURCE... OF ELECTRICAL CURRENT. (A_BATTERY),A.LAMP_AND... TWO CONNECTION. WIRES. THE PART OFA.CIRCUIT..WHICH PERFORMS -WORK.1S CALLED. THE. LOAD. HERE. THE LOAD. 18 THE. LAMP. —AN..oTHER _CiRCUIT S... THE LOAD. CAN..6E..A. MOTOR,..A.. HEATING. ----ELEMENT.,... AN. ELECTROMAGNET, ETC. i IO.A..SERIES CIRCUIT =A. ciReuIT...MAY.INCLUDE. MORE oT ARM..ONE.... COMPONENT. — CSWATCH,.LAMP,. MOTOR, ETC). AW SERIES CiRculT 1S. FORMED. WHEN CURRENT. FLOWING. THROUGH... ONE... COMPONENT. FIRST... FLOWS. THROUGH. ANOTHER. (ARROWS. SHow. is DIRECTION..OF ELECTRON. FLOW.) PARALLEL CiRcuIT. IS FORMED WHEN. TWO OR. More COMPONENTS..ARE. CON NECTED... $0. CURRENT. CAN..FLOW. THROUGH. ONE... COMPONENT. WITH= OUT. RAMINGQFIRST TDF LOML..TH.RO.UGH ANOTHER. [QA SERIES = CARAMEL. cincuT — MANY. evectRicAL = nate CIRCUITS. acer BoTH SERIES ANDPARALLEL, Ale. Proving... ComeLere PAT SE TWEEN._THe C1REUIT_AND. 17: PoweR SUPPLY,Dcigcuit_DIAGRAMS =. THUS FAR THE. ELECTRICAL. cIRCWITS. | SHOWA is THIS 800K... HAVE... BEEN ILLUSTRATED IN PICTORIAL. [FORM. PICTORIAL... VERSIONS..OF..CIRCWIT S Wikh. BE USED INTHE. NEXT... SEVERAL CHAPTERS. AS WELL. __ LATER IN IRE BOOK... THE. PICTORIALS.._wied..._ BE _REPLACED..BY CIRCUIT. IDAGLAMS. IN. A. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM PICTORIAL VIEWS..OF- COMPONENTS ARE REMACED BY COMPONENT... SYMBOLS... SERIES PARALLEL. cigcur WIRE... OR... OTHER ~-CONNECTIONS.OF._A EvecreicaL | CONDUCTOR 1S. —-|COMPONENT.».... SURRENT INTHE. 1 feiRcuir.._May. SHOR’ THROUGH THE CONDUCTOR. swear! ciacwts. This. ARE USUALLY. UNDE SIRABLE [AT BEST... THEY CAUSE... BATTERIES TO. RAPIDLY. ose. THEIR _AND.....THEY._CAN).CAUSE... DAMAGE, TO__WIRING.. ow COMPONENT. S....'SHORT" CIRCUITS... CAN. [EvEN Cause. ENOUGA.HEAT...TO._16NiTE THE. INSULATION. on. A wire! CAUTION: THE HUMAN. Boby.CONDUCTS i ELECTRICITY... THERE FORE... CARELESSLY.... TOUCHING... AN. {ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT... MAY... CAUSE MSHORT. CIRCUIT... - [Lee voLTAGE AND. CURRENT.._ARE HIGH. ENOUGH... YOU. - MAY. RECEIVE A. DANGEROUS...OR EVEN LETHAL. SHOCK. ELECTRICAL ROUND. ONE OF THE .WIRES.Of THE. - -—}KCINE 1S. CONNECTED 1D. 2ARTH.@Y..A._METAL...R0D..... METAL __ENCLOSURES._OF._ ELECTRICALLY PowERED._DEVICES ARE. CONNECTED. ——-}IDTHIS GROUND WIRE. THIS _PREVENTS...A... SHOCK HAZARD. SHOULD. —[a_mon=6 ROUNDED. WIRE _MAKE..CONTACT_WITH..THE. METAL. ENCLOSURE. hwtHour.. THE GROUNO CONNECTION, A PERSON. TOUCHING. .THE DEVICE. RA_WET... FLOOR... MIGHT. ——|WHILE_STANDING ON THE _GRoUN! ——RECEWE A. DANGEROUS SHOCK. —-GRound. Also REFERS TD THE ———-|POINT._IN_A_CIRCUIT._AT._ZE8.2 SF VOLTAGE, WHETHER OR. THIS1S. GROUND -CONMECTED To.GROUND. (O-vours)_. wit RESPECT.TO INSTANCE, THE MINUS. a SIDE__DE_THE BATTERY ——HN_THE..CiRcUITS ABOVE AND ——[on._THE._PRECEEDING._PAGE. 4\V2.V_ANo.= Seu. a SyMeou, i tTPULSES , WAVES, SIGNALS AND NOISE. ELECTRONICS Is. THE STUDY AND _APAICATION. Of ELECTRON THEIR BEHAVIOUR....AWD. THEIR. EFFECTS. THE simplest AP-” PLICATIONS... FOR. ELECTRONS ARE... STRAIGHT.EORWARD. AC AnD DC. gIRGWITS IN WHICH A CURRENT. IS useD 1D... Power LAMPS... ELECTROMAGNETS,.... MOTORS. SOLENOIDS... ANP. SIAR DEVICES... WHAT _TARES... ELECTRONICS FAR. BEYOND THESE BASIC... APPLICATIONS. IS..THE._ EASE. wiTA._wHicH... STREAMS OF... ELECTRONS... CAN... BE CONTROLLED ANID... MANIPULATED, THIS. SIMPLE.CiReuIT....15... REALLY. MORE... USEFUL THAN IT F1@ST. APPEARS. BECAUSE..ITCAA__SEND.INEORMATION BY. VERTING A PLANNED... SEQUENCE._.OF.. SWITCH. FLASHES....OF LIGHT... THE FLASHES OFTHE LAMP PATIERNS..OF.FLASHES..oR pULsES. COMPLEX... INFORMATION..LIKE. SPEECA.” OR SPEECH CAN BE TRANS= FORMED INTO. PROPORTIONAL. VARIATION S..IN.THE BRIGHTNESS OF A LAMP... HERE'S... A... SIMPLE._WAY TO SEMD. VO/CE OVER A BEAM OF. REFLECTED... LIGHT: “atop oe ‘weal (3 ae CAN. “Nave SIGNAL 22I). PULSES — A_ Pulse is. A Suppen, BRIE! [DECREASE Inf. CURRENT Frou }w.ducD. HAVE._AN INSTANTANEOUS. RISE AN O_ |REAC PULSES... ARE THPICAL, I. waves — A. wave. A_P2R10010. FLUCTUATION A. CURRENT. oR. VOLTAGE». WAVES MAY HAVE A ‘SM. GLE. | Powakity..¢ De) OR... BOTH. POSITIVE._AND.. NEGATIVE. COMPOME: E THERE ARE MANY KIS. OF __WAVES.... HERE ARE _ CONVEYS. INFORMATION... | WAVEFORM. 1S CALLED. MODULATIONS OR AC RIDING ON A. DG.CEVEL. THEIR ENEMY...15. ALL ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND ce Isrsane,.Renoor | CURRENTS... WHEN THESE... CURRENTS. |ARE UNWANTED... ALLEO..NOISE. NOISE CAN. ALSO. ENTER ELECTRONIC. C1RCUITS .BY..NEAMS of THE ELECTROMAGNETIC. L WAVES AvTOMmOBLE _IGNLTION...SYSTEMS, ELECTRIC... Mor oo OSE MAY... HAVE. |B. LEVEL..0f ONLY.A FEW. MILliC 8. VOLT.0R_AMPERE y IT_MAY.. EASILY... OBSCURE AN EQUALLY. Low) LEVEL SIGNAL...2. ELECTRONIC...COMPONENTS DOZEN S...OF.. DIFFERENT... FAMILIES OF PARTS. AND COMPONENTS BLOCK, CARRY, CONTROL, SELECT 4... STEER, — SWITCH... STORE....._MANIPULATE 4. REPLICATE... MODULATE AND... ExPlorT AN... ELECTRICAL. CURRENT... THOSE._THAT USE. SEMICONDUCTING...CRYSTALS_ARE.. SO... IMPORTANT. WE'LL DEVOTE..... AN. ENTIRE. CHAPTER. TO. THEM. You'tL. FIND. Tost... ABOUT Abb... THE... REMAINING PARTS YOU... SHOULD. KNOW. ABOUT IN. TALS... CHAPTER. WIRE. AND CABLE. USED... TO_CARRY__ ELECTRICAL. CuRRE: AS, MACE FROM._A__ Low RESISTANCE. ETAL... LIKE. [coprer. SOLO. WIRE IS. A SINGLE... CONDUCTOR, : STRANDED. WIRE IS. TWO..OR._MORE_. TWISTED... OR... RAIDED BARE __CoNOUCTORS... MOST..WIRE...1S_ PROTECTED. .B INSULATING... COVERING....OF PLASTIC, RUBBER OR LACQUER. WIRE WHICH. HAS..BEENTINWED.../S.. EASIER... TD... SOLDER. SPECIFICATIONS FOR BARE COPPER WIRE. GAUGE | DIAMETER CincHes)| Soup ea ; A te | JACKET. 18. 20 22. STRANDED. 24. 26 28 — BO. CARES. HAVE ONE. OR MORE CONDUCTORS. AND. MORE. J! SULATION. THAN. ORDINARY. WIRE... COAXIAL CABLE CAN CARRY... HIGH. FREQUENCY... SIGNALS C LIKE TELE VISION) CAUTION! ALWAYS USE. WIRE RATED... FOR. THE. CURRENT. = ITS. TO.. CARRY. LFA WIRES MOT....TD.... THE... TOUCH Be IT?S. CARRYING. TRO__MUGH. CURRENT..._USE. A HEAVIER GAUGE... WIRE. OR REDUCE. THE: CURRENT»... OTHERWISE 01. gfe bh 46 Cony (as ia AS IE 24 citiSWITCHES MECHANICAL SWITCHES PERMIT _OR _/NTERRUPT_THE _FLow..OF. CURRENT. __THEY.ARE ALSO. USED. TR. DIRECT... CURRENT. z ——}TR__VAR tous PoInTS. SIC KNIFE SWITCH. — THE SIMMEST SWITCH... MARIOUS. Swatch 7 SYMBOLS... ee WALLED...AM.... SPST..CSINGLE~POLE,.. SINGLE = THROW) SWITCH. DLMUCTIPLE. CONTACT. SWITCHES — HERE ARE SymsoLs FOR THE... MATOR. KIND St POT = oe -SPDT.=. SINGLE POLe,.DOUBLE = THREW. (THE DASHED 4/NE. MEANS. DOST — DOUBLE-POLE,. SINGLE=THROW. BOTH... SIDES... Move... TOGETHER)... POT. DOUBLE ~ POLE, PoUBLE ~THROW. SWITCHES — Comer. _ PUSHBUT-TON)....USUALLY. SPST, NORMALLY. OPEN (NO) OR NORMALLY. -GLOSED..CNC) a ee Tab AO ROADRB. iu No- —o o— ne ale ROTARY, WAFER LIKE. Wi7i__ ONE POLE... AND... 2.OR MORE CONTACTS. WAFERS... CAN... BE... STACKED... TD... PROVIDE... PORE —POLES.___MAMY...VARLATIONS....... ARE... POSSIBLE. MERCURY. MERCURY... BLOG. CLOSES. SWITCH, POSITION... SENSITIVE. OTHER.....MANY KINDS OF. TOGGLE, ROCKER, LEVER, SLIDE, PUSH=ON/. PUSH=.OFF.4 ILLUMINATED...AND. OTHER. SWITCHES ARE AVAILARCE. Z - _ 25|RELAYS A RELAY 1S__AN ELECTROMAGNETIC SWITCH, _A SMALL CURRENT. FLOWING THROUGH CREATES. _-MAGNETIC__FIELD CONTACT. AGAINST oR THAT PULLS _ONE__swiTcH AWAY._FROM ANOTHER. MOVABLE... CONTACT. <——ReTuRN. sPRing ceEAD OF_.CON.TACTS CAN. DPST.,.DPRT._ AND. OTHER SwiTCH. EGAY.. SYM 60L — THE... ARRANGE/EN: - PRoviog.__SPST.,.._SPDT, OPERATIONS. THIS._1S. THE S¥s606. FORA. RELAY..WITH.. COwTACTS. ENCLOSED G4ASS_.TUBE CLOSELY. SPACED SWITCH. COM TACT: A_..MAGNET IC. [THe col. THIS. ISTHE PRineipee JOE THE MOVING Col. METER.[of THE FOLLow ING MEANS 2. EAKERS SOUND. WAVE... VARIATION,S....INTO WAN... ELECTRICAL CURRENT, ARE FIRST CONVERTED. OFA FLEXIBLE. FILM. THESE...... MOVEMENTS....THEN ELECTRICAL CURRENT....6Y__ANY DIAPHRAGM. CHANGES THE PRESSURE. OF CARBON... PARTICLES. THIS... CAUSES. INTHE RESISTANCE. OF THE CAP SUE. [APPLIED 1D A CAPSULE. 1S MOVEO. THROUGH A. MAGNETIC THIS. CAUSES....A QURRENT...10. GE GENERATED. CO CoNDENSER— THE MavIANG DIAPHRAGM ALTERS _THE._DISTANICE |SETWEEN TWO METAL PLATES. THE RESULT.IS..A. PROPOR [TIONAL __CHANGE INTHE CAPA@ITANCE._OF THE PLATES. |. CRYSTAL — A WAFER OF PIEZOELECTRIC. MATERIAL (wMICH. PRODUCES. |AVOLTAGE.. WHEN... BENT__BY THE. PRESSURE Ce SOUND. WAVES). FORMS. THE .DIAPARAGM...OR 1S MECHANICALLY. LINKED. tO. THE DIAPHRAGM. _|K SPEAKER ConVERTS VARIATIONS INA CURRENT oR —|MOLTAGE iavep. SOUND. WAVES... THE. TULO. MOST. COMMON SPEAKERS ARE + [A MAGNETIC — SIMILAR. IN PRINCIPLE TDA OYNAMIC.M/eRO~ HONE.INFACT,.A. MAGNETIC... SPEAKER CAN. BE USED ASA MICROPHONE... EL CRYSTAL — SIMILAR IN PRINCIPLE TOA CRYSTAL MICRO- A__ CRYSTAL SPEAKER CAN. DouBee AS A. MICRO~ ~PLEZ0...cRYSTAL AND SUPPORTS. PAPER. cone Magwer r4 iy MOVING Cold Cvoiee coi) sega # genet MAGNETIC DIAPHRAGM __ SPEAKER 27 aoe eet 4 4[RESISTANCE CAN 8 CHANGED FROM ONE RESISTOR [TO THE NExT simpy BY CHANGING THE RATIO. [CARBON PARTICLES TD BINDER... MORE _caggon _GLVES. LESS RESISTANCE. YOURSELE RESISTORS. ALINE WITH A SOE 7 24,800, 000,” -5,Hb0, 000 OHM. 7 DoRESISTOR THEYRE KIND OF. PRETTY. MORE IMPORTANT. PURPOSE _ANQICATE...THE, | RESISTANCE OF. THE. RESISTOR. THEY. DECORATE... | HeRe’s Row + -COLOR code BANDS aes ee 3B (Monee) NOE _Somerines _ 20 nf THERE'S... FOURTH 100. }GAND. 4,000. 40,000. 100,000... ony 002,, 000. vul01000,.000. 102,090,000. (woe) Be. 2. 4. 2 3 ~ose LROKS COMPLICATED. THE FIRST TIM. LEARN. How. TO. USE IT. RESISTANCE OF A | VioleT_Ano_.RED ? FOR. EXAMPLE. 5... WHAT'S... THE, RESISTOR. COLOR. COPED. YELLOW... YEtbow..IS THE. FIRST... COLOR. SO. [5 As. VIOCET..S... THE. SECOND SECOND....UMBER 1ST. SINcé THE. RED). THE. MULTIPLIER IS ___1OO_« RESISTANCE. IS. 2%. 100... OR, CoLoR....BANO.. MEANS... THE. Is___4701 20 Ge 20% OF. THEREFORE, THE ACTUAL VALUE.IS. AND... 5440. OKMAS.. ACTUAL 4200 ETWEEN O SUBSTITUTING... RESISTORS —.WHAT.IF.You...NEED.. A. 46700 0HM... RESISTOR...6UT._CAN._ ONLY _FIND...A.GB00>.OKM You....CAN,..ALMOST. ALWAYS USE__ANY VALUE. WITHIN. : 20%._OF. THE REQUIRED... VALUE... S__GO._ AHEAD. AND. USE IT. _IE._B. PARTICULAR... CIRCUIT... RE.QUIRES...MORE ACCURACY. IT_Wwikh TELL You. .OF Cours... YOU... CAN... Bulk D._UP__CUSTOM. LRESISTANCES. ONNECTING..TWD.OR.MORE._ RESISTOR S. IN. SERIES 1 PARALLEL. MORE ABout. THAT LATER. iz Sees|G RESISTOR TION. PRECAUT! RESISTORS... THAT | CONDUCT... COTS...OF. IT__.CAN...BECOME..VERY HOT! [THERE PORE, ALWAYS USE RESISTORS HAVING THE PROPER... POWER... RATING... IE....A.PROTEST. YOU'RE BUILDING... DORSN'T..._SPECIEY... POWER... RATING EP Ac AUB UALLY.. OK. TO. USE V4 OR MR WATT. URUIT S 4 eee reece DESIGNATED... WITH. AK. ORM SUFFIX. LIKE 47K OR 10.M...K. MEANS. KILO, AFTER. THE GREEK WORD FOR ----} 1,000.4... THEREFORE, 47K MEANS. 42x 1,000. oR 47,000. | MIS. SHORT. FOR._.MEGOHM.OR.1,.000,.000.. OHMS... aes | THEREFORE. A_1m__ RESISTOR. HAS. A RESISTANCE OF _ 1X 1,000,000 oR 1,000, 000. OHMS... SUMMING UP 4. k= * 1,000 (47K = 47 1,000 = 47,000 on1mS) eee M=.% 1,000,000 (2.2 = 2.2 ¥ 1,000,000 = 2,200,000 OHMS) [OU OTHER KINDS. OF RES!STORS. —.. THE. CARBON. COMPOS IT.LON. RESISTOR. ISONLY. ONE..OF. SEVERAL MATOR. KANDS. OF. RESISTORS. HERE. ARE OTHERS +. METAL FILM. RESISTORS. VARIouS.... KINDS. CE RESISTORS VTHAT.USE A THINF/LM OF METAL oR A ETAL PARTICLE. MIXTURE TO ACHIEVE. VARIOUS. RESISTANCES. CARBON. Fim RESISTORS... THESE ARE MADE BY. DEPOSITING A CARBON.FILM..ON...A SMALL CER, A_.SPIRAL. GROQVE....CUT._INTO...THE a THECENGTA..OF. CARSON BETWEEN.THE __ LEADS... HENCE... THE RESISTANCE... WIRE. WOUND... RESISTORS... THESE... CONSIST._OF___A _ TUBULAR... FoR... WRAPPED... wT... COILS... OF. RESISTANCE WIRE... THEY. ARE very ACCURATE. -LOTS..OF. MEAT. ALSO..CALLED_.PHOTOCELLS.. FROM. ALIGHT. SENSITIVE... MATERIAL. LIKE. CADMIUM. ULFIPE....._INCREASING..THE... LIGHT LEVEL DECREASES. THE. RESISTANCE... MORE_.AgouT...THIS CATER. ____ PROTARESISTORS.. SHERMISTORS...THIS 1S A TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE RESISTOR. INCREASING THE TEMPERATURE. DECREASES RESISTANCE (in MosT CASES).10. VAR\ASLE RESISTORS — OFTEN _IT's__NECESSARY. _OF...A__RESISTOR. VARIABLE. 2OTENTIOMETERS, THEY _ ARE. VOLUME..OF A RADIO. CHANGE. Bb LAMP» _ADIUST._THE CALIBRATION. ARE __POTENTIOMETERS passe THUMBWHEEL OR A. SLOT. Ltt | }-EQwiPPEO With. | €OR A. SCREWDRWER BLADE, THEY ARE | OCCASIONAL... ADTUST MENT, [me oy _sesistance is | SIME. THE SUM OF THE. | INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCES.AGT OS eee eee THERE ARE MA) ALLO... THE. SAME. {Simplest __CAPAeTOR.__IS___TWo._ CONDUCTOR: | BY__AN__INSWATING MATERIAL CALLED SEPARATED. DIELECTRIC. THE DIELECTRIC. Can BE PAPER, PLASTIC. FILM, MICA, GLASS, CERAMIC, .AIR..OR. A VACUUM. THE PLATES CAN BE. Aluminum... DISCS, ALUmumuM. FOIL OR A THAD FILM. OF... METAL... APPLIED... OPPOSITE... SIDES _.OF A S04/D____ DIELECTRIC... THE. CONDUCTOR = DIELECTRIC — CondueTOR SANDWIA. CAM..BE..ROLLEO. ITD A OYLIAIDER.....OR.... LEFT... FLAT... MORE. ABOUT... TYPES OF CAPACITORS. LATER. How TO MAKE A Capac iToR a NOU...CAN.. MAKE... A__CAPAC\TOR... FROM _TWO__SHEETS___OF__ ALUMINUM... Poll. AND. ONE. SHEET.OF WAXED. PAPER. FOLD. TAE..PAPER.... AROUND....ONE. FOIL. SHEET... AND... STACK THE SHEETS | UKE TALS. _ - - THEN... FOLO... THE SHEETS VF, — so.ne A fe Foe PAPER ~ PER... I BE SURE. THE FOIL SHEETS....DON'T.roucu!| __ PRESS me COonTACTS OF A 9- VoLr @ATTERY BRIEFLY. TO THE. ExPosen ENDS. OFTHE. Fou SHEETS. _THEA__} {TOUCH THE... PROBES... OF A HIGH. MULTIMETER. TO... THE. FOIL. SHEETS. WILL INDICATE A SMALL. VOLTAGE SECONDS.DO CHARGING...A. CAPACITOR — THE. MINUS... SIDE_oF. OUR HOMEMADE... CAPACITOR, 13. CHARGER. .WITH... ELECTRONS ALMOST IMMEDIATELY. SINCE. RESISTORS, — Limit. CURRENT __ YOU.AN... SLOW... DOWN. THE... .CHARGING... TIME. BY. PLAC= HIG. A. RESISTOR BETWEEN... THE .CAPACITOR... AND TRE...A-VoeT... BATTERY i ® HERE'S A 8 = 5 vours GRAPH OF THE g z C. CHARGING TIME: 5 TIME. FLDISCHARGING. A. CAPACITOR ——. THE ELECTRONS.IN A CHARGED. CAPACITOR... WILL... GRADUALLY... LEAK... TAROUGEL THE DIELECTRIC. UNTIC, 0TH. PLATES, HAVE AN. EQuAL CHARGE, THE. CAPACITOR. IS... THEN... DISCHARGED. THE CAPACATOR. CAN... GE DISCHARGED. VERY. QUIcKLY_BY.CON = NECTING ITS. PLATES... TOGETHER. OR IT. CAN. BE [DISCHARGED MORE... SLOWLY. By. CONNECTING A RESISTOR... ACROSS..IT_2 HERE'S. A % GRAPH OF THE = a DISCHARGE TIME: & ohne (DO SPECIFYING CAPACITORS— THE AgiLiTY.. TD STORE, JELECTRONS IS KNown AS CAPACITANCE .. CAPACITANCE. IS. SPECIFIED IN FARADS .. A_4-FARAD. CAPACITOR CONNECTED. bE dee WOOT... su SUPAY WILL. STORE.....@, 280,000, 000, 000, 000, 000....(@.28*10'%), ELECTRONS.!...MOST...CAPACITORS HAVE... MUCH... SMALLER. VALUES. SMALL... CAPACITORS... ARE _SPECIFLED...IN...PICOFARADS. .CTRILLIOMITHS. OFA... FARAD). AND... LARGER..CAPACITORS... ARE... SPECIFIED. IN. MIGROPARADS...MILLIONTHS..OF... A. FARAD).. SUMMING...UP: d= Farap_= 16 L=.MicRoFARAD. Lak= 10% 0.000.004 F. 1- PICOFARAD F_=..0.. 000.000.000.001 F b >> a QO SUBSTITUTING CAPACITORS — THE. CAPACITANCE. SPECIFIED. FoR MosT.....CAPACITORS.... .MAY..@EFRom..5 TD. 100..%.. AWAY. FROMTHE. ACTUAL... VALUE... THEREFORE... YOU... CAN... OFTEN... SUBSTITUTE CLOSE... VALUES... FOR..A..... SPECIE IED... VALUE... GE. SvRE_, However. , TR..USB. A CAPACITOR. RATED. AT THE EXPECTED MAXIMUM vouTAce.. Levert!AUTION S —— You MusT THECAPAGITOR You... Putas TD. EXCEEDS THE __ REQUIRED _ OTHERWISE _ITS__DIECECTRIC_ @y..THE STORED. CHARGE. VDLTAGE..RATING..1S_ USUALLY _ PRINTED ON. THE CAPACITOR, _V_.MEANS..VOLTS.. WY 1S. WORKING. VOLT SC SAME..THING) DAPAC ITORS. — CapaciTORS._AREOFTEN LABELED __ Te. THER DIELECTRIC. THus..YouLe... SEE | REeEReNces.To.... CERAMIC, MICA... POLYSTYRENE AND... MANY... OTHERS. ALL. THESE... ARE. FIXED. VALUE CAPACITORS. [Sone _.CafaciTors......HAVE..A_ VARIAELE..... CARAS ITY AMD. A~-SPECIAL_CLASS......OF.... FIXED CAPACITORS... HAS PUCK MORE...CAPAC ITY... THAN... OTHER... CAPACITORS.» HERE'S _f10RE : www VARIABLE .CAPACITORS THESE... USUALLY. NOM = MOVING... PLATES. ANO.....ONE....OR THE... CAPACITANCE... 1S__ CHANGED BY... —AFEIXED....TD....ONE SID OF THE - MOUAGLE 7 AW. PLATES... Fixeo _-- PLATES. = TERMINALS. THIS... KINDIS...USEQ__TO__ TUNE. THIS... KIMD...1$..USED.....TD.. RADIO. RECEIVERS... AND...TRANS ~ TUNE... OSCILLATORS... LIKE. MITTERS..THE. DIELECTRIC... THOSE. USED.__.IA_ Dlg ITAL IS.USUACLY AIR. ~ WATCHES. ...THEY'RE.. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS... UNIQUE IN. THAT...A.-THUW.. _ OXIDE... LAYER... FORMEO...ON.... ALUHINUM..OR__ TANTALUM. Folk IS. THE... DIELECTRIC. MUCH... HIGHER... TAAN NON - ELECTROLYT/C..TYPES... HAVE. MORE CAPACLTANCE...PER._.VOLU/E. IPE THAN. ALUMINUM... ELECTROLYTICS. QDST. MORE... MDST_... ELECTROLY TICS ARE. __ THEY MUST... BE CONNECTED_INTO...A CIRQusT. INTHE. PROPER... DIRECTION 1... POSITIVE Le ap._MusT .GQ..70. MOST... POSITIVE. CONNECTION POINT!CAPACLTORS.....CAN... STORE... A_.CHARGE FOR A CONSIDERABLE. TIME. AFTER... THE. POWER TD THEM. HAS... BEEN... SWITCHED... .OFE.. THIS... CHARGE... caN_.BE.. RANGERQUS L.A Laace ELECTROLYTIC... CHARGED. Te ONLY. BOR LO... MOLTS. CAN. MELT THE. TIP ot A SCREWDRIVER. PLACED. ACROSS, ITS... TERMINALS!.HIGH...VOLTAGE... CAPACITORS. LIKE... THOSE... USED..IN.. TELEVISION. SETS. AND... PROTOFLASH. UNITS... CAN... STORE..A. LETHAG. CHARGE |. NEVER TOUCH. THE LEADS”oF _SucH.A CAPACITOR... AT. THE. VERY..._LEAST. THE. TOLT CAN... THROW You. ACROSS... A...@00m | |HOW. CAPACITORS ARE. USED —jOL PARALLEL CIRQUIT — OFTEN... CAPACITORS ARE. CONNESTED...IN._ | PARALLEL LIKE. THIS 5 ISTHE. Sum.0F THE, INDIVID VAL... CAPACI TANCES. | THE TOTAL CAPACITANCE. | Cr SERIES. CIRCUIT — SOMETIMES CAPACITORS. ARE CoN — | NECTED IN. SERIES SKE THIS § TAS TOTAC.. capacitance eS 1S. THE. PRODUCT ...OF THE { CL x ce er —|mwe._CAPaciTAN CES y.8 | Divipge by THEIR. SUM. St ce : THREE...OR MORE. CAPACITORS JN SERIES? HERE?S mE. —[epamvea Bet Ss. irs Veet sescaees ARE SHOWN) NEXT +» (Dane mare = mere are Many omer ways —|caracrtors 4 SOME OF whicjoe _ REASONS... (FILTER). SUPPLY..__INTO | ALTERNATING. corre nT...CAC) SPIRE. MOMENTARILY. | CIRCUITS. BY... PLACING. RESISTOR AND. CAPACITOR... APPLICATIONS ES/STORS AND. CAPACITORS. ARE THE... MANY. ELECTRONIC SIROWITS.«. WAY OR. VICE VERSA... THIS... CAN. CAUSE. VERY. BRIEF. SUBSTANTIAL REQUCTIONS.../N.. POWER. APKLIED_TO... MEARE: THESEPOWER SPIKES. (OR LITOMES 5... AS. THEY... ARE. SOMETLOES. CALLED) CAN BE. BLUMIN ATED. INGREDIENTS. PucsaTINGvoeTace.....ROtH....A... POWER A STEADY... DIRECT CURRENT. ¢.DO).. TAA SE 6 ALTERED... ourpur VOLTAGE a : RECTIFIER (.oRE..cATER) REMOVER =. DIGITAL... LOGIC. CIRCUITS, WHICH _ FIND.OUT....WORE.... ABOUT... CATER, .CAN..USE_.60TS__OF CURRENT _ WHEN... THEY. SWITCH... FROM. OFF__T® _ON__ AL SrA Ath..C.0.4... ME)... CAPACITOR. ACROS. SIGNAL. WILE 1T!S._DARK i je A..CAPAGITOR, COMPLETELY. 36 THE... POWER... LEADS...OF. THE... L0G (0... CIRCUIT + — H ow H i VOLTAGE. + y ¥ WATH.......CRPACITOR. toate. a an circu, CAPACITOR... ACTS. &IKE_MIAMATURE BATTERY...THAT....SUPPLIES POWER OURING THE SPIKE... Cac- 0c “secective FILTER = OFTEN. AN ELECTRICAL — BE. RIDING... ATOP....A.STEADY_._DC__ SIGNAL. FoR... EXAMPLE.,...THE.. SIGNAL.FRoM.._A_ LIGHT WAVE COMMUNICA TION, SYSTEM. MAY. 400K. LIKE THIS. BUT___SUNLIGHT CAUSES. 10 Witt... PASS. THE __ FLUCTUATING... SIGNAL__AND_— BLOCK. THE... STEADY. DG. LEVEL.{OL Re eieoirs = two _cigevits THAT COMBINE A —-RESISTOR...C.R)_ AND _ CAPACITOR (Sc). ARE. VERY JM PoR~ ——{TaNT..___THEY.__ARE THE INTEGRATOR... AND DIFFERENTIATOR. ——|- Bom __THESE _ciReuiTs ARE used AN IN [CALLED me Be Tie ComSTanT. FoR .THE_CLRQUITS. RG TIME CONSTANT.CIN) SECONDS). BETWEEN : SPEEDED.UP, THE WAVEFORMS. COFTEN._ -A__SAW TOOTH) Wilt. NoT___REACH. THEIR Func AMPLITUDE) ....1TS EASY_TD._DESIGN__AN. IGNORES. WAVES.....WNTH LESS THAN AMPLITUDE « THEREFORE, THE INTEGRATOR PASSES._onty_ FREQUENCY. OUT PUT. WAVES. —wWiTHSHARP__PosiTIVE. AND NEGATIVE PEAKS. IT?S. ann GENERATORS. TEU! Vision RECEIVERS Ano TD... TRIGGER. DIGITAL OGIC CiROUITS DLMORE.. ABOUT. R-@ —You..Wike. OFTEN SEE REFERENCES —|TO THE. RO. _ TIME. GONSTANT...0F A CIRCUIT, IT'S THE [TIME IN. SECONDS. FOR A_ CHARGING OR DISCHARGING. CAPASITOR.TD__.GO._THROUGH.63.3% OF THE CHANGE. IN. CHARGE.(CP.1S). CREATES. AN. EVEN... STRONGER FIELD. | Slow SQUARE WAVE — Lous . aie ELECTRONS. MOVING. THROUGH. A WIRE CAUSE. AN ELECTRO MAGNETIC. ElECD TD ENCIRGLE THE. WIRE ASYou..kNow.. FROM... CHAPTER..1,.PASSING.._A CURRENT _ THROUGH. A. .WIRE...THAT'S.... BEEN... WRAPPED... ASA. Cole __ —THIS__FLELD MAKES. POSSIBLE. SOLENOIDS... MOTORS... AND. ELECTROMAGNETS, Cos. HAVE. OTHER. (MPORTANT... ROLES... TOO.4 1. Cows RESIST. APIO. CHANGES....IN. THE..CURRENT... Flow) = ING. THROUGH. THEM WHICE FREELY. PASSING... STEADY. (dC)... CURRENT... HERE. ARE. SOME EXAMPLES +. Signar ts, Low out, — stow sine..waves.S LS IT DNS east sive wave ~ JUV a TOT STN east sauare wave - JUUUVUM We eee SOMETIMES....A... COIL... WILE... ADP... RINGING... D..A. SQUARE... WAVE PASSING... THROUGH IT. THIS... CAN. HAPPEN. WHER THE coon RESISTANCE OF. THE. EXTERNAL... CURRENT... PATH... THAT. CONMERTS. THE. BMDS OF THB COIL IS on HIGH sear wave SUL yy bos i 2. SOME.OF THE. ENERGY.IN THE... FIELD CAN... GE...INDUCED (TRANSFERRED)... INTD. Cole. TALS. IS. THE... PRINCIPLE OF. THE —IMPUT_.. SIDE...OF... THE... TRANSFORMERS CALLER THE. PRIMARY, THE... OUTPUT... SIDE..IS CALLED THE CORN eee SQ 0 -(EL TYPES OF CowS —= THERE ARE MANY DIFFERENT. TYPES._OF COMMS, HERE 7 ~ eM et SELECT A _DSSIRED.SIGNAL. TUNING cols WAVE —4___A__ SERIES. OF. TAPS. Ot A MOVABLE. CORE SO | THEIR... IMRUCTANCE™, HENCE... RESONANT. FREQUENSY, CAN BE. CHANGED. TUNING COL TYPICAL. TUNING. OFTEN _USe__A__BROADLy_ RADIO. SIGNALS. ANTENNA..dIL. RADIOS TUNED. Coil 7D. PICK UP TYPICAL | _._ ANTENNA Com Com, —7 CHOKE ..USED IN. MANY _CiRQUIT STi UPPRESS FLUCTUATING SIGNALS. WHILE__PASSING. _STEADY___CURRENT. _CHOKES ARE... AVAILABLE. IN... | MANY. SHAPES. AND... SIZE Si. SG ee : Senctosen colts. coll fe Cowinpines") TRANSFORMER, SO IMPORTANT. WELL COMPLETE. SECTION TOIT. —{DAPPLicaTion Ss FoR colts —| ALREADY DESCRIBED.» Cows ARE SELECTIVELY PASS __ SPEGIFIC. TION! A HIGH VOLTAGE... PULSE LIN. A__CHOKE __WHEA) THE CURREWT IS__INTERRUPTED, BE CAREFUL.AROUND LRON “LAMINATED CORE CURRENT... FLOWIN.G.... THROUGH... THE _PRIMARY._Colk FLUCTUATING... THEN... CURREN with BE IMDUCED THE... SECONDARY WINDING. STEADY._(D¢) Wil. NOT BE. TRANSFERRED. FROM. ONE Cou __ THER. | Mow... THEY... WORK. — TRANSFORMERS HAVE. THE ABKITY. 1D. TRANSFORM....... VOLTAGE... AND. CURRENT_TD_. HIGHER.._OR a LOWER LEVELS... THEY..DO.. NOT 4 OF CouRSE ,_ CREATE aS PowER. FROM... NOTHING... THEREFORE.,..IF___ A TRANSFORMER B00STS......THE. VOlrAGE.OF...A..... SIGNAL, IT REDUCES. CURRENT. AND... EIT... OUTS... THE. VOLTAGE OF —SISMAL 4. /T-RAISES ITS. CURRENT... IN OTHER WORDS... THE POWER FLOWING FROM... TRANSFORMER CANNOT... EXCEED..THE INCOMING POWER | IO TURNS. RATIO — THE RATIO. OF PRIMARY 7D SECONDARY RATIO nen TURNS... DETERMINES. A... TRANSFORMERS. VOLTAGE Aid RATIO“ : THE PRIMARY. VOLTAGE ANO CURRENT... ARE....TRANS= SIE FERRED... UNALTERED. TD. THE. SECONDARY, OFTEA CALLed. AN... ISOLATION TRANSEOR MER STEP> UP. wn = THE .VOLTAGE._1S._ INCREASED... GY. THE TURNS RAT. ale THUS A125 TURNS RATIO. Wikk.. A005 T= VOLTS. _AT.THE.. PRIMARY. INTO.2S~ voUTS AT. THE SECONDAR: STEP= DOWN. | aay) THE VOLTAGE 15 REDUCED... GY...THE... TURNS RATIO. B= THUS AS: Tews RATIO wie pRop__26 -vorTs_AT_ THE PRIMARY. To S-VOLT S__AT THE. SECONOARY.TAPPED PRIMARY __ oe AnD... SECONDARY. NOTE: LEADSOF TRANSFORMERS ARE cavor. WINDINGS. AUTOHOTIVE._IN. GASOLINE... ENGINES... IGNITION. ALSO... WSED.....TD_. POWER, DIFFERENT. OFA. C1RCUI’ _-T2__.PROVIDE.... PROTECTION. ROP. ELECTRICAL SHOCK. OFTEN..USED. TD._REDUCE, VOLTAGE....TR. ee bsAgLe...LEvEt... UTILITY... Spin iseiareeeeeiien 1-1) Yoo eee TRANSFORMER. SEO... PRODUCE IGNITION... PARKS. = TV...PICTURE.. TUBES. SOME LASERS, EON. LiGuTS, Ere... USE0._TD__.MATCH....THE JOPEDANCE™ of AN. AMPLIFLER....1D....THAT..oF A MICROPHONE. , SPEAKER : ae OR... OTHER DEVICE. arian “opposinion....10. THE. FLOW. OF i Seaaeeeees ALTERNATING. CURRENT. MINLATURE. OD0ED.. eee eeeeeeee[SILICON ATom Wie... | gp =~ Stkteon_.18 Mer. Me ose erNG AND Im PoRTANT ELECTRONIC loomPONENTS._ARE MADE FROM. GRYSTALS. CALLED [SEmeon0uCTORS, DEPENDING ON CERTAIN. CONDITIONS, A -SEMiCONOUCTOR _CAN.__ACT LIKE _A_ Compucr oR. FOUR... ELECTRONS. IN. IT.S_. OUTERMOST SHELL, Ru or. [WOULD LiKE 7D HAVE. lEIGHT. THEREFORE , DE...ATS. ~ UP wit. a SHARE ELECTROWS.3. MEIGHBORS... OUTER... ELECTRONS A. REGULAR. ARRANGED. CALLED. A cRysrét. SILICON... FORHS___27.7 %.._OF__THE__EARTH’?S___CRus: OXYGEN. IS ORE Common. _/T)S._. —fOuMp.. PURE STATE. WHEN SILICON AND... DIAMOND. SHARE. THE.. SAME CRYSTAL. STRUCTURE. AND. OTHER. \iity.. PROPERTIES.._BuT. —CRYSTALS..Ir's (ut _INTD.WAEERS FOR _ TRANSPARENT. 2ti fit LS. CALLE | ELECTRON DEFICIENT lor Swicon ATOMS EAVES A. D SILICON RECIPES — PURE Sii@on ISAT VERY USEFUC. THATS. WHY. SILICON) MAKERS SPICE UP THEIR... SILLCON. RECIPES WITHA PHOSPHORUS, BOROAL...OR __GOo01ES. THIS. 1S CALLED. THE ___S1LtGON, WHEN __ INTO. CRYSTALS, DOPED —-SILLCON... HAS VERY YSEEUL ELECTRONIC... PROPERTIES. fi E BORON... PHOSPHORUS... AAD Can Tus_with Sicicon_ ATOMS. TO HERS'S._ THE CATCH: A BORON... ATOM. HAS ONLY THREE ELECTROW JA) JTS ___ OUTER. SHELL. _ANO_ A. PHOSPHORUS. ATOM. HAS. EWE ELECTRONS IN ITS OUTER SHELL, SILIConL..WITH EXTRA PHOSPHORUS. ELECTROMS NS TYPE SILL. COW.(.N.2. NEGATIVE). SILICON WITH BORON...ATOMS.. IS CALLED. Rees |A_gofon. ATOM IN_A__CLUSTER VACANT ELECTRON OPENING 175. POssiBLe laces CAN Move THROUGH. | Sicicon (aust AS sussies Hose. {MOVE THROUGH WATER)... LHL LTTE LY lpowaTes AN ExTeA. ELECTRON...) THIS. EXTRA__ELECTRON. Be-BOTH TYPES IS DETERMINED Ry HOLES _O8 SuRMUS ELECTRONS, BY FORMING Some P-TYPE SILICON In) A CHIP OF N= [Tyee OM, ELECTRONS With FLOW THROUEM THE. SILICON JN_ONLY ONE RECT IOAL THIS 1S THE PRINCIPLE oF THE._DIODE . THE P-N. INTERFACE. |S CALLED THE PAL TUNCTION. OQ How THE Diope woRKS— HERE'S A SIMMIEIED. CONDUCTS. ELECTRICITY. _ | gi _uoutace _exceeos THE TUNGCTION._ THERE = |___ REPELS. HOLES ANO ELECTRONS TOWARO.THE JUNCTION, ELECTRONS AWAY FROM. O.G-VoLr (Sitcom), THEN. Fore, No nn ELECTRONS” WILL CRoss AN THE__SUNcTion AnD — j—-COMBIME..WITH HOueS, A_CURRENT THEN ELows._ BA Pic al piobe = Dione sane ODER S.A DARK BAND MARKS, — CURRENT. Lous WHEN ANODE 1S aw Moae.PosiTve /_ANODE THAN CATHODE, |Comnoney.. ENCLOSED IN SMALL GLASS |THE CATHODE _TERMWAC. THE = OPPOSITE TERMINAL iS THE ANODE aay .DORE OPERATION = You. ALREADY KNOW A _DIDDE._1S__ [Like An ErectRaNic ONE=WAYVALVE.._LT?S._In1PORTANT [re UNDERSTAND. SOME ADDITIONAL ASPECTS. —[oreranon. MERE ARE. —{ 1A Dope wit. —|-vorraGe REACHES. A CERTAIN. {| -SILiCon.._ O/00ES THIS. VOLTAGE. | EXCESSWE , THE SEmiconnucToR MAY CRACK OR MELT! AND... THE. CONTACTS._MAY SEPARATE... AIP MECTS., THE _DIOOE._ MAY._SUODENLY. CONOUCT._IN..BOTH DIRECTIONS... THE | RESULTING HEAT MAY VAPORIZE THE Ol SumMING up Diove | THIS GRAPH SUMS UP. ¢-2 FORWARD CURRENT [Ie = REVERSE CURRENT _(SILICON) _ Hed gaeeesaness|. TYPES OF DIODES - -_MANY DIFFERENT. _KINDS__OF [DIODES ARE._AVALASLE, HERE ARE Some OF THE SMALL SIGNAL. DIODES ARE USED rp TRANSFORM... LOW..CURRENT...AC TO DC, Derect —CQEMODULATE)..RADIO.. SIGNALS, MUCTIPLY VOLTAGE, PERFORM. .LOGIC, AGSORE VOLTAGE SPIKES, ETC. Power RECTIFIER. IDENTICAG, SMALL SIGNAL POWER RECTIFIERS..CAN. HANDLE MUCH MORE. CURRENT... THEY. ._ARE._ IN STALLED. zi IW CARGE METAL... PACKAGES..._THAT.__SoAK uP. : EXCESS.HEAT..AND... TRANSFER IT 7D A. METAG HEAT. SINK» ..USE0 MAINLY IN POWER. SUPPLIES, SIGNED. TD. HAVE. A ~C.Gonouer-lon). VOLTAGE, THIS .MEANS. ZENER. O1ODES.... CAN FUNCTION LIKE. =a A... VOLTAGE SENSITIVE SWITCH. ZENER DIODES HAVING. BREAKDOWN VOLTAGES (Va).OF FROM ABouT. 2-VOLTS TO. ATION. WHEN FORWARD BIASED. DIODES MADE FROM. CERTAIN SEMICONDUCTORS. (LIKE GALLIUM ARSENIDE PHOSPH/DE) EMIT CONSIDERAGLY MORE. | RATION Than _SiUIcON DIODES. THEY'RE CALLED fT = Et tin PkeTopiopeS. THEY INCLUDE A GLASS oR a ———-RLASTIC._WINDow... THROUGH WHICH me LIGHT. —ENTERS.__OFTENL THRY HAVE _A__LARGE , ExPosED JUNCTION REGION. __SWICON MAKES G00) PHOTDDIDDES._HOW. DIODES ARE. USED ——|im_cuneter —You'te SEE HOW VARIOUS TYPES OF DIODES ARE INMANY APPLICATIONS... FOR Mow HERE ARE TWO OF AE MOST IMPORTANT... ROLES..FOR Smale SIGNAL Diape SAND RECTIFIERS? NUNDULATING. CAC) SIGNAL COR VOLTAGE) __ Cpe our S RECTIFIED INTO A ie HALEoF SIGNAL. SINGLE PoLAR\Ty Coc) 1SBLOCKED_. ICL. FULL = WAVE... RECTIFIER, @R_BRIDGE_RECTIELER) RECTIEIES 907A HALUES De out OF AN AC SIGNAL. AC.IN AN ELECTRICAL CURRENT 1S THE MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS. TAROUGA A__CONDUCTOR. 02 SEMICONDUCTOR. SINCE ELECTRONS MOVE. FROM. A NEGATIVELY CHARGED TDA POSITIVELY CHARGED REGION, WHY DOES THE _ARROWHEAD..IN A DIODE SYMBo. POINT INTHE lopeosize DIRECTION? TAERE .ARE_.TWO_REASONS: -WUTH BEN TAMIN.. “ERANKLIN, it WAS. “TRADITION ALLY. ASSUMED ELECTRICITY Flows FROM A POSITIVELY CHARGED. To A _|NEGATIVELY CHARGED REGION. THE DISCOVERY 0& THE ELECTRON CORRECTED. THAT...( BT. MOST. EGECTRICAL CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS.TDDAY __ __|STILA FOLLOW THE OLD TRADITION. IN.WHICH..THE...POSITIVE POWER. ISuPAY CONNECTION. 1S PLACED ABOVE. THE NEGATIVE... CONNECTION |AS_1F GRAVITY. SOMEHOW _INELUENCES THE ELOW..0F..A..CURRENT.) 2. A. SEMICONDUCTOR, AS SHOWN ON PAGE iN THE DIRECTION. OPPOSITE THAT OF ELECTRON FLO} FHEREEORE. COMMON. 1D..REFER TO. PosiTIVE SEMICONDUCTORS. i: FOR ACCURACY, IN. THIS. BOOK." CURRENT. FLOW." REFERS..TO ELEGIRON \FLOW..BUT.._.WE'RE _STUCK._WITH SYMBOLS THAT INDICATE HOLE FLOW. \ \ \\THE... TRANSISTOR | TRANSISTORS _ARE__SEMICON- DUCTOR. DEVICES WTR THREE, LEADS... AVERY... SMALL. CURRENT... OR. VOLTAGE... AT...ONE. LEAD... CAN... CONT ROL... A... MUCH, LARGER... CURRENT... FLOWING. |TAROUGH... THE... OTHER... Two... LEADS. TAIS._MEANS.TRANSISTORS.CAn) BE_USED.AS.....AMPUFIERS....... AND. SWATCHES... THERE... ARE. Two. MAIN. FAMILIES OF TRANSISTORS: BiPoaR Awd. FIELD = EFFECT. BIPOLAR... TRANSISTORS ADD... A. SECOND. TUNCTION..To A PN TUNCTION. DIODE. AND. YoU. GET__A..3- LAYER SILICON SANDWICH. THE SAoWICH. CAN. GE EITHER NPN oR PNP, EITHER WAN, LINE. MIDDLE.LAYER. ACTS... LIKE A__fARCET. OR GATE THAT... comTROCS. BASE COECTOR \ THE CURRENT. MOVIN.G.... THROUGH, THE THREE LAYERS. (C1 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR. OPERATION — BIPOLAR... TRANSISTOR. ARE... THE |THE... BASE..1S.... YERY THIN. .AND THE EMITTER... AND._COLLECTOR. BASE CURRENT...WiLL.. CAUSE COLLECTOR... CURRENT.....TD.... PLOW. THREE GASE_ THE EMITTER , HAS. FEWER THERE FORE. A_.MugH VER coutecrer, AMPLIFIED. ouTPuT, CURRENT. Base BASE. cof] emerrreR outer THE... RESISTORS. PRoreer.THE TRANSISTOR.PROM TO... MUCH... CoRRENT. (WHICH 2An). CAUSE DOPING. LARGER OFA COLE CTOR.. ATOMS THAN SMALL EMITTER — EMITTER LAYERS. AND. Y ConLECTOR EmiTER,I. MORE. A@ouT. S1POLAR TRANSISTOR OPERATION - Z TRANSISTORS... SHARE. SEVERAL.__ KEY. FEATURES. A THE. GASE = EMITTER UNITIC..THE... FORWARD 2...T0O... MUCH CORRENT..WILL TRANSISTOR 7D. BECOME HOT AND. IMPROPERLY. TE A._TRANSISTOR_IS. WHEN TRUCKED, DISCONNECT. THE POWER, T.aT} 13,700. MUCH... CURRENT.....OR DAMAGE OR... PERMANENTLY... DESTROY THE __ ea Z SEMICONDUCTOR... CHIP....THAT..FORMS A TRANSISTOR... LETHE... CHIP___ISWT HARMED, ITS_.TINY._CONNECTION.._.WIRES.. OR... SEPARATE. FROM THE CHIP... SONNECT....A_ TRANSISTOR _BACKWARDS.1. KINDS OF. TRANSISTORS = MANY DIEFERENT __KINDS.OF... ITRANSISTORS....ARE..... AVAILAELE.. HERE. ARE EXAMPLES OF. THE. MOST._IMPORTANT. MAY MELT SMALL SIGNAL AND. SWITCHING . ___SMAUL SIGNAL __TRANSISTORS._ARE USED as EY Low LEVEL SIGAALS._. oe best _ SWITCHING. TRANSISTORS ARE DE SIGNED. coon TD BE OPERATED. EULLY On) OR OFF. ArieeLEY. PoweR TRANSISTORS ARE —-USED_IN._HIGH_ POWER... AMPLIFIERS _AND___ POWER, SUPPLIES, LARGE. SIZE._AND _..EKPORED. METAL,.SURFACES.. KEEP. THEM coon. “BIGH= FREQUENCY TRANSISTORS. PERATE AT. RADIO, TELEVISION BASE..REGION.IS VERY.FD BPOLAR TRANSISTOR AN DIRECTION _ —couLectoR (0) TT. NEN EMITTER. CE) JHOW.--BIPOLAR “TRANSISTORS ARE USED WHEN THE BASE — AN. _ NPN. “TRANSISTOR AS_GROUNDED_ INO CURRENT..FLOWS... FROMTHE _EMITTER.TO. E. COLLecTOR ¢ THE FTRANSISTOR..15 'ofe"), IF THE BASE 15 FORWARD = 8IASED. 8Y AT HEAST..0.6..VOLT.».. A CURRENT WILL FLOW. FROM.THE EMITTER TO JTRE...cOLLECTOR (THE TRANSISTOR 1S_".ON"), WHEN OPERATED In ONLY THESE TWO. MODES, THE TRANSISTOR. FUNCTIONS..AS_A SWITCH. KE THE BASE 1s FORWARD BIASED, THE EMITTER-COLLECTOR. CURRENT WILL FOLLOW VARIATIONS..IN. A. MUCH SMALLER ASE CURRENT. SHE TRANSISTOR.THEN. FUNCTIONS AS AN AMPLIEIER. THLS____ DISCUSSION APPLIES...7D_A TRANSISTOR IN WHICH THE. EMITTER IS THE ROUND... CONNECTION... FOR BOTH THE. INPUT AND. OUTPUT AND is ICALLED.... THE. COMMON = EMITTER CIRCUIT... SOME. SIMPLIFIED COMMON=__. EMITTER. CIRCUITS ARE SHOWN. BELOW,._S0__You CAN SEE How WHEY... ARE. USED IN REAL CIRCUITS, EACH EXAMOLE REFERS TO. AL TYPICAL WORKING APPLICATION. IN CHAPTER. CLA BIPOLAR. TRANSISTOR SWITCH BASE, RESiston. OK 3D_USE_RESISTOR,. __PlEZ0 BUZZER, ETC, ws PLACE OF LAMB. ONLY TWO. INPUTS. ARE_POSSI8¢E : GROUND CO vouTs) ANDTHE POSITIVE. BATTERY..VOLTAGE.C +.V.)...__ THEREFORE... LS_OFF. OR. ON, ATYPICAL BASE. RESISTANCE |10,000.onms.IE THE RESISTOR 1S REPLACED BY A_WiRe, LAME CAN BE SWITCHED ON oR CFE FROM A CONSIDER AGLE DISTANCE.)THE VARIASLE RESISTOR MAYBE IN —|series witha Second. coMPONENT__RAVING..A_ RESISTANCE [TAAT.. VARIES _WiTM. TEMPERATURE, LIGHT, MOISTURE, ETC... (WATER. \S THE VARIABLE RESISTANCE..INTHE MOISTURE METER P1041.) WHEN THE INPUT SIGNAL... CHANGES. PLD! AC...AMPLIFIER. SUCH .AS_ THE ON! A eiPoLAR.. TRANSISTOR .AC..AMPLIFJER — THIS 13 THe “SIMPLEST of SEVERAL. BASIC. AC__AMPLIFIERS.. —TME_LOAD_RESISTOR.._]|_BIAS_]|___THE inpuT_caeaciroR Fo} causes. Me _0UTPUT BLOCKS ANY D&S. Tey} —CPRRENT.1_ BECOME ——TAE__INPUT... SIGNAL. AVOUT AGE. (VsTxR). ——{or__AgouT MALE THE BATTERY vorTAGE. THE AMPLIFIED _SIGNAL_ —_|HRIngs "ON THIS. STEADY OUTPUT VOLTAGE AND VARIES ABOVE ANID ——|Berow im. (witHour THE BIAS RESISTOR, oNLy THE POSITIVE ——|WRLE o£ THE ieuT SIGNAL AGOVE 0.6 VOUT (see 4S) with. ———|BE-AMOLIEIED. nus Witt CAUSE SEVERE DISTORTION.) Th SEE. lowe way A WORKING VERSION OF THIS AMPUEIER IS USED, ——JIURN...NOW TDP. 122_ANO LOOK AT THE ourpuT. SECTION ——lor_meLIGHTWAVE TRANSMITTER. :{MERGE TDGETAER AND. COMPLETELY... BLOCK. THE. FIELD-EFFECT. TRANSISTORS FIELD~ EFFECT. TRANSISTORS (oR FETs)_HAVE. BECOME IMPORTANT .THAN. BIPOLAR... TRANSISTORS... THEY._ARE._EASY_10. MAKE...AND.REQUIRE LESS... SILICON. THERE. ARE _TWo__MATOR FET. FAMILIES, JUNCTION. AND... METAL = Ox/DE I .0TH._ KINDS. AN OUTPUT. CURRENT..1S_CONTROLLED..BY A ISMALL..INPUT__VOLTAGE.. AND PRACTICAL TION. FETs — TRE TWO. MAIN KINDS. OF. my FETs. ARE N= CHANNEL AND pn PT PoCRANNEL. THE CHANNEL _ N= CHANNEL Hh \S__LIKE A SILICON RESISTOR THAT__comdvcrs. CURRENT MOVING. FRom. THE __SouRce DRAIN. A___VOLT AGE. INCREASES. RESISTANCE -RERUCES THE DRAIN — SOURCE... CURRENT, THEREFORE HE._FeT.cAN. BE. USED. AS. AN AMPURIER OR A SWITCH, | SuNcTION. FET. OPERATION — THE ARRANGEMENT eeLow SHOWS. Row. AN N= CHANNEC foe WORKS... A NEGATIVE GATEVOLTAGE CREATES TWO HIGH. RESISTANCE. REGIONS -| (TRE _FIELD)IN. THE CHANNEL. ADJACENT...TO. THE. P=Type SILICON....MORE...GATE..VOLTAGE.._ WILL CAUSE. THE._E/EZO: eect —SURREA. GATE ~ CHANNEL... RESISTANCE..IS... VERY. HIGH MAXIMUM. fF Ovoers. § eat @ GROUND,—{O_MORE__ASouT _TUNCTION. FETs — SINCE THEY ARE VOLTAGE CONTROLLED, TUNCTION.6£Ts. (OR TEETs) HAVE IMPORTANT ADVANTAGES. OVER CURRENT — CONTROLLED BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS: CURRENT. FLOWS IN. THE GATE. Ci RCuiT. H THE. RESISTANCE SO Hic ? Te GATE AND MANNEL FORM A Diode. S0_LONG ASHE INPUT. ——_|SIGNAL REVERSE GIASES THIS __ DIODE, THE ___GATE__HAS. | VERY HIGH INPUT RESISTANCE.) —|5. Like BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS, lDESTROYED BY EXCESSIVE CURRENT OR V1 (O_KinoS oF Tucrion DIFFEREN APPLICATIONS. HIGH. PoWwER. _SEETs ARE USED THEY CAMWOT z SMALL SIGNAL TFETSARE_USED__ AT THE [oweut Stace OF AMPLIEERS TD PROVIDE HIGH. RESISTANCE INPUT. THEY ARE [ae _HIGH FREQUENCY TEETS Age AMPLIFY OR PRODUCE. HIGH FREQUENCY SIGNALS, GATES INTERNALLY CONNECTED.METAL~OXIDE -~SEMICONDUCTOR FETs THE _MeTAL-OxIDE- SEmiconpucToR — Mera —_isiswaroa FET _(oR_MOSEET) HAS BECOME source {_« PRA ITHE__HosT__IMPORTANT..TRAMSISTOR eae _|MoST__MICROCOMPUTER AND MEMoRY UNTEGRATED.CIRGUITS._ ARE ARRAYS | OF... THOUSAniRS_ OF MoseeT so A... SMALC SLIVER Of SILICON. WHY? MOSFETs ARE EASY TD. |MAKE. THEY. LAND SoM eR cuiTs —_-|Sonsume NEGLIGIBLE POWER. NEW KINDS OF... POWER MOSEETS ARE ALS 0 VERY. USEFUL. O..MOSsFET OPERATION. : MOSFETs. ARE N-TYPE OR Po’ UNLIKE. THE JUNCTION FET, THE IGATE._oF A MOSFET. ~{ELECTRICAL CONTACT. {SOURCE AND DRAIN. .A.. LAYER OF _SILICON= DIOXIDE. CAni_wsucaToR)._ SEPARATES. |THE GATE?S. METAL..conrAST. FROME _Rest.of me ___ sevrer TRANSISTOR. INSULATOR. ContAGT > ee JA POSITIVE. GATE VOLTAGE ATTRACTS ELECTRONS TO. —| THE. REGION __BELow THE GATE. \THIS___CREATES. A __THIM. N=TYPE. CHANNEL IN. THI _|P=TYPE _Siticow BETWEEN |THE Source. AND DRAIN. | CURRENT.._CAN THEN ELow P. ———|"HRouGH He CHANNEL, | TRE. GATE. vaTAce NESS SaaSca|I] MORE A@ouT MOSFETs — THE INPUT RESISTANCE OF THE OSEET.._IS THE HIGHEST OF ANY TRANSISTOR....THIS. a land... OTHER _FACTORS._GIVE.__ MOSFET s___IMPORTANT... ADVANTAGES + ——|_CTYPICALLY._1,.000 ,,020,.000,000,000 - OHMS), THIS MEANS THE ——| GATE Puls No cuRReNT FROM EXTERNAL CIRCUITS. CWE —[it_may gogRow A FEW. TRILLONTHS OF AA AMPERE.) . 2. MosFeTs CAN FUNCTION_AS VOLTAGE = CaNTROLLED VARIAGLE RESISTORS. THE GATE VOLTAGE ConTRO&S. CHANNEL RESIS TANCE,. IGM__QURRENTS. ZAPPED. CAUTION. MOSFET... SYMBOL TEES, MOSFET s__INST.ACCED_/N [Smad _ METAL oR PLASTIC. PACKAGES ARE__UsED__TD__ GIVE JAMPIFIERS AK) ULTRA-HIGH iNPuT RESISTANCE.._THEY ARE __ JALSO. USED AS VOLTAGE ConTROUWAED RESISTORS AND SWITCHES. THE MOST _iMPORTANT CATEGORY HAS BECOME = - POWER. MOSFETs Allow A p TD.SWITCH OR AMPLIFY _ FAST.HOW... FETs ARE. USED FIELD - EFFECT.TRANSISTORS..AREUSED _AS__AMPLIFIERS., SWITCHES... AND. VOLTAGE = CONTROLLED... RESISTORS... HERE ARE. SOME..TYPICAL CIRCUIT. ARRANGEMENTS. OLA JEET. ELECTROMETER = THIS... ULTRA=.SIMPLE..cIRCUIT - 1S. THE ELECTRONIC... VERSION Of THE. ELECTROSCOPE..__ THE.._GATE... LEAD___.OF_AN N= CHANNEL SET _1S__4EFT. DISCONNECTED, NORMALLY. A. CURRENT. ELows._FROM SOURCE.TD_DRAIN. WHEN. A... NEGATAVELY.. CHARGED. OBTEST.. CtikE. APLASTIC SOMSTHAT'S..GEEN._. STROKED __ THROUGH... YOUR... HAIR)..LS. PLACED....NEAR..THE.. GATE, ee THE__cURRENT FLOW 1S REDUCED... OR... STOPPED... CURRENT. CHARGED. i Roo OA MOSFET. LAMP. DRIVER. THIS. CIRCUIT. SHOWS..How.A. a a POWER. MOS FET..CAN BE. vs€d_TO. SWITCH. OWA —— LAMP....OR..OTMER.D.G _- POWERED... DEVICE._SINCE__ WTAE... PRWER.. MOSEET._ BASAN... ALMOST. -ANEINITE..LNPUT...RE= SISTANCE.,.THE SWLTCH.CAN BE. REPLACED BY A ow PUT... SLGNAL. NORMALLY... OPEN. PusHBuTTON...SwiTcH | J OA. MOSFET.LAMP WIS _cIRcUIT..USES..A Power sane MOSEET._AS_A___VOLTAGE.. ~-WARIABLE. CONTROLLED RESISTOR. RESISTOR, ==(THE... UNITUNCTION TRANSISTOR THE. UNITUNCTION TRANSISTOR urT)1S__NoT_A_TRUE_TRANSISTOR.. —fit's__Moke Like A_DloDE wath JTWO.._CATHODE.. CONNECTIONS....IT. WORKS. LIKE.A VOLTAGE =ConT ROLLED _ SWITCH AND. O08S...NOT.. AMPLIEY. I. UIT. OPERATION = [NORMALLY A SMAcL ay -—-[CURRENT..WwiLt__FLow.. FROM. _BASE1__TD _BASE.2._. WHEN [TAR _vocTAGE APPLIED... |THE _SMITTER. REACHES. A | CERTAIN. THRESHOLD..CSEVERAL ——|voeTs) y... THE UST... Swi Tones ON... AND. A_ HIGH. CURRENT FLOWS... FROM. BASE..1__to TE EMITTER. BELOW THE THRESHOLD... VOLTAGE.....NO _-|CURRENT.. FLOWS. FROM BASE.1. 70. THE. EMITTER. | OUST. SYMBOL — ce Ba, THE... SYMBOL. FOR a £ ——| THE ___UST._RESEMELES. = JHAT.OF A SFET. £ 2 i SHALL. CURRENT. LOW. —QuRRENT. TRecER VOLTAGE HIGH...CURRENT. Hig CURRENT. HOW UNITUNCTION TRANSISTORS ARE_USES THIS... ARRANGEMENT... ALLOWS. AW UST. 7O. FLASH A. LIGHT = RESISTORS CURRENT oad 5 | chances ] EMITTING ODE (LED). ——feuRREWT FLOWS... INTO. THE CAPACITOR 2 Co —|cArReiTOR.UNTIL. THE UTTs TRIGGER. VOLTAGE. IS... REACHED. THE. CURRENT. AN THE. CAPAC ITOR.1S.. THEN. “Dumeeo" _THROUGH..THE. LED. THE LED. Grows UNTIL..THE... CAPACITOR..1S DISCHARGED... THE. CHARGE = [DISCHARGE CYCLE. THEN. REPEATS. cAaPacItOR Cay —F] > CAPACITOR DISCHARGE] CURRENT_[THYRISTORS ARE SEMICON op AT ONE a EAD. THEREFORE THYAISTORS __ {DO...NOT.AMPLIEY FLUCTUATING _ {MORE |DUCTOR DEVICES. WITH. THREE. LEADS....A...S! A MUCH... LARGER CURRENT BLOM. THROUGH TE OTHER..TWo..LEADS, THE ON CONTROWED..CURRENT. 1S EITHER ON OR OEE IS\GMALS._LIkE TRANSISTORS bo. INSTEAD THEY ARE SouI0 = STATE SWITCHES... THERE ARE TWO-FAMILIES OF THYRISTORS., SILLCON= ConTROCLED.. RECTIFIERS. CScRs)...AND. TRIAC 5... SCRs... “SwiTCH DIRECT... CURRENT AND TRIACS. SWITCH ALTERNATING CURRENT, __ Te sce SiMWLAR.TD__A_ BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR._WATH A. FOURTH ...GAYE) AND... THEREFORE. THREE PN JUNCTIONS IT AS... SOMETIMES. PNPN....DIDDE. CURRENT._INt ANODE. Of AN SCR 1S. MADE POSITIVE..THAN. THE... TWo._OUTER MOST... PN. TUALCTION: ARE.FORWARD BIASED. THE MIDDLE. PN. JUNCTION, HOWEVER, IS. ‘ ———-~-FOR WARD. BIAS: es mie aan MID OEP STUN STLON Arid ALLOWS A MUCH LARGER CURRENT To_ Flow THROUGH THE f ce. __THE _ScR t STAYS ON EVEN IF —THE._GATE__CURRENT 1S REMOVER! Comte POWER. 18. 9156 sc TED.)---{EL.KINDS.OF SCRE — ScRs ARE CATEGORIZED ACCORDING To —{THE.._CURRENT....THEY...CAN SWITCH, HERE ARE. THREE..GENERAL —_l|caresories (many OTHER. -ScRs__inciuoe __THase.. HAT SWITCH uP. TD d= AMPERE AT SUD = ENGINES AN -SwWiTEH UP_T6 = AMPERES AT UP TO SEVERAL... a —THOUSAND...VOLT.S.|__ THEY CONTROL MOTORS, _ LIGHTS... APPLIANCES, ETO. pao GATE..(4) A P= carTHove (e) HOW SCRs ARE USED [THIS ARRANGEMENT. SHows How AN sca 1S {USED TD. SWITCH ON. AN INCANDESCENT —{LAMP, OTHER Pevices CAN ALSO SBE NORMALLY OPEN — PUSHBUTTON SWITCH__{TRIACS _ THE TRIAC 1S EQUIVALENT [TO._TWO. SCRs. CONNECTED LIN PARALLEL. THIS TRIACS .CAN SWAT. 7 | DIRECT.__AND._AGTERNATING. /CURRENT,.._NOTICE. THAT. THE TRIAC._HAS._FIVE. LAYERS Gate {PWSAN. EXTRA N=TYPE. REGION. ALSO. NOTE. How. >_MAIN TERMINAL, 2 Cor a2), > _MAIN TERMINAL. 1coe.ax) RENT, THE TRIAS STAYSON _onidy HEN THE GATE RECEWWES cuRREwr, REMOVE. HE...GATE. CURRENT AND. SWATCHES OFE. WHEN. THE AC PASSES. TARQUGH._O_VOLT'S. AMPERES AT UP TD_1,000 =voLTS. MANY CASE STWES ARE AVAILASLE. uae—|O_ TRIAC . SYMEOL = REMEMZER, THE. ——|SAME AS... TWO. REVERSE = PARALLEL... SCR none soa 0 —_|HOW TRIACS AKE USED —_[Tais ARRANGEMENT SHOWS How A TRIAC CAN). switcH {ON _A LAMP. POWERED By. HOUSEHOLD. LINE. CURRENT, {MOTORS AND OTHER DEVICES. CAN. ALSO... BE CONT ROLLED,. moRHaccy, a - OPEN) e T_LAMe Pusu auTToN, nee SWITCH. SECONDARY. Mra, LAMP Glows. WHEN SWITCH. IS. CLOSED. EAD THYRISTORS ORTRIACWikt. SWITCH ON WITHOUT A GATE wo THE... VOLTAGE ACROSS. ATs. OTHER...TWO... LEADS. SERTAIN...LEVEL. (THE. QREAK DOWN... VOLTAGE). VITCHING ABILITY. MAKES POSSIBLE... TWO~CEAD oon A. FOORs. LAYER. DIODE._IS__ AN... SCR... WITHOUT. AW.GATE.IT._SWITCHES DC. VOLTAGE. A OIAC ISA. THREE ~ LAYER DEVICE. SIMILAR. PNP JUNCTION. TRANSISTOR. WITHOUT. A LEAD. IT. SWITCHES. AG VOLTAGE.PHOTONICS 1S THE FAST. GRowING FIELD. oF ELECTRONICS. MIVOLVING. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES THAT. _EMUT.._AND..DETECT.___. [iGHT. BEFORE LOOKING AT .SOME PHOTONIC....COMPONENTS, —|\LET'S _TAKE.._AW.QUICK LOOK. AT. SOME... FACTS. ABOUT...CIGHT. hihi, uct THERE G€ LIGHT. Rae ee HEE HaHHEELee NEEL COMPOSED oF... PARTICLES...CALLED._ PHOTONS... THAT. WAVES..OF.. ENERGY... PHOTONS ARE. NoT {ks VISIBLE... ANO..OALY..... THOSE... YoU C AN. |SEE_ ARE... COLLECTIVELY... CALLED..._LI.GHT. PHOTONS. ARE PRODUCED... WHEN..AN ELECTRON... THAT?s... BEEN EXQITED..TO__A__ HIGHER... THAN... NORMAL. ENERGY. LEVEL, FALLS... BACK. TO ITS... NORMAL... LEVEL. A ExciTen. 7 oO PHOTONS oy Reertons ema ON, ENERGY. LEVELS LEVEL NORMAL ENERGY, REMEMBER, PHOTONS. ACT LIKE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN CRESTS... WAVELENGTH... ELECTRONS. EXCITED. BigHER ENERGY _LEVELS..._EMIT. PHOTONS. WATH. SHORTER WAVELENGTHS. THAN. ELECTRONS. EXCITED.TD_. LOWER... LEVELS«. EXCLTED ELECTRONS CAN LEVEL... SPONTANEOUSLY... ~.OR....A... PHOTON WITH. _ SECOND. PHOTON... THE. PROPER... WAVELEACTH WITH SAME _ CAN STIMULATE. AN. EXCITED WAVELENGTH AS ELECTRON 70 RETURN..To FIRST. PHOTON ITS. NORMAL LEVEL,{C.. THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM — ViSI@E LIGHT LS FORM Of ELECTROMAGNETIC. ADIATION.. THE WAVELENGTH LIGHT 1S._SPECIEIED IN NANOMETERS | {A.2ULIONTH. Of A METER), THE DIAGRAM BELOW _SHOW/s. —{THE.__RELATIONSHIP..OF JIGHT TO OTHER FORMS OF ELEC— ROMAGNETIC._RADIATION... NEAG — INERARED al 10.0.5 0.0... a00_.._100_____ 800-900. WAVELENGTH CNANOMETERS) [amy PHOTONIC SEMICoNDyCTORS LMERARED RADIATION. _SLicon., FOR EXAMPLE, CF MSIGLE LIGHT. BT. 1S....MOST._ SENSITIVE TO. NEAR = [VISIBLE AMD NEAR—INERARED , [TO _NEAR- INFRARED AS LIGHT.OPTICAL_.COMPONENTS.__. era eseninabop nena OPTICAL. COMPONENT S._CONDUCT, BEND... OR... CHANGE. THE CHARACTERISTICS..OF LIGHT. SEVERAL ARE VERY. IMPORTANT. _ UN MANY. PHOTONIC... SEMICONDUCTORS: —— ez id. GILTERS TRANSMIT oo ee lowly. A. NARROW... ee IBAND... OF OPTICAL _. +E. WAVELENGTHS. oe SS ruurer WAVELENGTH 2, REFLECTORS REELECT. EDI" THOSE WITH AVERY SMOOTH,.SUREACE Coune. MIRRORS). Geena ttt apm iegeme metre SPECULAR. RERECTORS. SOME 08 Most oF AN. ONCOMING LIGHT. BEAM. SOME LIGHT MAY oR May NOT. ..BE..TRANSMITTED. 5. BEAMS PLITTERS _REELECT PART...OF...AN... ONCOMING JAGHT. BEAM. AMO TRANSMIT | JTHE REMAINDER. 4. LENSES SEN CH= AGLASS...KICROSCOPE. SLIDE MAKES.A GOOD. Seam seurrer. EACH. SURFACE. REFLECTS. 4%.) IMPORTANT... ARE. CONVEX... LENSES ARE gerEN. ICON TUNCTION..wITH. SEMI=.. COMOUCTOR.._LIGHT._SOURCES._AND.. DETECTORS... FOR EXAMPLE, THEY. Ioan. COLLECT... AND. FOCUS LIGHT ONTO...A..MINIATURE... OETECTOR. : FIBER ¢ 5._QPTICAL. FLEXIBLE. STRANDS. OF Hicusy. [TRANSPARENT GLASS oR PLASTIC THAT SeNoveT.._LIGHT._THE L1GHT_TRAVELS...THROUGA_A__CORE. SURRoUNOEO..BY ATRIA CLADDING. PLASTIC... FIBERS ARE. IMEXPENSIVE GLASS c18€AS ARE MUCH MORE TRANSPARENT. @oTH kimos TRANSMIT..SOME WAVELENGTHS MUCH... BETTER THAN OTHERS. AGH... QUALITY. FISERS__ARE used TO._.SEND...rELEPHONE..cAULS.AND___ ComPUTER..DATA..ViA_.PULSES. OF LIGHT. Geass. 16 HuMoRens _.OF TIMES. CLEARER. easnic® —— TypieAL, Bota—|HOW. CONVEX LENSES ARE USED MANY. SEMICONDUCTOR LIGHT SoURCES ~—{AND__DETECTORS.._ARE EQUIPPED. [WIT A BUieT= IN CONVEX. {THIS_PAGE EXPLAINS WHY. STENSITY — FAMOUS FACT }.L1G AT. TRAVELS Be, 291.MiLES. PER SECOND! —AS—-LIGHT._FROM_A__VERY SMALL SOURCE... SPREADS. QUTWARD,ITS_— PN TENSUTY 1 VERSE: ROPORTIONAL TO. THE SQUARE..OF THE —-{USTANCE.IN OTHER. WORDS, IF..THE.. DISTANCE 1S 3.) THEAL. —{Mewrensiry is 4/9 THE. IWTENSITY WHEN THE DISTANCE 151 fA -convex LEAS. CAN CANCEC...THIS INTENSITY REDUCTION. -—THE.ACTUAL..SAM SPREADS | }CriveRGes). eke HIS | Ime GcAN SPREAD Ancce. ICE DIVERGENCE) Ins —{LENGTH OF THE LENS... THIS MEANS LENSES WITH LONGER EOC AL. LENGTHS GivE NARROWER, SEAMS. Cour LENSES. with Lose. EQCAL LENGTHS CoccécT. LeS: WITH. CARE LENS PLACEMENT [LIGHT THAN. THOSE WITH. SHORT ALL. THE..LIGHT WITHIN THE —_[focac LENGTHS ...). DASHED CIRCLE CAN. BE. FOCUSED. ONTO. THE ¢1GHT SENSITIVE. ~—-PORTION.._OF. THE DETECTOR... AGuR€ 8EATS THE INVERSE SQUARE LAW!) {Tone RADIAN IS $7.3 Degrees. —{GHERE ARE 360° IN A ciRccE,)-BOMBARDE LIGHT, HEAT, ELECTRONS [AMD OTHER FORMS. OF [ENERGY MOST. SEMI (CONDUCTOR CRY ST ALS. MLL EMIT WSiGLE oR. LIN ERARED LIGHT, THE BEST SEMICONDUCTOR. “SOURCES, HOWEVER, JUNCTION DiopES. Diode... CONVERTS AN S ——Prorens 8 INTO. LIGAT. THE. LIGHT EMITTING. DIODE...C¢ED) IS__MoRe EFFICIENT. THAN __ Cl LED oeeratioN= {DIODE MUST... EXCEED A THRESHOLD... SIDERABLE _NEAR=INERARED, THE _THRESMOLD.__IS__1.2=.VOLTS.. [THIS VOLT AGE _EXCUTES THE ELECTRONS, JELEGTRONS.—fO_ MORE AvouT LED OPERATION. —... HERE... ARE SOME. KEY. —-JASPECTS...OF LED OPERATION... YOU... SHOULD... KNOW... ABOUT. | 1. THE LIGHT. EMITTED... BY. | AN... INCANDESCENT... LAMB... —| CONTAINS MANY... WAVELENGTH. THE LIGHT EMITTED..BY AN. —{LeD_HAS..A. NARROW. WAVE: —|-LENGTH RANGE. (THIS_15, —| BE CAUSE...TAE... ELECTRONS _..IN, — |THE LED.ARE.ALL EXCUTED. —| Te THE. SAME... LEVEL.) LIGHT oyreur. RED. ceo. WHEN...AN. LEO. BEGINS CONOUCT.,... THE VOLTAGE ~WEREASES.. GRADUALLY. WHILE. THE... CURRENT. INCREASES RARIOLY.. TRO MUCH..CURRENT. -WILK. OVERMEAT.....THE.. LED. AND... POSSIBLY... SEPARATE. THE —{LEADS..... OR... MEAT THE... SEMI= ONDUCTOR.... CHIP... é FORWARD. VOLTAGE |B. THE LIGHT. EMITTED. BY AN —}-LED..AS. CURE CTLY... PROPORTION AL. —-[ TD... CURRENT. THROUGH. THE..LED, TAIS...MEANS.... LEDS... ARE... IDEAL | —FOR... TRANSMITTING... INFORMATION. —|-THE..LIGHT... OUTPUT... FROM._AN. —~{-OVERHEATED. LED. Witt... Soon DECREASE.....THE._LEO._MAY. EVEN. O20 40. 40... BO... 100.420. {BE DAMAGED. i: FORWARD... CURRENT.CMA) LIGHT ourpuT A...THE. FORWARD... VOLTAGE WAVELENGTH. CNM). | VOLTAGE. ANDO. .WAVELENGTH oF AN) - = _-LED_..ARE.... DIRECTLY. RELATED. SUS... (GREEN)... | 2.2 3.0 THEREFORE _(T'S..WOT_ALWAYS.._| $90. CYELLOW) | 2.2.-3.0 POSS 1GLE.....T0.. SUBSTITUTE, G15. CORANGE). | 1.8.-2.7 DIFFERENT.LEDS.. WITHOUT _ G4. CRED) 1.6 72.0 —-[--CHANGING.THE. VOLTAGE. .ANO.|.490.. C RED) 2:2.-3.0 —-CURRENT..._MANY.... DIFFERENT... B80. (INERARED) |. 2.0.-2.S. SEMIcONDUCTORS._ARE usEO...| 900. (INFRARED). | 1.2-1,6 TDMAKE. VARIOUS... LEDS... | 940. GNFRaReD) | 13-27] MISIGCR..LIGHT. EMITTING LEDs 7 EMIT. UP. TOA MILE WATT. OR SO. OF POWER. SOME ssee {INFRARED LEDs CLike. S80.NM uNITS). EMIT 1S. OR (ORE. MILLIWATTS! CA FLASHLIGAT. EMITS 10 OR PORE MuLIWATTS.)IT!s MELPEUL TO KNow.. -LIMsipe _THE PLASTIC oR |LED CASE, _SHowN HERE 1s |A_TYPICAL LED, THE Heavy S_USUALLYCOLORED___MARK. LED IS A Visisee PARTICLES. ARE OFTEN. ADDED. To. THIS... DIFFUSES.THi USES THE. END OF THE LED TO APPEAR. BRIGHTER INEXPENSIVE LEDS ARE _USED.AS INDICATOR LIGHTS. ___ CERTAIN... RED. LEDs. ARE..USED.TO__ TRANSMIT. INFORMATION. ~ MOST. ARE ENCAPSULATED IN EPOXY. MANY. KINDS... OF LED. READOUTS _CAPABLE_OF DIS PLAYING... DLGLT.S._AND__ CHARACTERS ARE. AVAILASLE...THEY -ARE__MORE._ RUGGED THAN..LiQuip.___ CRYSTAL.DISPLAYS., BUT. THEY.....USE. _.-MUCH...MDRE CURRENT. THEY. ALARMS. Ere. A___SPECIAL KIND OF _INERA=. _-RED__LED 1S THE Diode LASER. SOME EMIT SEVERAL. WATTS | “SYMBOL. BoTH SYMBOLSBY. |THE... ID Leo DRwe Circus LEDs ARE CURRENT AT?S___USUALLY_ THEM__FROM..... [Some LEDs. To. DETERMINE SERLES. [FORMULA 1S 2 THE. LED... CURRENT. : THE TESTED _ VOLTAGE...1S._AC., RESISTANCE CRs). DEPENDENT, _-NECESSARY...To. EXCESS\VE QuURRENT WITH A SERIES. RESISTOR. 4 ImecudE A BUILT. IMPORTANT. TO._KNow HOW. REQUIRED THE ee ~ LED VoLTAcE oU__WANT._TO. -CWRRENT.._(T ep). Sx VOLT... SuPmY CV). Veer. CONTINUOUSLY, THE CURRENT. Can 66. ANGHT_ouTPuT, pa sereeceS ISL. VOLTS, THEREFORE Rs is (S-2.7)/ 0,02 THE. SERIES... MAY. OPERATE. OF..10.- MILLAMPERE S CEROM_DATA__SHEET)._ OR_.330-.0HMS. ht A A RED. LED FROM... n> Seuss MAXIMUM... CURRENT DREN. BY. SAFELY PLUS LED PRogE. AN. OF. BRIE. PULSES OF ACCEPT HUGE. 10- IMay...NoT BE REQUIRED WE. Tae PUASES Do Not__EXceeD.__THE.———{SEMICONDUCTOR LIGHT DETECTORS | ———-—OR_THEY_CAN) MOVE AWAY FROM ELECTRON... ENERGY ENTERING A. SEMICONDUCTOR CRYSTAL IEXCITES. ELECTRONS. TO. IWIGHER. CEVELS., LEAVING (REWIND MOLES.” THESE _ ELECTRONS. AND KOLES CAN RECOMBINE AND EmT PHOTONS, JONE ANOTHER AnD FORM A. — [CURRENT. THIS IS THE BASIS. OF SEmicQNOUCTOR LIGH E.ARE TWO. _mMATOR Classes of DETECTORS. THER! SEMICONQUCTOR LIGHT. lWITHOUT PAS PETECTORS ,. THOSE WITH. _ANO THOSE __ IUNCTION. as cee {TALS IPHOTORESISTIVE TIGHT DETECTOR Soe {PHOTO RES CONDUCTOR LIGHT DeTeEcTORS __ WATHOUT A PN TUN CTION. THEIR RESISTANCE IS _VER> M\GH Cup 7D MILLIONS OF OHMS). WHEN NO IGHT IS PRESENT. [WHEN IUMINATED, THEIR [RESISTANCE IS. VERY LOW. CHUNDREDS OF OHMS)... (Scan & 0) PHOTORESISTOR OPERATION, PANEL SHOWS How A JPROTON CREATES A _HOLE- ELECTRON. [PAIR, AN EXTERNAL. VOLTAGE. With FORCE. THE HOLE [ELECTRON TD. MOVE... ELECTRON. | PHOTON _) THE. @ATTERY _-PROVIDES..THE FORCE _-TO_MOVE THE ELECTRONS _ AWD FORM A—{OL_ MORE ABOUT. PAOTORES|STOR OPERATION — _BERE ARE SOME | L_PHOTORESISTORS MAY REQUIRE A FEW MICLISECONDS 08 | -MORE TO FULLY RESPOND TOA CHANGE. HIN TENSITY _CTHAT's. PRETTY Stow —| MANY MINUTES TO _RETURN | RESISTANCE WHEN LIGHT. —SERECr). -2.THE SEMicoNoUeTaR ost > | OETEN. USED IN PHOTORESIS TORS. 1S_CADMIUM SUCFIDE ITS & SENSITIVITY TO LIGHT 1S VERY _@| —|sivuae spat of THE 3 | HUMAN Eve! Leap = TKINDS Of PHOTORESISTORS— MANY DIFFERENT KINDS ARE AVAILABLE. iN __MosT__ THE. LIGHT. SENSITIVE _SEMICONOUCTOR.1S._. COATED. BETWEEN INTERLEAVED. ELECTRODES. TO.INCREASE THE EXPOSED SURFACE. -A_PLASTIC.OR GLASS WIN ROW. MAY. OR _MAY..NOT BE USED. ~|C paororesisTorR SYMBOL. |} BOTH. SYMBOLS SHOWN — HERE ARE USED. —lpnororesisrors Age {USED IN bIGHT CON~_ —{TROMLED RELAYS AND. gf POTENTIOMETER...( TO! ZERO" URRENT. METER). THE ARRANGEMENT — {SHOWN HERE INDICATES. —-{ON._A__CURRENT METER THE INTENSITY OF LIGHT ILLUMINATING _.————-|PN_JJUNCTION LIGHT DETECTORS...... - IPN TUNCTION LIGHT DETECTORS = [FORM THE _LARGEST..FAMLLY. == OF PHOTONIC. SEMICONDUCTORS. __= a 2 a ——_____|MOST__ARE MADE. FROM SILICON, ——_|AND_SAN DETECT goTH VISIBLE LicHT AND NEAR-INERAREO. _ PHOTODIODE S — JALL PN. SUNCTIONS.. ARE_.LIGHT. _ SENSITIVE, PHOTO DIODES... ARE. PN. JTUNCTIONS. SPECIFICALLY. DESIGNED. Fo R_LIGHT._ DETECTION. _THEY..ARE. ___]US€D_IN_CAMERAS. INTRUSION. ALARMS, MS KTWAVE.._ COMMUNICATORS... ETC. |) PHOTODIODE OPERATION. PHOTON. ..Wibh...CREATE..A_HOLE = ELECTRON. PAIR AT APN | | 7 |SUNCTION. A_CURRENT...WILL FLOW. @ i SoC pe Og gs Maier ety eUeaeaeH| El en) ae | ae tpa| lef ————TUNCTION._ARE._CONNE CTED...TWO. ELECTRON, HOLE [wove JOPERATING._MODES.. ARE. POSSISLEs... Toe w a T] etectRow® fetecttony 3) | 4. PaotovorTAlc. OPERATION —. HERE THE _ PHoToDioDE |BECOMES A CURRENT SOURCE. WHEN.OIT. 1S ILUMINATED, 2. PHOTOCONDU.CTIVE ann OPERATION. =. HERE THE PHOTODIODE IS... ~ REVERSE = BIAsp A _AGLUMINA TED. DARK,..A TINY. CURRENT... CALLED.THE ARK.THE Most __ IMPORTANT. IMAY SE used. WAVELENGTHS ICASE... STYLES ARE. ALSO._USED. CPLASTIG HOUSING 4 BUILT IN LENSES AND FUTERS , ETC, Dis. FTINCTION _15__THE size. |THE SEMICONDUCTOR CHIP, [SPECIALIZED CHIP. DESIGN: TRGIVE. BETTER RESPONSE TO. _CERTAIN 1 WINDOW. WERE ARE _USED._ PHOTODIODES ARE _ HOMMONLY. USED TO ___ DETECT _FAST__Pulses JOE NEAR INFRARED CAS IN LIGHT. WAVE. COMMUNICATIONS). AT. METER. rHIS.... ARRANGE MENT PROVIDES A BASIC _|PHOTOCON DUCTIVE... MODE LIGHT __METER SPONSE I: sitsiae BOTH SYMBOLS SHOWN____|DIRECTAY _AMPLIEIES VARIATIONS TRANS{STOR _wiTH_A__LARGE ,_ OSED BASE REGION. PHOTONS_ REPLACE THE _ BASE EMITTER CURRENT OF JoRDINARY NPN TRANSISTORS. _ THEREFORE A _PHOTOTRANSISTOR __ LIN THE NUMBER Of PHOTONS. ITRANSISTOR AS SHOWN ABOVE. THE OTHER INCLUDES [A SECOnD NPN TRANSISTOR TO PROVIDE MORE AMPLIFICATION, SENSITIVE alO kimps._0F__pHoTOTRANSIsTORS . —{SHOWN..._. HERE ISA TPL — tI ——{LOWL COST NPN PHOTOTR AN: IMANY OTHER CASE STYLES. ~——-JARE__ALs0. USED (METAL CAN (Gass Lenses, FLAT windows. — ere... IMPORTANT: THE Base {Leap may oR MAY Note PRESENT. _ MANY. PHOTO TRANSISTOR = —|eirewirs_po_notuse THE. OLLECTOR MINTER [BASE _ CONNECTION, Lean. 7 EAD. THESE ARE TYPICAL _PHOTOTRANSISTORS,._ IS PHoTOTRANSISTOR SYMBOLS. --NPN_CNO_BASE LEAD). HOW PHOTOTRANSISTORS “ARE USED- JPROTOTRANSISTORS. ARE OFTEN asieieioe USED TO DETECT FLUCTUATIN.G CAC) PHOTODARLINGTON. — {LIGHT __SIGNALS.._THIS. ARRANGEMENT. SLEARY..Cpe).. ENERGIZE THE DiopE___ PRoTECTS..me | | ITRANSisToR | FROM. VOLTAGE..| PRODUCED_IN RELAY col,JPHOTOTHYRISTORS Ag: as KINDS OF LiGaT-AcTivaTED. (© THYRISTORS. YOU CAN THINK OF THEM..AS. |LIGHT_ACTIWATED TRIACS.ARE. ALSO... MADE. __NEITHER..CAN. a _{SWITCH AS. MUCH. CURRENT. AS. CONVENTIONAL THYRISTORS... LIGHT ACTIVATED. fo IMeRove..THEIR SENSITIVITY. [THE LASCR IS MADE THINNER STANDARD. SCRs... TRIS... LIMITS_THE AMOUNT. 08... CURRENT... THEY....CAN SWITCH. FOR —_ aco NVENTION AL SER. ____|p xiwos oF isha ——--MOsT. LASCRS. : P f) AUNDRED__vour: —. HOW. LASCR's ARE USED QUICK. FLASH OF. LIGHT Wike_ TRIGGER bascr._ HIGH CURRENT. APPLICATIONS. A ASCR CAN... BE..USED TO TRIGGER. LIST. SENSITIVE. _-MAXIMUM.CURREN! A REW. TENTHS OF AN AMPERE. \S_._INTERRUPTED, THIS. ARRANGEMENT ALLOWS. A_LASCR_TO_TURN_ON. AN EAR PIERCING. BUZZER... CE TRIGGERED, Guz2ER. REMAINS. ON INTL one POWER——{0.5._VOLT. ACELL if fmis size | [ot ampene®| Sees: jour put voLTAGE SS_SUM_OF. CELL. VOLTAGES. SELLS AND. -—(AL_SOLAR CELL WITH AN EXCEPTIONALLY FINGER {LARGE __LIGHT.SENSITIVE — ARE A.A SINGLE SILICON. —-|SOLAR..CELL_ GENERATES IN BRIGHT..SUNLIGHT. IN @RIGHT.. GeweraTes| SUNLIGHT. ARRAYS OF SOLAR CELLS. —|CAN CHARGE RECHARGEABLE. BATTERIES... PERATION MANY. DIEFERENT..KINDS OF SILICON SOLAR... CELLS _ARE..MADE. OFTEN.INDIWIDUAL CELLS... _ ARE... CONNECTED.IN.SERIES..OR. PARALLEL. PARALLEL: OuTPuT CURRENT ____18_SUM_OF. -CELL_CURRENTS. REMEMBER, CELLS MAY_8E 6 ON.N. HOW. SOLAR CELLS ARE USED ae nhl, sun ES——S-INTEGRATED. CIRCUITS [ELECTRONIC __ciecuit As SIMULTANEOUSLY | {EORMING._INO\VIDUAL TRANSISTORS, | Dlones Anion RESISTORS._on.. {RESULT..1S_AN_JNTEGRATED CiRCUIT. LA SMALK CHIP OF. SILIConL. {THE COMPONENTS ARE CONN D {10._ONE ANOTHER WITH ALUMINUM | WIRES! DEPOSITED on THE ISURFACE.....OFTHE CHIP. THE 0 crt INTEGRATED..CIRCUITSCOR.TC's)..CAN CONTAIN _AS.._FEW AS SEVERAL ITO AS. MANY AS HUNOREDS...OF THOUSANDS...oF TRANSISTORS. HEY HAVE MADE POSSIGLE._VIDEO._GAMES, .DIGITAL.wAT CHES, |AEFORDABLE._COMPUTER'S....AND... MANY. .OTHER VERY. SOPHISTICATED. PRODUCTS. HERE'S A. SIMPLIFIED. AND, HIGALY. MAGNIFIED. VIEW JOF_A__SEeTION....OF...A..BIPOLAR.. INTEGRATED. CIRCUIT : Hoesicona sities wiowioe* Santi ate BI EA EC GE 9, eee je 4, - i SECTioN..OF. P-TYPE. ISILtcon.. FoRes.A.. RESISTOR. [OE _touRSE _TME. _convENTIONAL COMPONENTS _SHOWN...BECOW ___ AE _UiGacy.__MA GAUFIED__SECTION OF. {eT DAWA TD__THE SAME SCALE... : JOE TC INCLUDES. 262,244. TRANSISTORS..ON.I KiNOS. OF INTEGRATED CIRCUITS — INTEGRATED. ciRewirs JARE GROUPED nwo. _mTwo_ MATOR CATEGORIES: —-|1L-ANALCG “Cor. LINEAR) Hoes oC ietees—AnbL Ea RESEoe (2. RIGITAL._CoR bogie) Tc's RESPOND TO oR PRODUCE SIGNALS. HAVING ONLY Tse -VOLTAI Ls DIGITAL. TOS cece MICROPROCESSOR. MEMORIES... _MICROCOMPurt AND MAS LAID: .E. SIMPLER CHIPS. ones [ANALOG _TIMER.__CHIP__MAY._IMcCUDE._AN_ON= CHIP... DIGITAL. loouNTER TO Give. MUCH LONGER TIME DECAYS THAAL. lPossigcé wit THE TIMER ALONE. s [ABUT =I _ ANALOG. VOLTAGE. REGULATOR. —|O_KinoS Of INTEGRATED. CIRewiT PACKAGES — TC cies —JARE__ SUPPLIED IN... MANY _OIEFERENT._PACKAGES._BY__FAR THE. —|MOsT_.COMMON.__ARE... VARIATIONS...OF THE DUAL INI LINE PACK, (Coa __yyp). THE _DIP._1S_.MADE..FRom..._ PLASTIC CCHEAP)on. —feeeanieChore..2o8usr). Mast __piPs._HAvE.14 oR .4@.. Plats. [ANOTHER Ie. PACKASE. ———{METAL.CAN. BEING REPLACED IN MANY CASES BYNo MaTTER How. 6. DIGITAL INTEGRATED C\RCINTS DIGITAL..NTEGRATED_—___ ALL circuits FROM SIMPLE Bu DING GLOcKS |CALLED __ GATES... GATES._ARE_LIKE._ELECTRONICALLY.._Conl |TROCLED “SWit CHES... THEY ARE. EITHER. |HOW...DO_GATES WORK? Let's HIME THREE SIMPLEST GATES CAN _BE__DEMONSTRATED_. |SoME PUSHBUTTON SWITCHES, A BATTERY. AND A LAMP. TRE..LAMP..GLOWS._ONLY... WHEN. SWITCHES A.AND 8 ARE CLOSED. THE TAKE SUMMARIZES. THE GATE'S OPERATION. JT's. (oFF)_..ALL. POSSIBLE ON=. OFF COMBINATIONS. ~% GLOWS.ONLY WHEN __ A-9R.-SWITCH 8 98 Gora -1S_.OPENED 1S. ANOTHER... WORDS, THE "Not" GATE Reverses _Cimveats)___ THE _USVAL ACTION OFA Sw TcH. -TAE_TRUTA TABLE NORMALLY...CLOSED. _-PusHeurraNn AT Switsh THE. LAMP....OFE.THE. BINARY CONNECTION Int’s _eossigie To SUBST.TUTE__THE_ ~AND_L_FOR IRE _OFF AND _ON..STATES. ..OF A SWITCH... TRUTA..TABLE.S (FOR. THE.GATES.....ON.....THE.... PREVIOUS... PAGE... THEN... BECOME. 3. (HE _O__ANO_4_INPUT._CA €.8)_.. COMBINATIONS. NUMBER S..IN, [THE TWO. DIGIT. COR 6IT).. BINARY NUMBER... SYSTEM...IN...OIG ITAL ELECTRONICS, BINARY. _NUMBERSSERVE AS CODES THAT... REPRESENT. DECIMAL. NUMBERS, LETTERS..OF THE ALPHABET, "VOLTAGES... AND yeage) pe MANY... OTHER... KINDS.._OF.. INFORMATION. MARY O OR 4 _15_A_BIT. A. PATTERN OF 4.8(TS_15.A NIBBLE. _-APATIERN.oF..8.BITS_I5.A BYTE. 0.0.0. DECIMAL DIGIT 1S. 0.0.00 0110 ASSIGNED._1TS..BINARY.. EQUIVALENT. 0000 O111 NOTE THAT LEADING ZEROS ARE. 2.000. _-SHOWN._IN DIGITAL ELECTRONICS ALL BIT LOCATIONS... ARE OccuPIED. Sees Pay IBIwAgy. NUMBERS CAN. @€ SENT. THROUGH. fesse Iwikes (Buses) ALL AT. Omce (PARALLEL) loR_ A. SIT_AT.A TIME. .CSERIAL)... SHOWA WERE ARE SERIAL_ANO PARALLEL IRANS MISSION OF 15.. 1B d2.OFTEN \T'S..DESIRAB/E TO CONTROL.A GATE ELECTRICALLY RATHER THAN...MECHANICALLY, THE. SIMPLEST. ELECTRICALLY CONTROLLED... GATE__uSES__PN_ JUNCTION DIODE. STHAT..ARE_ [SWITCHED...ON..CFoRWARD BIAS) OR OFF (Reverse IAS). BY AN INPUT. SIGNAL.OF. SEVERAL voeTS.CBINARY..1_oR. a JAN 1NPUT..NEAR OR AT GROUND. (BINARY .O._OR_ LOW Diove...".0R" WHEM TRE INPUT. VOLTAGE AT WHEN THE INPUT VOLTAGE AT A988 IS MORE. Positive "A AND. BS MORE positive. [THAN G2ouND,.1T PASSES THROUSH TRAN GROUND, CURRENT. FLows AE FORWARD BIASED DIODE Cs) FROM. THE BATTERY. THROUGH THE ANNO APPEARS. AT THE OUTPUT. ESISTOR Tp THE owT Pur, fF OTMERWISE.THE OUT PUT.IS EITHER A OR GIS AT oR JAT.OR NEAR GROUND. NEAR GROUND, ONE. ROTH TRUTH TABLE 1S VALIb. FoR. DIODES BECOME FORWARD BIASED INPUTS._OF Overt (0.08 Low) _AND CURRENT ELows AWAY AND. +6 vours.< THE OUTPUT. ASciRcuITS BECOME More AL FULL.@.VDLTS WHEN HIGH ComplicaTen, PICTORIAL Views BECAUSE...THE. DIODES. REQUIRE ARE Not PRACTICAL, THAT *s A FORWARD. VOLTAGE..OF OG WHY THIS PACE inTRODUCES VOLT.._THIS...VOLTAGE...IS.SUB= CIRC DIAGRAMS FoR EACH ITRACTED..FRoM. THE OUTPUT _______oF THE TWO PICTORIALS SHOWN VOLTAGE ..CIN. ELECTRONICS JARGON. ABOVE. WwE' FIND OUT More A SILICON._DIODE___CAUSES._A_____agouT Circuit DIAGRAMS LATER. VOLTAGE. DROP" OF O.4.votrT.) IN THE MEANTIME, THE NExT anne PAGE SHOWS MORE OF THEM ooo{TRANSISTOR GATES —IHE__VOITASE DROP OF __DIODE_GATES__MEANS AMPLIFICATION _ ——lis_ReQuikeD” iN “ogper To _cOMMECT TOGETHER A SERIES loz _GaTES.._WHWE. TRANSISTORS CAN PROVIDE THE z ——|NECE.SSARY.._AMPLIFICATION. , TRANSISTORS CAN FUNCTION las cates! gota eipocae AND FIELD-ErfecT TRANSISTORS CAME USED." OM THIS PAGE ARE SHOWN cigcyT —|DIAGRAMS OR Some Of THE SIMPLEST. BIPOCAR ——[ TRANSISTOR GATES. TOGETHER THEY FORM THE RESISTOR- — TRANSISTOR DIGITAL LoGle FAMILY. YOU CAN ACTUALLY _—|MAKE “THESE GATES. "BUT THE MAIN REASON THEY'RE HERE NS_D_.GIVE._You..AN APPRECIATION. FOR THE INTEGRATED. Kigeut. GATES. WE'LL BE LOOKING ——{Ol"Nor" GATE. CinveereR) ~——_WHEN_IN IS _AT_+V (BINARY 1 oR HIGH), TRANSISTOR ..Q4._ SWITCHES __ON AND CONNECTS. —lourpinecriy_ro_GRound CBINARY 0 oR —-|ow).. WHEN.IN.1S_Low, Qi SWITCHES. ——IQEF AND. OUT. BECOMES. (THROUGH. R1).+ Va _P NOT" GATES UKE THIS MAKE POssigee IMPORTANT...NEW.LOGIC..GATES. "WAND" (Cwot=aNp) Gare ty po eae Ls Low. “Ae HIGHL, —---ANY._COMMON_NPN___B. TRANSISTOR FoR ____101 Ale THESE GATES. LiL bib III —~—Like THe NAND! i a pe EYNET ION DS BUILT =1N9 [LT bE Ebi LYGATE. SYMBOLS BE FORE MOVING. ONTO. DIGITAL.INTEGRATED CIRCUITS, LET'S. ILOOK....AT.... THE. SY¥MBOLS...FOR_ THE VARIOUS... KINDS._OF GATES. (THIS... 1S. ALSO. A GOOD... PLACE..TD_INTRODUCE.. SEVERAL GATES... WE! yeNbT__YET__ ENCOUNTERED. | Logic GATES with Mone. GATES. _SHOWN.._AZovE ARE CALLED S-INeUT PAND" GATE. OE xcuusive = Nor"... GATE.. THAN..TwWo AB. INPUTS. THE LOGIC ciRCUITS. BECAUSE. THEY... MAKE. LOGICAL... DECISIONS... LOGIC... GATES... OR TEN. HAVE. MORE... THAN TWO... NPUTS. ADDITIONAL... INPUTS... INCREASE. THE...DECISION... MAKING... POWER.OF... AGATE... THEY... ALSO INCREASE... THE....NUMBER..OF WAYS... GATES... SAN... BE CONNECTED....TO.__ONE... ANOTHER __1D__FORM._ ADVANCED... DIGITAL. LOGIC... CIR CUITS...._HERE... ARE TWo___EXAMPLES.2GATE...OR INVERTER. —O_SINGLE = INPUT GATES. : NOT ~—-|IS_-VERY__IMPORTANT...SINCE._IT._.CAN._ INVERT... CREVERSE) THE . _—_lourevT FROM ANOTHE ATE... STRIETLY.... SPEAKING». = ——-[HoweveR,_THE INVERTER _1S__NOT A__ODECISION. MAKING ——forkewir_ (Like. TWO_..OR MORE INPUTS). __}crese. ISTHE. BUEEER HAT.1SOLATES. -GATES....EROM_. ee ALLOWS THEM _TD...9RIVE. HIGHER AND... — R THAT... CAN... BE. “ELECTRONICALLY. z DISCONNECTED _FROM THE REMAINDER ..OF THE... CIRCUIT... THE _ouTeuT 1s THEA_NEITHER._HIGH.NORLOW...INSTEAD... AS..A. VERY HIGH._RESISTANICE. Cinverter.Ctwor" Gate)... _JNLOuT. fe | Le 1 e iA zr rx INVERTER, our om npe A ww our. 4 Eom Hi-Z, ng" MEANS "DOESNT MATTER.” Hi-Z MEANS HIGH. OUT PUT...RESISTANCE. DATA" HIGHWAYS" ea i {OFTEN CIRCUITS... MADE...EROM.. GATES. EXCHANGE INFORMATION. (BINARY OS _AND..1's_ ENCODED... AS... LOW..AND... HIGH... VOLTAGE. —{LEVELS). THE __INFORMATION._.IS_. USUALLY... SENT..OVER... WIRES. —|CALLED._BUSES..._ABUS.1S_ LIKE. A. DATA..ICH WAY. «IT. MAY. ——jBEONE_. WIRE THROUGA WHICH INFORMATION iS. SENT SERIALLY. —[Ceit6¥..BIT).. OR IT MAY BE UP TD EIGHT.CoR MORE). WIRES. -—|THROUGH..WHICH INFORMATION _I1S__SENT IN. PARALLEL (A BYTE jon MORE ATA TIME), IN BOTH. CASES, OF COURSE, A GROUND. HIS REQUIRED TD... COMPLETE. THE CIRCUIT. |FALS- STATE TRAeIC coPS— 3-STATE..GATES CAN STDP. —|TRaFFicTAMS" ON BUSES... FOR INSTANCE : i _QNIN DATA ENTERING TUE SELECTED BUFFER CoomtRol.s.L). GETS. ON THE. BUS. 85GareS_can ESE INDWIDUALLY o@ CONNECTED TOGETHER Hro__£0RM A "NETWORK" OF GATES CALIED A Logic cigcwiT ——ALMpsT._ALL LOGIC. CiRcULT. AM BE PLACED IN ONE OF ToC ATE GORIES :__COMBINATIONAL OR SEQUENTIAL. 0 : COMBINATIONAL LOGIC —ciRCuiTs CIRCUITS RESPOND TO INCOMING. Co2s_AND i's) ALMOST..IMMEDIATELY AND WITHOUT REGARD \TO_BARLIER EVENTS...CTHIS WILL MAKE MORE SENSE WHEN Nou. READ... ABOUT SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS...) COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS..CANBE__VERY SIMPLE OR IMMENSELY JCOMPLICATED.......VIRTUALLY._ANY._COMBINATIONAL CIRCUIT CAN BE..IMPLEMENTED. WITH. ONLY "MAND" oR "NOR" GATES. LIKE THESE "NAND" GATE CIRCUITS... sears o> INVERTERS -1NPUT"NAND" NOTE: _THESE.CiRCUITS... Do_NoT Show.—{OL_COMBINING DIFFERENT GATES — nege Age Two _ —EXAMPLES_OF _COMBINATIONAL NETWORKS THAT Use MoRe ——}THAN_ONE.KIND OF GATE. CREMEMEER, oT THESE. —HOIRCUITS.cAN ALSO SE MADE ENTIRELY ER¢ ND" GATES |) _ —|——DaTA SELECTOR BINARY 70 Decimal DecopeR AG : 5 : == {__SELECT: INCLUDE Magy |L-serecrs A MORE INPUTS NIVERTS..._BINARY_ TD. [DECIMAL AND Bch }>——To.DECIMAL DIGITS. ON DIGITAL READOUTS, _ 87——__|SEQUENTIAL LOGIC CIRCUITS. Hue output STATE of A SEQUENTIAL Logic ciRCUT 1S ——_-_ DETERMINED _B8Y THE PREWOUS STATE OF THE.INPUT. IN JOTAER _woros, BITS _OF DATA MOVE. THROUGH... SEQUENTIAL ___ IciRcuiTS _STEP-RY~STEP, OFTEN THE DATA.ADVANCES..ONE _|STEP WHEN A PULSE is RECEIVED FRom A "clock" CA JROVIT THAT SMITS A STEADY STREAM OF. PULSES), THE ISEQUENTIAL LOGIC BUNDING BLOCK iS THE FLIP=F/OR, IMERE'SA_ Quick. CLIP= FLOP REVIEWS eee fo the Basic. LATCH. THEOUTS Coane. 2) ARE. ALWAYS “RS' CReser = Ser) FLIP-FLOP SRI JALSO. CALLED A —cugeent__oureuTs | _ ALLOWS BOTH ol _luseurs Tro peu. —croce_} jCis_wuicn case _ 45 Roane KH | Cosauowen) VALID ASTER CLOCK PULSE ARRIVES, D_ELIP-FLoes STON E. BETWEEN CLOcK._| Pulses. D_AETER cLo¢k ~ PULSE. ARRIVES. THe "Tk" ELIP=Flop its ourfurs "Tose.e* JOR... SWITCH. STATES... IAT EACH. Clock PULSE.)HOYT" (rogele) ELip=€LOe — OuT.Bur FTHE Cor 3) ouTPuT. [iS..b..CoR M) FOR EVERY jOoTHER_iNPuT. Pulse. HHEREORE THE..INPUT. PULSES AGE Divine D gy : fWO.. WERE ARE SEVERAL WAYS. I'D i eLie-ELOP.. DATA sToRAGE {HERE'S HOW. OUR "D" ELIP-FLOPS FORM A. STORAGE {OR MEMORY THAT. ~fAT._AN PUTS. A= D. —fPused).. REGISTER "LOADS" Csaves) THE 4-E1T..BIMARY... MIBBLE WHEN..THE "cLock' INPUT 1s "sTRoseD” -MANY. TYPES. OF TC. REGISTERS ARE AVAILABLE... f RATA CUT B Fart co Lock @ ot ° o.|0.0 0. 1.10.00 2 1994 x 30.04 cf A O10 @ S. 0.1.0. ds eatiaae ati] ete FOAL fe _ a_j1o00 ! INCOMING PULSES. BY 9 [100 a —THE..BINARY TRUTH. TABLE. REVEALS, do {101 —fHE.RESULTIc__A_0000.- 1111 BINARY COUNT. 11_|1.0.1. THE... COUNT RECYCLES TO. O000.. AFTER. THE. 167! 12.14.1.0 INCOMING PULSE.) THERE ARE MANY TYPES OF Bae 1.0 LE COUNTERS, _MOST.OF witicH inctube te [dt SPECIAL FEATURES (COUNT UP OR DOWN, RESET, ETC.). 15 41.11 BIA COMBINATIONA! — SEQUENTIAL LOGIC SYSTE a WERE’ Snow CoMeNATIONAL AND. SEQUENTIAL LOGIC _IC%s —|can...£ORM. ABSCIM AL SOUNTING.—CIRGLT yA VERY SIMELE ——_— Rieck iia \THE..BcD. Y EACA.INCOMING PULSE.WHEN THE COUNT. REACHES..1001 CPEciIMAL 9), THE COUNTER. __ [1490 counter 2442 DECODER. Diode _f -[pRops* | _S }o-VOLTS. To 15.4- VOLTS. | as—DIGITAL TC FAMILIES _ 2. Low=PoweR ScHoTIKY TTL CLS). AW. {Of IIL _TMAT._CONSUMES ONLY. .20.% _AS__MUCH. aft most cmos Has A WIDE SUPPLY VOLTAGE RANGE CrveicALLyY +3 ro + 18 yours), USES JESS POWER THAN ANYIZ LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS _ IE IN@UT. AND OUTPUT. VOLTAGE LEVELS. OF. LINEAR INTEGRATED. cIRCUITS...CAN—_UARY OVER Awd OFTEN. THE ouTPuT... VOLTAGE 15 INPUT VOLTAGE, THEREEORE, ouTPuT ISA. STRAIGHT. (LINEAR) CINE. (MAW TYPE S.OF LINEAR TC? ONLY les Age covesed.._ WERe.Figst_ter's DIGITAL AND. LINEAR... CIRCUITS BASIC LINEAR CIRCUIT. A... SINGLE_BIPOLAR.OR FIELD - EFFECT. TRANSISTOR CAN. as FUNCTION..AS A. DIGITAL 98. LINEAR. CIRCUIT..__1N__OTH Z ICASES.,.... THE TRANSISTOR CAN. INVERT. THE... SIGNAL.AT.. ITS..INPUT..._ HERE'S Row AN. “NPN BIPOLAR. TRANSISTOR. -}CAN...PERFORM...ALL FOUR FUNCTIONS: - - @1,02 EF Se Sep Eee ay Re. Eee ewer) 1k - - est ik Be “pees an Low LL exo Rie a RB. = 40K 6 [N] é 20K CHP | a1 = Ce ty gon 1 + 5 fo ey Lep2 3 < ev. 2 +v. Graas:.." wd COLLECTOR VOLTAGE *APPROMIMATE pigirac: JL OLE ingae: HERE Q2_1S_ ANA HERE TRANSISTOR QU is OSED..AS..A. SWATCH...WHEN THAT. _OPER ATES. OVER. THE [IME 1MPUT 1S NEAR +. ENTIRE RANGE FROM FULL Con MIGH), QL. -TURNS..ON. Off TR. FULL ON, 24 AND. ANOLED.1_1S__ILLUMIN ATED. RSFORM...A. VOLTAGE. DIVIDES WHEN. THE. INPUTS NEAR THAT._APPLIES...A__ SMALL GROUND. Cok. Low).4.Q4 TURNS... VOLTAGE... TO. Q2's_ BASE..TO_. JOE... THIS. TURNS LED 1 OFF. KEEP QZ SLIGHTLY ON. EVEN. AND... ALLOWS... LED..2.. TO. GLOW... WHEN. _NO._INPUT 1S PRESENT. (RZ. CONTROLS... THE... CURRENT. TAS... ALLOWS_..Q2...TO_OPERATE. THROUGH... BOTH._LEDS..)._TAIS. LIN. LINEAR MODE... AS THE. CIRCUIT IS. THEN A COMBINED... INPUT_VOLTAGE_RISES.,....LED_3. DIGITAL GUECER AND INVERTER, BRIGHTENS AN! 92— OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS {OPER LeveL —{MoRE —{Back Vin {WHEN —foniy.. —|MAKES. —|D_TyPes OF. P= AMPS— Born BLfoLag AND. Mose eT IC OP-AMPS. ARE AVAILABLE. _jHAVE AN PUT. TIONAL LEVERS x ——|MOST._VERSATILE Of LINEAR TC's. THEY'RE CALLED -—LOPERATIONAL" AMPLICIERS SINCE THEY. WERE ORIGINALLY {DESIGNED __TD__.DO.. MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS, OP= APPS. —{AMPLIEN__THE DIFFERENCE SE TWEEN VOLTAGE ~OR_D.C) APPLIED TO THEIR. t ARCLIED TDONLY ONE INPUT. WILL BE AMPLIFIED Le TH _|A SINGLE TC MAY. INCLUDE ARE BY FAR.’ OR_SIGNALS. THE..VOLTAGE —-IS__REVERSED AT... THE NON=-INVERTING INPUT.IS +.) ODE. VE... ALLOW AMPLIFICATION —_ SUALLY THE... GAIN._1S__REDUCED_.TD_A -PRACTICAL.. LEVEL __6Y__ FEEDING SOME OFTHE ouTPuT. 7O__THE__INVERTIN. —INPUT.._EFOR €xXAMELES 12 —|D0P- Ame COMPARATOR— WHEN OPERATED. A __|Feepeacy. eecicroR C82 Agove), THE UTPUT VOLTAGE. WILL SWING... FROM EULL ON 7D_FULL...OFE Con. vice VERSA). TRE... VOLTAGES... APPLIED TO. THE INPUTS DIFFER. BY ABOUT...0,.001.vouT | THIS. QIGUTALZ LIKE MODE POSSISLE..MANY.USEFUL. APPLICATIONS... a> ~SOME... BIPOLAR _OP- AMPS. = FET..OR_ MOSFET. INQUTS.TO._PRoviDE VERY HIGH RESISTANCE. _MANY DIEFERENT.OP- AMPS ARE MADE, IP__TO_ Fou. INDIVIDUALTIMERS WHEN OPERATED.AS_A. COMPARATOR, THE OP- AMP. CAN |SE_usED Ac A TIMER. ALL THAT'S REQUIRED. IS AN RG CRESISTOR = CAPACITOR) cigcwsT LIKE THIS : —¥9v Jin me —circurt DIAGRAM CABovE “RIGHT), RL AND..C1. FORM. RC CiRcuIT.....C1 GRADVALLY CHARGES. Ri... WHEN. THE VOLTAGE ON C1 EXcEED: VOLTAGE... SUPPLIED TO THE _NON=INVERTING.. —JOP=AMP 4... ITS.OUTPUT._ SWINGS FROM...HIGH..TO. LOW..AND THE ME_TIME DELAY CAN. ££... CHANGED... BY. ALTERING JHE VALUES.OF RL AND C1..OR. THE... SETTING _. pees RZ. DISCHARGE C1 CuSE. PUSHBUTTON SWITCH) FOR. NEW CYCLE SIMPLE CiRcuLT.. ABOVE..|S._THE..KEY INGREDIENT. Of MOST Tc TIMERS...._MOST INCLUDE... AN.oUTPUT ELOP..TO._GIVE.OBEINITEHIGH..OR LOW. .OUT PUT... SOME. WARY COUNTER THAT. ADVANCES.. ONE COUAIT. DE vn PERIOD..COR CYCLE)... THE...TIMER 15. RECY.CLED..EACH IME THE Count. ADVANCES. A__DECODER AT. THE. COUNTER. JourPuT. ALLows TRTAL...OSLAYS. OF. "FROM.DAYS..TD...A_YEAR lok. More TD GF SELECTED, BOTH... BIPOLAR... AND.CMOS. FACT: ANALOG |. {COMPUTERS ..USE.OP=AMPS.TO| SOLVE. .COMPLEXEQUATIONS! | THESE._I¢'s GENERATE. XINDS.OF_OUTPYT... WAVES. SUCH. SHOWN..HERE. THE OF THE WAVES.—AReGuratogs.Inciuos extRA BASIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR —IRANSISTORS TD PROVIDE. Vpee —laNd_1o_ALlow THE cule ro DRWE LOADS THAT REQUIRE —}MORE_POWER THAN. AN OP> AMP. ALONE CAN DELIVER. lo rc ke curators - IVARIAGLE OUTPUT Tc —(METAL...TABS.TO_ HELP RADIATE EXCESSIVE HEAT. INTO THE SURROUNDING AIR. — INSTRUCTIONS AND STANDARD SAFETY PRECAUTIONS. —{2E.FonloweD. FOR Best. REsusTs. —lOTHER LINEAR TC’ — THERE ARE Numegous special eu {MANY OF _WHICA INC! INCORPORATE. “BASED. ONAN OLD SUT CLEVER — REA. “IN WHICH AN ON-CHIP OScULATOR DUPLICATES. Cok —{TRACKS)._THE FREQUENCY OF AN. INCOMING SIGNAL, USED. - Slee eager (pre RIRamar Te visite np PUTER. —{COMMUNILCATIONS.__ALSO, MANY KINDS OF Tc's THAT DETECT. TEMPERATURE MIGHT—-AND PRESSURE .————___8. CIRCUIT. ASSEMBLY TIPS THERE ARE. SEVERAL WAYS TO MAKE. EITHER TEMPORARY OR PERMANENT VERSIONS OF ELECTRONIC..CIRCWTS. IN THIS. CHAPTER. WEXLL LOOK AT... SOME... CIRCUIT. ASSEMBLY _ {TIPS MOD. MAY...FIND HELPFUL. — eeu TEMPORARY CIRCUITS oe 3 ae oe 4 IT?S ALWAYS. WISETO _BUILO A TEMPORARY. VERSION OFA ciRcuir. @EFORE_ ASSEMBLING IT NN) PERMANENT... FORM. YOU CAN. THEN. MAKE. CAANGES_ANO_IND. OUT. HOW... WELL..THE CIRCUIT. WORKS. BY. FAR THE MOST IMPORTANT. [root...FOR. TEMPORARY..CIRCUIT ASSEMBLY. ISTHE... PLASTLLC. - ISOLDERLESS.. MODULAR. BREADBOARD SOCKET......ATIS..AGOOD.IDEA TO. KEEP. SEVERAL. ON YOUR. i WORKBENCH... THEY. With LET. ow... Buii0—EWTIRE CIRCLES —___ rarity IN. MINUTES...USE. “JUMPERS - ~ WIRES..TD..INTERCONNEST.PARTS.. CUTAWAY... SHOWING..COMMON...__ WHOSE... LEADS... ARE NOT INSERTED. ___ TERMINAL... CONNECTIONS... VN) THE,..SAME... ROW OF TERMINALS... = TO. AVOID. BENDING THEIR PINS... HINT? INSTALL. SOCKET._ON. (AND... PRICKING YOUR FINGERS)»..._BASE..AND..ADD. POTENTIOMETERS,. JNSTALS. AND REMOVE 2¢'s CAREFULLY... BATTERY, LEDS, SWITCHES, Ere, PERMANENT..CIRCUITS. WITH THE EXCEPTION.OF SOME. VERY. SIMPLE CIRCUITS, ;{MOST. PERMANENT CIRCUITS... ARE ASSEMBLED...ON SOME FORM. OF. c1RcurT. BOARD : : CL PERFORATED... BOARD CONSTRUCTION. =... COMPONENT... LEADS ARE... INSERTED... THROUGH PERFORATIONS...IN._A PRENOLIC._ OR SIMILAR. BOARD... AND. SOLDERED TOGETHER... ON THE BACK. SIDE_OF THE. BOARD... OFTEN INSULATED. CONNECTION. WIRES. Must. BE. USED... .ONCE... ASSEMBLED," PERE BOARD" ciRcuITS —__ ne ARE. DIFEICUCT....TD. REPAIR SINCE. COMPONENT... LEADS. ARE. OFTEN TWISTED ANP SOLDERED, COMPONENT. CONNECTION CREQURES SOLOEI—O.WIRE- WRAP FASTEST WAY To. ASSEMBLE cigculTs —{TRAT_USE...MORETAAN A FEW. TC's, Use wige NaC nt 0.6.¥) unset FANndai4, + = ae —_Loap___ EXAMPLES. atte ae ~-}ONE...OR.__MORE SILICON. .DIODES. £Rx). — {CAN REGULATE A VOLTAGE = Gv. Sv —LN_0.6 VOLT STEPS. See eee POWER SuPeLY TCOPTIONAL) —{foa_ Low. alee Csurcaimeosed Ac AT Vous), US2_LA (VALUE go "Ci. foKk 1D ADD ONE oR MORE CAPACITORS. (Cn) —-fIN-PARALLEL WITH C1_fo2 MORE _CAPACITANGE..). CAPACITORS ——{MUST.HAUE.A_DC WORKING VOLTAGE... Cwvoc) OF AT LEAST. 12 VOLTS. RECTIFIER BRIDGE &1. MOST HAVE PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE _C PLV)_OF AT LEAST 12 VolTS. T1_AND 81. MusT HAVE JADE QUATE POWER... ANO._CURRENT RATINGS...CUSE OHMS. LAW..«) CAUTION: YOU...MUST.INSULATE OR ENCLOSE. ALL. EX POSED..AC_ {ONE “cONNecTioNs | THe POWER CORD... MUST BE. UNPLUGGED —WHEN.You ASSEMBLE OR SERVice THE ciRcuLT!— CONVENTIONAL “CASCADE | THESE _ciacuiTs APPROXIMATES MOLT AGE. THE OUTPUT._1S.. [pines RATED. FOR. | RIPPLE (Anna) CAN ge REOUCED VALUES. FoR. C1 AND 0 AN. INGO, A UIE. CAPACITORS. AND. ine INPUT VOLTAGE, our PUT. BY USING. LARGE. THE BRIDGE. douse... MORE EFELCIENT.... THAN THE Con VEN TONAL... .AND... CASCADE DoumERS...SINCE...Y= DIODE BRIDGE... RECTIFIERS. ARE = _-AVAILAGLE... IT'S. BASY. TD MAKE. __oureyt + Min) TRIPLES AND CONVERTS. T2_0G HEEESEECEECae ANINCOMIN. GAC. VOLTAGE. QUADRUPLES._ ANID. CONVERTS. 62, D1, D2_AND.D3. RATEO.AT. DC. AN INCOMING AC VOLTAGE. >2 Vis. _Ath..COMPONENTS.. RATED. AT 22 Viale ID cascape mueriPieR gy [App more staGes cor ‘NPT ¢ Mog MucTiecie ation, ALC Cu) IcoMPONENT:S RATED. AT. >2VineVOLTAGE._(Veur) TO A LOAD FROM _ UNREGULATED SUPPLY (LiKE Vin_CAN.VARY..BUT. MAXIMUM VALUE. I DoES Not CHANGE IE. Ty FALLS TD_O.MA, —-Since..L2 I, +Ie 4 Te Rises. AST FALLS.._IN OTHER WORDS THE. REGULATOR. _ALWAY' THE SAME CURRENT... MEN THE _LOAD_IS... REMOVED. 31 AND...R1 Must HAVE. PROPER. POWER. RATING. USE -OWM!s. LAW. Ce,.14),. T= MAXIMUM LOAD. CURRENT. _|Iz = MAXIMUM. ZENER. CURRENT. T_.=CURRENT THROUGH. RL | V2.2 ZENER DIOdE.VOLTAGE. Po = ZENER DIODE POWER EXAMPLE. +A RADIO. DRAWS. FROM. — [20-10 SO..MA.FROM.A.9 VOLT. BATTERY...TO... POWER ..IT_FROM.. —|A.12_VOLT. BATTERY... USE A MOLT, 1/2. WATT. ZENER. DIODE. _R1_SHOULD_BE_CLOSE._10. 60.2 AND RATED. FOR. AT LEAST.O.1S Wh —{OWAVE FORM. CLiPPER. cuirrEo. WAVE. Naw. Vout. -{-TBASc1RcurT 1S. HANDY... FOR. REDUCING AN INCOMING. SIGNAL VOLTAGE.TD. A -|LOWER, MORE... MANAGEABLE BOTH _RALVES..OF A —{LEVEL..AT.CAN. ALSO. CONVERT... INCOMING WAVE EQUALLY. —}A.-SINE...OR__TRIANGLE._ WAVE. -CE_V2# D1 2 D2)... Use. To - —|7D._AN_APPROXIMATION.OF.__ PROTECT. SPEAKERS AND PHONES i A.SQUARE WAVE. *R15_.SEeTRANSISTOR. CIRCUITS INTEGRATED CIRCUITS RECEIVE MORE ATTENTION, GUT. GorH____ IR\POLAR AND FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS HAVE MANY APPLICATIONS. THIS... CiRCuaT. Wik, MEASURE Tt THE. _ THIS Cigcurt CLOSES A RELAY [MOISTURE LEVEL OF ..SolL__IM (@-49 V4 S00 onm coil) WHEN 1YOUR GARDEN... ADJusT_.R. =e MOISTURE LEVEW EXCEEDS A IMETER READING OF. 1 mA, WHEN. EVEL SET BY 22. REsAY JS. MOISTURE 1S... AT. DESIRED —SONTACTS THEN _SwiTcH ON EVEL. METER WILL. THEN INDICATE...A LIGHT oR OTHER DEVICE. LOWER MOISTURE LEVELS. CAN DeTEcT RAIN. OUGHT ElAsHeRwo CLOSE...S1 ANDTHE SPEAKER. EMITS._ATDNE THAT..RISES IN FREQUENCY ASC CHARGES). OPEN S4__AND..THE TONE _cALLS. IN_FRE QUENCY. CAS “ea DISCHARGES). CLOSE... OPEN. sea isaeeeeee HINT: CHANGE. R1.TO.. CHANGE __UP= DOWN. TIME. —|D Mish volTAGe Power SureLy. Liero+9v wis cigeuit pRopuces. 220. vot PULSES..OF DC. WHEN. POWERED. BY. A. 9- VOLT. BATTERY... 1T with. PRODUCE...UP.TR..170..YouTs._ FROM AFLASHLIGHT...ceLe..C.BuT__You. MAY... RAVE. 7D. EXPERIMENT. WITH —.C1*S..VALUE.. A BLACK CIRCUIT. WILG, a CAavTioN D0 ONE. OR _MORE._NEoM... Nor Touch | LAMPS. THROUGH....A : 1M. Ségies.REsis TOR. TRANS FORMER TL.CMAY...uM IN. Use) —|O Burecar ALARM = ALARM... SOUNOS... AND... STAYS..ON Cuntih PowER 1S. DISCONNECTED)..WHEN..MAGNET. SWATCH.5_OPENED..OR .WINDOW...EOIL IS. GROKEN...RLt SET TD MAXIMUM VALE... DISCONNECT. ONE._LEAD..TD SWITCHES /Foll... THEN REDUCE VALUE __ OF RI TO. TUST... PAST. POINT. WHERE... ALARM... SOUNDS... CIRCUIT. USES ONLY. O.3_MILUAMPERES.AT. VOLTS. eee RELAY: USE GV, S0O.2 unit WHEN SUPPLY. IS G-4 V. USE 42.V, 4200 0. ONIT_WHEN SUPPLY. 1S.12 VA NoTe + ASSEMGLE, INSTALC..ANO. +6 ro +12jJUNCTION FET CIRCUITS. Drouckswire SEE eee ~ OUT DOORS Si ae THIS... CIRCUIT DETECTS STATIC__ AWAY... FROM... POWER LINES ———---- | ELECTRICITY... FROM. A CHARGED GRIEFLY_“TDUGH. YON! CONTACTS. To OB.TECT CPLASTIC.COMB, ETC.)_OvER ACTUATE .RELAY....TOUCH _GoNTACT_ A foot. Away! AdTusT R14. ~2..ONLY...10... DEACTUATE RELAY. SO. METER INDICATES. MA. INDOORS: eee CHARGED. OBJECT NEAR. "ANTENNA. AYE NECESSARY TD INCCUDE —...__WILL_QE CREASE METER READING, OPTIONAL “OEE” ORCI OL Aue _M\xeR DELAY. TIME: aa an [UPTO LS MINUTES PIEZO BUZZER ALG SounsD). THEN SET S1 TO THIS...CIRCUIT. ALLOWS... Two_CoR TIME._BUZZER WILL GE SILENT MORE)... MICROPHONES...OR OTHER UNTIL. DELAY.1S COMPLETE. BUZZER DEVICES_7D__BE CONNECTED TR WILL THEN SOUND. INCREASE Ci THE_SAME._ AMPLIFIER. RI AND. OR. RL FOR. LONGER DELAYS. _R3___CONTROL__.ATTENUATION OF —{REDUCE.._R2s RESISTANCE DURING _EACH..\NQUT... THEREFORE Rt RESET MODE (SPEEDS UP RESET), AND R32. ARE. BALANCE CONTROS.{POWER MOSFET..CDMOS..VMOS., ETC). CIRCUITS ID LINEAR LIGHT DIMMER ae __JQi=-N=channer] “ft __ | PoweR MOSFET Lit 4-ey _DO_NOT_ Ra. —-LAMP. Exceed POWER ne RATING OF. AL. CHANGE. SETTING... OF__R2_TO. CHANGE. INTENSITY..oF LAMP, — - eee THIS... CIRCUIT... SHOWS... HOW. one WSE.TO__ AMPLIFY SIGNALS. AND. a POWER... MOSFET. CAN BE USED JONES...FROM OTHER CIRCUITS. AS_A_VARIABLE RESISTOR. RZ. CONTROLS..GAIN... VOLUME). DURATION... TIME. DELAY... CIRCUITS z ate AFTER "DELAY... “PIEZO BUZZER -1 Con. PoRTAgLE |S noo, sigur, ere). Si ©). DO. NOT. EXCEED Sy -POWER. RATING. —{fateison tof... USE SERIES. RESISTOR. AT.“x' 1D. REDUCE, LOSE.AND THEN OPEN S170 ——|ACTIVATE.8u22ER... AFTER. C1. DISCHARGES INTERNALLY. oR. —{THROUGH...R1. CoprionAd),.. Q1. —-SOUNDS._AETER. THE TIME. —-|TUANS OFF... AND. SILENCES..TRE..__DELAY. GuzzER. DELAYS... POSSIBLE...81 £22] —2n4aat UNI JUNCTION. TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS. EACH TIME. THE UIT CQt)_TURNS. {GLOWS .OIMLY. RZ. CONTROLS. [FLASH RATE. ANDCAN 8E_ ID Time BASE. Qt 2N4sas_ A MILAR Qi 2naat 22 ak OR. SIMILAR. _-1S_AN__ AUDIO. FREQUENCY. ISET.__FOR__ONE.__ELASA__PER. SECOND CTIME BASE ROLE) OR | SIMILAR FREQUENCY, $8062}. -39.88_H2_ 2986 _H2 ABH HZ }4343 Hz. “#4 704i12V Qt. awaear TRIS. CIRCUIT IS _IDENTICAL..N ION, THE. CHARGE ON. C1 IS. PRINCIPLE _TO_THE ADJACENT. buMeen" THROUGH THE. LED.. CIRCUIT. _C1__1S_ MUCK SMALLER _ THE LED. FLASHES. IN RESPONSE,..TO. SPEED UP THE _CHARGE- ISETWEEN. FLASHES... THE. LED. DISCHARGE CYCLE... THE RESULT. —TONE WHICH 1S EMITTED BY —THE...SPEAKER, THIS. CIRCUIT CAN..BE. EXPANDED Gsee BELOu). |CHANGE.Ci__TO__ALTER THE TABLE. SHOWS TYPICAL FREQUENCIES.jC RAMP GENERATOR. AS _A.RAMP (or SAWTOOTH! WAVE),....R3-CONTROLS._THE. RATE..AT... WHICH RAMPS. ARE.._PRODUCED. — eee 7 cs A ae SAN. out LL RAMPS. SUPPLY GRADUALLY. INCREASING. VOLTAGE...To. MANY...KINDS... OF CIRCUITS. THIS CIRCUIT. PRODUCES. A. REMARKABLE. VARIETY. OF. J sounps,.AS Shown, IT Re CHIRES" ATA RATE S100. DETERMINED. BY 83, Bz. EXPERIMENT WITH VALUES. —-OF_C1, R5AND ¢2_FOR _-_MANY__OTHER.._ EFFECTS. ai, a2: anasat JO. VOLTAGE. SENSITIVE. OSCULATOR —_ ¥#V (6 +a eee WHEN. VinIS. BELOW. V20F Di... SELECT..V2_OF __D1_FOR 00. SDE SIRED. TURN-OFF LEVEL B2__. TAIS.CIRCUIT CAN BE USED -TO..INDICATE WHEN VOLTAGE OF A BATTERY CWHICH..CAN BE POWERING ANOTHER CIRcuIT) FALLS. BELOW. .A_ CERTAIN... LEVEL, THIS _1S_AN.EXCELLENT. EXAMPLE OF A SIMPLE, YET SOPMISTLCATED, CIRCUIT.THYRISTOR... CIRCUITS _ SILICON CONTROLLED. RECTIFIERS. MANY... APPUCATION SAS. SCR CIRCUITS ANO_ TRIACS HAVE SOLID-STATE .SWITCHES. ~SL1S_" SPRING. RETURN To _—— CENTER..OFF S1= NORMALLY. SWATCH Orpen St=NoRMALLY cLoseD ae Close. S41. TO _TURN..ON. THE. S115 AN SPOT SwaTcH. J won f SCR AND SUPPLY. CURRENT. __TRE_"OM" POSITION, THE. SCR. TD.THE LOAD... THE S¢Rwite 1S. TURNED..ON. AND. THE. REMAIN ON. AFTER S2.1S LAMP...cLOWS....IN. THE “OF EY. OPENED... UNLESS. THE._LOAD. POSITION, CURRENT.IS.... IS_A.0¢ MoroRoRunTib SHUNTED. AWAY._FROM.... SER. S218 BRIEFLY. opened. TAUSTURNING _IT.OFF OCApacitorR OISCHARGE LED FLASHER aoe *4oV WHEN... THE SCR. 1S. TURNED.ON...BY AL aa __ PULSE. FROM. UST.@4,_. THE... CHARGE...IN. C118, RAPIDLY." DUMPED" THROUGH As. THE._.LED._THE_sc@__. 62. CAND__LED) THEN. TURNS. OFF SINCE THERE 15 NO LONGER SUFFICIENT _ ——— aa HOLDING. CURRENT. THE RA CONTROLS RATE. CYCLE THEN REPEATS,A bok Snot Glow WAEN S11S OPEN. —|gaux. : : revacs. ARE DESIGNED SPECIFICALLY FOR AC OPERATION. IGE _SURE._TO OBSERVE COMMON SENSE SAFETY WHEN LINE. SURRENT | _MAKE Sure. SUCATED. OR ENCLOSED. THE...UTT OSCILLATOR. SWITCHES | JON THE TRIAC, AND THUS THIS_1S__HOW. MANY. HOUSE Heep IMMER SWITCHES ARE MADE. At Ld CAN. BE UP TD 100_ WATT a vn (ARO. VOLT) LAMP. USE HEAT _ 4 SINK ON TRIAC IF IT BECOME: -4——HoT._TAE Dac 1s A {BIDIRECTIONAL TRIGGER DIODE. | j---- CAUTION: THIS CIRCUIT MUST. BE FULLY ENCLOSEDAT ALL TIMES. -WHEN. POWER 1S APPLIED!— Tee Vin=Wieo t 0.6) | ___ agen, IPHOTONAC... CIRCUITS. Iciecurrs— [Most LIGH: A_ SERIES... RESISTOR Must BE USED_10 LIMIT..CURRENT. —THROUGH.AN LED. (EXCEPTIONS : CERTAIN. pw PULSE CIRCUITS. AND Te_LED DRIVERS.) +V Tiss, VARIABLE SRIGHTNESS LEO 4 USING. PHOTONIC COMPONENTS. ARE AMONG THI VERSATILE AND INTERESTING OF..ALL. CIRCUITS. FORWARD. Rs = $V = Cues) aE EXAMPLE. ASSUME.YOU_.WANT TO.OPERATE...A_ RED LEO AT A CURRENT..CTigo).OF COR..0.0L AMPERE) AL 5 VOLT. supply, DATA SHEET...FOR.THE LED. AN..LED. VOLTAGE 1.1_VOLTS. THER! FORE... Re 1S (5-17) 4.01 on. 320__OMMS._ aa Lists (Nueo)....0F ADSUST..R1_TO..ALTER. CURRENT THROUGH THE LED, THs Ri+ee Zuo NARYING.ITS BRIGHTNESS. Re MUST. BE useD (See. ABove). 7 ID _PoLaRiTy..INDICATOR oe sess THIS.CIRCUIT.INDICATES THE. POLARITY...OF A. VOLTAGE. Rs. MUST... BE USED.CSEE.. ABOVE). Wy [ten | + T= Tact e (1D. UNKNOWN t on | ore | oN POLARITY.) 2} ofr. ow |. ON CL_TRI STATE POLARITY INDICATOR — THIS..1S...A.MORECouoR FUL. eee VERSION OF THE CIRCUIT ABOVE. [vw coLoR ca é RED. = GREEN Acc) YELLOW Leos * WHEN TWO-cHIP LED USED.JO. DUAL. LED FLASHER THIS cIRCUIT.1S CALLED A FREE > RUNNING. MUCTIVIER ATOR. (T)s__IDENTICAL.TD_AFCIP= ELOP.THAT...TRIGGER.S._ITSELE. RE PEATE DLY.. Q1.AND_.Q2 ARE GENERAL. CURPOSE PNP. RANSISTORS..C2N 3906.,.2N2907, Ri ANDO 82 Lumar. a THE CURRENT TD.THE..LEDs_ Cwiicn FLASH ACTERNATELY). —INCREASANG.THEVALUES..OF CALWAND C2 wit SLow THE FLASA.RATE. AN EACH. cIRCWIT THE LEDCs)__ GLOWS._WHEN..V+_ REACHES. THE. BREAKOOWN...VOLTAGE_ (Vz).O8 ITS..ZENER+ Veep. BE. SURE...TD...USE.INOLVIDUAL. RsFOR. EACH LED. (See ACING.. PAGE.) TRE.CIRCUIT. GRAPH. READOUT WHEN. |, ZENERS..WITH PROGRESSIVELY. LEDL HIGHER...V2.ARE__USED.._ ~CONNECT..ZENERS_IN SERIES FOR..WIGHER..TOTAL.V2.. —JQFcCASHER LED + RELAY. THE. ELASHER..LED INCLUDES. A. SDUT=IN..I¢ THAT. FLASHES THE. LED SEVERAL TIMES. .EACH _ SECOND.THIS.. CIRCUIT... SHOWS. How. To."TAP" THIS_FLASH. RATE CVAB..Q4) To EORM.O AN. ULTRAT S\MPLE PULSE GENERATOR THAT ACTUATES..A..RELAY AND, IN TURN, ALLAMP..D4_.1S NEEDED..To. __KEEP_THE VOLTAGE. To. THE _FLASHER_LED NEAR S_voLTs. 113 RL | on 100k Anand CApsvst. Ren 7 CofA ELA SHES ee ee eee oD