SLOPE STABILITY RADAR

by

Justin Hannon

A thesis submitted to the Department of Mining Engineering

in conformity with the requirements for the

degree of Bachelor of Science

Queens University

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

April, 2007

Copyright Justin Hannon, April 5th 2007

 ABSTRACT

It is generally true that rock mass movements and deformations will occur through

regular open pit mining operations potentially leading to slope instability or wall failure.

Slope stability radar is a relatively new technology and is improving the way mines

manage and minimize the risks associated with slope instability, enabling the appropriate

precautionary measures to be taken. This technology meets the requirements that a

monitoring system should have regarding precision, area coverage and failure mode

detection. It is reliable in a variety of conditions, operates in a safe mode not requiring

personnel to work on or near an instability, and does not obstruct mining operations. Data

is easily interpreted and transmitted continuously in real time enabling engineers to make

more informed decisions about production and slope design. The precision necessary is

achieved through signal processing by differential interferometry using associated

sofware. Differential interferometry uses the phase information contained in each return

pulse and compares it to a previous returning pulse. Measurements of deformation and

ground movements can then be deciphered through the differences in the phase

information. The radar is equipped with a wireless link which transmits data in real time

so engineers can make immediate decisions without having to be near a potentially

unstable slope and the radar is trailer mounted for easy relocation. A variety of displays

for data interpretation are available including deformation maps, digital photographs for

reference and plots of deformation over time of specific points on the wall face. Alarm

thresholds can be set, and are based upon total deformation and deformation of an area

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over a time frame. The benefits to mining by using this technology can be seen through

safer mining practises based on advance detection of pending failures in addition to the

continuity of mine production through a better understanding of rock movements. This

leads to more aggressive slope design generating extra revenue far in excess of the costs

of implementing the radar monitoring system.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the following:

Mr. Garston Blackwell for his assistance and guidance during the completion of this
thesis.

Mr Jan de Beer of RRS in South Africa for cost information

Mr. David Noon of GroundProbe for providing the background information required for
the completion of this thesis.

Mr Peter Stacey of Stacey Mining in Vancouver B.C. for contact information and
examples.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1

1.1 The Necessity of Slope Stability Monitoring ................................................... 1

1.2 Slope Stability Radar......................................................................................... 1
2. REQUIREMENTS OF SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS....................................... 3

2.1 Monitoring Requirements................................................................................. 3

2.2 Data Acquisition................................................................................................. 4
3. SIGNS OF INSTABILITY........................................................................................... 5

3.1 Visual Indicators ................................................................................................ 5

3.2 Benefits of Precision Equipment ...................................................................... 5
4. SLOPE STABILITY RADAR TECHNOLOGY ....................................................... 7

4.1 Failure Mode Recognition................................................................................. 7

4.2 Radar Technology.............................................................................................. 8
4.3 Data Acquisition................................................................................................. 8
5. COMPONENTS OF SLOPE STABILTY RADAR ................................................ 12

6. INTERFACE............................................................................................................... 14

6.1 Visual Interpretation ....................................................................................... 14

6.2 Alarm Thresholds ............................................................................................ 17
7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SLOPE MONITORING TECHNIQUES............... 18

7.1 Advantages of Slope Stability Radar ............................................................. 18

7.2 Benefits to Mining............................................................................................ 19
7.3 Disadvantages of Slope Stability Radar......................................................... 21
8. COMPANIES PROVIDING SLOPE STABILITY RADAR ................................. 22

9. CASE STUDIES.......................................................................................................... 24

9.1 Leinster Nickel Operation, Leinster Australia.............................................. 24

9.1.1 Operation Overview............................................................................... 24

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 9.1.2 Ground Movement Monitoring ............................................................ 24
9.1.3 Slope Stability Monitoring Techniques................................................ 25
9.1.4 Differences between Monitoring Techniques ...................................... 26
9.1.5 Failures Anticipated.............................................................................. 27
9.1.6 Pit Closure ............................................................................................. 30
9.2 Potgietersrust Platinum Ltd. (PPRust), Limpopo, South Africa ................ 30
9.2.1 Operation Overview............................................................................... 30
9.2.2 Slope Stability Monitoring Techniques................................................ 31
9.2.3 The Effectiveness of Slope Stability Radar .......................................... 33
9.3 Applications besides Wall Control ................................................................. 34
9.4 Conclusion from Actual Applications ............................................................ 34
10. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................. 35

REFERENCES................................................................................................................ 37

ADDITIONAL FIGURES OF REAL WORLD APPLICATIONS ........................... 38

A.1 South African Metalliferous Mining Documented Rock Slab Failure....... 39

Figure A.1.1: Documented Rock Slab Figure............................................. 39
A.2 Subsidence Management at Sishen Iron Ore Mine, South Africa.............. 40
Figure A.2.1: Schematic of Measuring Subsidence.................................... 40
Figure A.2.2: Subsidence Recorded by Slope Stability Radar.................. 41

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Scan pattern used by slope stability radar15

Figure 2. Failure mode interpretation through multiple scans.17

Figure 3. GroundProbe slope stability radar..19

Figure 4. Image panel...21

Figure 5. Output with movement plots.22

Figure 6. Failure at Harmony mine..33

Figure 7. Movement documented at Harmony.34

Figure 8. Slab failure documented at Harmony mine...36

Figure 9. Slope monitoring method at PPRust..39

Figure 10. Outputs from a brittle failure at PPRust.40

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Necessity of Slope Stability Monitoring

Slope stability is a major issue in open pit mining. Effectively measuring the stability

of slopes can ensure continued production. Accurately predicting when a failure will

occur or if it will occur at all, can lead to appropriate decisions being made on mining in

an area with suspect wall conditions, or revising mine plans to ensure continued

production. Data on slope stability has traditionally been collected through the use of

deformation measurements. Surveying equipment such as robotic remote total stations

and wire extensometers are typical. Although these means of measurement are adequate,

the potential to maintain safe pit walls or to safely increase the steepness of pit walls with

this equipment is difficult to achieve. Having steeper walls will increase the profitability

of the operation but must be accomplished in a safe matter as the results of failure can be

catastrophic.

1.2 Slope Stability Radar

Slope stability radar has addressed some of the inadequacy of the older systems of

measuring slope stability. Using radar technology the resolution and precision of

measurements taken has remained competitive with current survey equipment, but has

provided a more continuous and quicker approach to taking these readings and using the

data to make more informed decisions on whether a pit wall is safe for mining operations

to take place. Further, the method does not require personnel to install survey reflectors

or instrumentation in the failure area, and is not subject to having such installations

remain in place. This thesis summarizes and researches the technology involved in using

1
radar to monitor the stability of pit walls and how this technology is improving open pit

mining. Included in this thesis will be a detail analysis of how the technology functions.

The specific improvements to data acquisition and the prediction of slope failures when

compared to older more traditional methods of measuring slope stability will be

discussed. Further investigation on applications for the mining industry will include some

case studies in which slope stability radar has been successfully used to accurately predict

wall failure. The benefits to mining operations and any shortcomings of the equipment

will also be discussed.

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2. REQUIREMENTS OF SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS

2.1 Monitoring Requirements

There are a few important requirements of any measuring tool used to determine

whether open pit walls are moving and whether this movement will lead to failure. The

instrumentation involved in monitoring slope stability should have sufficient coverage of

any unstable area. Monitoring displays should allow the detection of more than one

failure mode whether it is wedge, circular, toppling, plane or rock mass failure. This

aspect of slope stability monitoring is very important as it may lead to appropriate

preventative measures being taken. The deformation or wall movement should be

measured precisely enough to give meaningful results. If the measurements are imprecise

then an accurate picture of what failure modes may develop in the pit wall or slope in

question will not be achieved. This could lead to either unexpected slope failure

jeopardizing equipment and life, or unnecessary quarantining of a section of the mine

leading to disruptions in planned production, lower ore grades and less profit. The

acceptable level of accuracy needed for adequate slope monitoring should be 10 mm at

the very least, and 0.1 mm would be advantageous. Mines today prefer to have movement

and deformation monitored to the millimetre (Noon, 2003). Instrumentation should also

be able to be moved easily and not delay or obstruct mining operations so as to keep

production on schedule. Slope monitoring instruments are designed to aid in achieving

the best possible production by knowing how and when to mine certain benches and not

prevent equipment from accessing areas planned for mining. In addition, the relaying of

false information that may cause an area to be quarantined must be avoided. Another

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concern is the nature of the equipment itself and whether using it will cause a hazard for

any personnel operating it. Data analysis should be such as to prevent misinterpretation of

information resulting in poor decisions being made including false alarms or more

importantly, no preventative measures or quarantining being taken in areas where they

should be. Data interpretation and analysis should be relatively simple for operators to

use and produce an accurate risk assessment.

2.2 Data Acquisition

Data acquisition should be speedy and data should be relayed in real time to prevent

unexpected movements in wall slopes or benches to go unnoticed. The equipment should

also be able to be used continuously in any situation, including taking readings through

any type of weather, night or day, in addition to being able to obtain clear data through

dust and smoke which are common often present in open pit mining operations. Lastly,

the monitoring device should be able to conduct its task in an economically viable

manner in terms of purchasing and operating cost. Although very important, monitoring

the stability of benches and pit walls should take a representative share of the mine

budget. Choosing cheaper and most likely inferior monitoring products will ultimately

lead to unnecessary risks or false alarms.

4
3. SIGNS OF INSTABILITY

3.1 Visual Indicators

There are signs that usually indicate whether a bench or wall slope may be

experiencing some instability. Cracks may form on the berm or bench floor or on the face

of a wall that require investigation. Other signs that a wall may be progressing towards

failure is the increase in rock spoils that may fall from the face of the wall filling the

berms.

3.2 Benefits of Precision Equipment

The signs may be clear that a failure is imminent in the near future but the progression

towards failure must be measured. A typical question is On which day is the wall to fail

if at all? The answer has been somewhat elusive in open pit mining but the science of

monitoring slope stability has made strides to better document the progression towards

failure which has lead to more accurate predictions of when and how the slope of a bench

face may fail. The reality is that large failures can be well predicted, but small life

threatening failures are not usually predictable (Blackwell & Calder, 1979). This

information is extremely valuable to the mining industry as it leads to continued visual

inspection of working faces by shift supervisors, and the instrumentation and analysis of

larger potential failures. Just as importantly the inappropriate quarantine of an area that

does not require such a course of action is a clear indication that a mine is using an

inferior means of managing risk with respect to the stability of wall slopes. A common

practise in open pit mining is to take a conservative approach by not working under a face

that may have potential stability issues. With a more accurate means of obtaining a clear

5
representation of the risk involved, a more informed decision can be made. Monitoring

slope stability correctly is vital to prevent risk to life and equipment while not hindering

production as a result of over cautious decisions.

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4. SLOPE STABILITY RADAR TECHNOLOGY

4.1 Failure Mode Recognition

Slope stability radar as a method of monitoring pit walls has many advantages in

determining the stability or instability of wall slopes. Like survey monitoring, the method

does not indicate what is occurring inside the pit wall, only on visible faces. The mode in

which a wall slope will fail has to be interpreted from surface (face) deformation, and this

is usually possible (Blackwell & Calder, 1980) including estimation of strike and dip of

continuities and properties of the interface. However the conventional means of

monitoring slope stability activity using these earlier methods is dependant on the density

and continued functioning of such as cube corner survey reflectors and wire lines. There

are many ways that a slope may fail dependent on the local geology as well as the forces

that may be released with mining activities. If the instrumentation is lost due to excessive

movement, it will be very dangerous to replace such instrumentation, making analysis of

the instability impossible with these older methods. An impending failure can be

recognized much earlier with the total coverage radar can provide, and monitoring can

continue until any actual failure of the wall takes place. In fact most measurements taken

that predict an inevitable failure begin months before the actual slope is in any danger of

failing. These measurements are based on the downward and outward movement of

material, the movement directions and the manner in which it accelerates. By knowing

the characteristics of movement of a wall face, especially whether that movement is

accelerating, an informed decision can be made on the failure mechanism and when the

failure will occur. Failures are usually documented to aid in the prediction of how slopes

7
behave in the local geological and rock property conditions. This will also aid in wall

slope design and in utilizing appropriate support and stabilizing methods.

4.2 Radar Technology

Slope stability radar is a product of advanced technology for surveys of the earth from

space for defence purposes. Synthetic aperture radar was successfully applied via satellite

to monitor glacier movement in the mid 1990s, and there were probably defence

information gathering satellites in use earlier. This new development in radar technology

paved the way for other applications including land based (terrestrial) applications. The

major difference in the radar technology employed for slope stability monitoring is the

type of aperture being used. Aperture is defined as the cone angle that comes into focus

in an image plane. The type of aperture used in satellite glacier monitoring used a

synthetic aperture combining sequential returning pulses bouncing off the glaciers. The

combination of these pulses produces the effect of a large antenna creating an accurate

depiction of the terrain (SAR Interferometry, n.d.). As the satellite is continually moving,

such complexity is essential. Since slope stability uses an immobile instrument and

relatively stationary target it is able to use a real-aperture radar instead of a synthetic

aperture. Using this type of aperture, precursory movements can be captured on a smaller

area and a more concentrated scale.

4.3 Data Acquisition

For the best results the instrument is located from 50 to 450 metres back from the area

in which it will scan for stability as seen in Figure 1, although the range in which

measurement can be confidently taken reported to be 850m.

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 Figure 1: Scan Pattern used by Slope Stability Radar (Noon, 2003)

Figure 1 shows slope stability radar scanning wall at a coal mine. These scans take an average of 15
to 30 minutes to complete. Note the path the scan takes is repeated to systematically obtain data from
wall movements.

The system of data collection begins with a preliminary scan to reference when

determining movement and stability. A series of digital images are taken creating a

mosaic of photographs showing the entire area that the radar is able to scan. This enables

the user to have a visual representation of the slope from which a two-dimensional scan

area can be analyzed. These scans usually take approximately 15 to 30 minutes

depending on the size of the area. Each scan contains phase information on a per pixel

basis that can be compared to the first scan and the scan previous to it. Once the

comparison is made, measurements can be deciphered through measuring the difference

between the phases of two different scans.

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 The actual resolution of the raw data is of such low quality as to exclude the

achievement of a precise depiction of sub millimetre movement. The resolution is

improved through signal processing to allow for meaningful applications to open pit

mining. Phase information from signals or pulses is used in a process called differential

interferometry which enables the much better resolution needed for millimetre and sub

millimetre movements to be recorded and estimated with confidence.

Differential interferometry employs phase values from two radar scans targeting the

same area producing an interferogram. The interferogram is then subtracted from an

earlier or original scan to measure any displacement that might have taken place. So by

taking the phase value of a single radar return and comparing the information with phase

information from a different scan on the same target, an accurate depiction of the slope

activity can be achieved (Taser, 2003). A single scan is too complicated to provide any

meaningful data, however, with an additional scan for comparison, displacements and

movement can be captured. The phase information used to measure deformation is

conducted on a per pixel basis. This means that each pixel in the output is responsible for

a corresponding area on the wall face. Therefore the average movement over the area in

which a pixel is representative is shown on a per pixel basis. As the distance from the

wall face to the instrument increases so does the area each pixel is represents and hence

the resolution decreases and a less accurate picture of deformation will result.

Each scan has the ability to move approximately 320 degrees in the horizontal

10
direction and 120 degrees vertically. An image that captures deformation can be

produced and the failure mode can also be determined by analyzing the nature of the

movement on the slope face as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Failure Mode Interpretation through Multiple Scans (Noon, 2003)

Figure 2 shows the recognition of a pending wedge failure. Once the different scans are produced,
combining them can give an accurate picture of deformations taking place. By determining the extent
and pattern of these deformations, a failure mode can often be interpreted. Note that each pixel
(represented by a square on the interface map) has a uniform measure of displacement.

An accurate depiction of an entire area is then possible and appropriate risk

management measures can be taken. If movement exceeds a predetermined threshold

then an alarm can be triggered which informs engineers and other personnel to cease all

mining activities within the area and move equipment out.

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5. COMPONENTS OF SLOPE STABILTY RADAR

The ease in which slope stability radar can be used is another great asset of the

technology. It is trailer mounted which makes moving locations easy and less set up time

is required once deployed. This can be advantageous especially if a wall face requires

immediate monitoring. There is also very little maintenance necessary to keep the

instrument running and taking measurements. It is self-powered having a remote power

supply consisting of a battery power supply and a diesel-powered generator. With this

ability the radar is able to take measurements twenty-four hours a day regardless of

weather conditions. With these components, the slope stability radar acts as an

independent machine requiring little influence from mine personnel. Since the radar is

designed to make measurements continuously, a wireless link is also installed to make

data collection easy from a remote location. This is advantageous because personnel do

not have to make multiple trips per day to a location of interest to acquire data. The

system also relays real time information which can lead to more informed decisions,

resulting in safer mining practises. The radar disk is mounted on a dual axis platform

capable of moving in two dimensions. This dish is available in 0.92m and 1.8m

diameters. The 0.92m version has a maximum range of 850m and the 1.8m has a range of

double the smaller model. A camera is installed next to the dish to provide a visual

representation of the wall face being monitored. Along with the electronics and computer

module components of the system, a display and interface module is mounted on a swivel

allowing personnel in the area to keep current remotely with slope activity. This also can

act as a secondary back up to the wireless link if it should ever experience technical

12
difficulties. The slope stability radar equipment is designed to tolerate vibrations and can

operate under all weather conditions. A labelled diagram displaying the components is

shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: GroundProbes Slope Stability Radar (SSR Brochure, n.d.)

Figure 3 shows the components which enable continuous measurements to be taken. The diagram
shows where each component is located on the Ground Probe model. Note the support stands which
keep the equipment stationary once in position.

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6. INTERFACE

6.1 Visual Interpretation

The user is able to evaluate the stability of any given slope that is being monitored via

a remote computer screen output. This output has the ability to give the user a depiction

of all deformation measurements that the slope stability radar has to offer. These types of

measurements include the ground movement of specific points on the face of the wall, a

digital photograph of the area being monitored as well as a deformation image showing

the deformation or movement of the slope with reference to the earlier (or original) scan.

The interface is set up as to enable different users the choice of what specifically they

would like to monitor. Each user may have the information they are interested in

immediately displayed once signed in with a username and password. Monitoring

displays can be easily switched from one means of monitoring to another via different

panels represented by tabs at the top of the screen. For example the Image Panel is

displayed in Figure 4, which shows that deformation has taken place since the original

scan.

14
 Figure 4: Image Panel (Noon, 2003)

Figure 4 shows the panel exclusively displaying data through a heat map deformation plot. Hot
colors (red vs blue) represent larger displacements. The user pre-determines the color spectrum
constituting a change in displacement. The photograph above the deformation map is to reference
where the movement is taking place.

A photograph of the scan area is used for reference so the user can determine where

the deformation is taking place on the slope. The scroll bar on the left hand side is to

adjust the time in which the original scan is referenced. The deformation plot is colour

coded resembling a heat map where big displacements are represented by the more hot

colours such as red rather than blue. The user can set what level of movement will

produce a change in colour on the plot. With this function the interface can effectively

convey information relevant to the user, as smaller deformations may be of more concern

in a particular setting. A scale is displayed next to the deformation plot for reference.

A series of plots can be diagnosed of specific areas of the slope that is being

monitored. In Figure 5 the user has chosen to monitor three different areas of the wall as

15
well as have the deformation plot. The specific movements can be plotted which enables

the user to track areas of concern with more precision.

Figure 5: Output with Movement Plots (Noon, 2003)

Figure 5 shows the specific plots of movement of an area over time. The smaller lower box on the
heat map included as hot colours corresponds to the plot in the lower left hand side of the figure.
As shown in both the deformation heat map and the plot, that area is experiencing much
deformation. The box in the colder area of the heat map corresponds to the upper right plot on the
figure showing little to no movement.

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 6.2 Alarm Thresholds

Although many different users may logon to easily have their particular monitoring

parameters readily accessible there is a control on setup and alarm settings. Only a

Master User which the system recognizes through a specific username and password is

able to change these settings. A variety of thresholds can be set to trigger alarms

including a displacement threshold which measures the displacement of the ground over a

set area or a velocity threshold which measures the amount of movement in a

predetermined time frame (i.e. acceleration). The ability to mask out areas that could

cause false alarms is also available. A user may wish to consider masking out an area

where known loose material is positioned or where trucks and shovels may be operating.

17
7. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SLOPE MONITORING TECHNIQUES

The management of risk in open pit mining is a fundamental and crucial component in

achieving the most economical means of extracting ore in an optimal sequence in

addition to keeping mining operations as safe as possible. Using the slope stability radar

as a medium to accurately assess risk management has many advantages over more

traditional equipment with respect to continuously measuring the stability of pit walls.

7.1 Advantages of Slope Stability Radar

Some of the improvements that this system of data collection has over more traditional

methods lie in the ease in which walls can be monitored and the continuous nature of data

acquisition. The traditional methods, unless real time radio robotic, require more

manpower and are more labour intensive. With total station surveys, reflective markers or

prisms must be strategically placed at certain points along wall slopes so readings of

horizontal and vertical angles and inclined distance can be taken. Not only is setting up

these prisms time consuming, it may be dangerous and the prisms can be damaged, or

displaced such that they no longer face the survey instrument, leading to inadequate

coverage and inaccurate conclusions. This method of obtaining data is also limited to the

point in which the reflective markers are located, possibly adjacent to and not in the

failing material. With slope stability radar, the gathering of data is not only instant but

requires no mounted prisms (unless the user wishes for whatever reason). With no

mounted reflectors, mine operations has no need to worry about damaging equipment

designed to relay information on movement. A further advantage of using radar

technology is the picture of an entire area that is produced. Using prisms with a total

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station can only produce data that is exclusive to a single point where the marker is

located, albeit for many points, whereas using slope stability radar data an entire wall

face can be interpreted. When analyzing an entire face, a more accurate understanding of

how and why a bench or wall may be failing can be achieved compared to single point

analysis. A failure between two points where measurements are recorded could not be

foreseen using the traditional surveying as no data would have been recorded in that area.

Atmospheric anomalies temperature inversions, smoke, rain, dust and other airborne

contaminants may prevent traditional instruments from taking accurate readings if at all

because of the reliance on visual contact. This is especially true of prism targets which

when coated in snow or ice, cannot be monitored (Blackwell et al., 1975). Radar has the

ability to penetrate through the smoke and dust that is so commonly produce through

mining in an open pit environment, making it superior in terms of taking measurements

in most situations.

7.2 Benefits to Mining

Using slope stability radar has benefits in risk management. When effectively used the

risk to equipment and personnel can be efficiently managed in addition to maintaining

full production. Advance detection of impending failure leads to the appropriate removal

of personnel and equipment minimizing risk and allowing for mining operations to

proceed with confidence. Mining engineers can also make more informed risk

management decisions with the aid of the slope stability radar. This not only leads to

safer mining practises but also maintains production. The utilization of equipment can

also be improved in areas that have been deemed as at geotechnical risk. Data is

transferred in real time enabling production engineers to be more confident of decisions

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made. This leads to continued productivity in areas otherwise considered unsafe without

an accurate real time monitoring system. Delays in production because of blasting

activities can be significantly reduced after a blast by using radar as a monitoring tool.

Since a stability response to blasting can be measured instantaneously, production delays

while stability is ensured can be kept as minimal as possible.

An extensive period of rainfall would increase hydrostatic pressure in the pit wall and

lead to areas of a mine being shut down in anticipation of problems. Instead of shutting

down these areas because of the impact of heavy rainfall, they can be closely monitored

with radar. The radar enables continuous monitoring which can capture the ground

movements in response to the rainfall. The reduction in delay times following blasting

and rainfall are examples of how mines can continue production by basing their decisions

on real time data instead of standard procedures historically used in each respective

situation.

All of the benefits to open pit mining discussed will ultimately lead to better mine

design and increased pit life as each expansion pushback learns the lessons from the

previous pit. Mining can proceed in areas originally deemed hazardous because of an

understanding of the rock mass geology and behaviour in the area of interest. Engineers

can now confidently mine areas because they have the equipment to monitor in real time.

Furthermore, data obtained by slope stability radar will aid in the understanding of rock

mass movement and an understanding of the structural integrity of wall slopes in open pit

20
mines. Once the behaviour of the rock mass in a particular mine is better understood,

mine design and support requirements can be more appropriately applied.

7.3 Disadvantages of Slope Stability Radar

Slope stability as captured by radar does not have the best accuracy when recording

large deformations, however, when recording small movements it does so on a scale that

allows for meaningful results within the tens of millimetres. Therefore when recording

large deformations with precision another means of measuring would be preferred, e.g.

real time radio robotic total station surveys or wire extensometers which are capable of

measuring +/- 1 mm and 0.003 mm rrespectively. Deep seated movement cannot always

be accurately recorded as radar relies on the deformation of visible surface material to

acquire data.

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8. COMPANIES PROVIDING SLOPE STABILITY RADAR

There are two companies currently providing slope stability radar technology to the

mining community. Both have very similar products and both products will be considered

for purchase when the decision to use slope stability radar is made.

GroundProbe Pty Ltd. originated in Australia and has additional representation in

South Africa. The company was formed from a research group at the University of

Queensland exploring the applicability of radar to track ground movements. The

technical team at the university was funded by a number of mining companies as well as

receiving grants and loans provided by the Commonwealth (of Australia) Scientific and

Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and the Queensland State Government. The

coal industry in Australia was also very interested in the development of this technology

for its strip mining applications and provided some of the funding. Due to the success

GroundProbe has experienced with slope stability radar the company has grown,

providing services to mining companies large and small around the world. Not only has

GroundProbe had success in its mining endeavours, it has reached out and found

applications for their product to the civil construction and infrastructures industries.

(GroudProbe, n.d.)

In South Africa, Reutech Radar Systems (Pty) Ltd. (RRS) had already been

established long before radar technology was being applied to the mining industry. Since

1987 Reutech has provided the South African National Defence Force with a range of

22
products designed to search and track aircraft flying through South African air space.

Reutech has always been on the leading edge of radar developments since its conception

and recently has broadened its products applications to include the mining industry. The

movement and surveying monitoring radar that is available from Reutech is comparable

to that of GroundProbes product and essentially uses the same technology. (Reutech

Radar Systems (Pty) Ltd., n.d.)

Both companies have competed and will continue to compete in providing their

product to mining companies globally. The costs of implementing such a system is in the

hundreds of thousands of dollars and is site specific. Mine Surveying Radar is currently

selling for approximately 410,000 USD including training and commissioning, again

being site specific (J.de Beer, Business Manager: Mining RRS, personal communication,

April 1, 2007). This cost includes the system itself and the training required to ensure that

the product is used effectively and properly.

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9. CASE STUDIES

Slope stability radar is quickly becoming a standard piece of equipment in open pit

mines across the world and is now being recognized as an important part in the future

growth and profitability of the industry. This technology has been used from South Africa

and Australia to the Americas and has generated interest from many of the top mining

companies involved in open pit mining. Two open pit mining applications are discussed

in this section as case studies

9.1 Leinster Nickel Operation, Leinster Australia

9.1.1 Operation Overview

BHP Billiton was involved in mining a nickel deposit in Leinster located in Western

Australia. There are two open pits in which slope angles and stability analysis had been a

major component in increasing the possible revenues from the deposit. Harmony mine

(which closed in August of 2005) paved the way in terms of radar slope monitoring

methods for ground control management of the safe completion of mining of the 11 Mile

Well deposit.

9.1.2 Ground Movement Monitoring

The two open pit mines in the area are managing the risk associated with ground

movements using several types of instrumentation including slope stability radar. The

essential aspects enforced at the Leinster operation included geotechnical considerations

when designing wall slopes, ground monitoring, and support techniques among other

items to ensure sound mining practices. Structural planning was conducted regularly to

gauge and predict any ground movements. Once the most appropriate candidates with

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reference to instability were identified those areas could be more closely monitored to

achieve a more accurate window in which safe mining practices could still be completed.

Blast control and blasting induced damage was also monitored through the regular

monitoring techniques employed at the operation.

9.1.3 Slope Stability Monitoring Techniques

Accurate slope stability monitoring was achieved through three different processes at

the open pit mines in Leinster. Visual inspection of cracks or other areas of concern were

conducted by trained engineers with a background in geomechanics at the beginning of

every shift as well as following every blasts. Second, survey prisms, displacement gauges

and data loggers were installed where cracks had necessitated attention and were deemed

critical. Prism monitoring was also used for ground movement monitoring. In the

Harmony mine there were over 400 prisms strategically placed throughout the pit in

which data was automatically recorded. Prism movements were inspected daily by

surveyors and geotechnical engineers as part of the mines due diligence. If movement

exceeded the current rate of movement (implying acceleration was taking place) then an

alarm was triggered. The alarm made an audible noise in the monitoring office where the

surveying software was run, and emails were automatically forwarded to personnel

involved in slope monitoring. Monitoring through the use of prisms enabled long-term

assessment of wall and slope movements as the data was recorded continuously. When

the appropriate geotechnical information in the immediate surroundings of a prism was

analysed, vector movement and failure modes could be established. The third method of

slope monitoring was achieved through slope stability radar. The radar was positioned in

areas where there was a low level of confidence that the prisms would be able to obtain

25
data with enough time to be able to move mine equipment and personnel out from under

an anticipated failure. The radar would scan an area throughout the day measuring

movements continuously. Data was sent in real time to the monitoring office via a radio

link. Like prism survey monitoring, alarms were established at predetermined thresholds.

The threshold or tolerance settings were based on previous failures that occurred in

comparable ground conditions.

9.1.4 Differences between Monitoring Techniques

When comparing the data acquired using the prisms with that of the slope stability

radar for the same wall slope, there are some minor differences in measurements of

ground movement. Occasionally the movement velocity would be higher with radar as

opposed to using the prisms. This could be attributed to the single point recording of the

prisms as movement between these points could be at a higher velocity. Prisms can be

placed to record such movement and may be more useful in predicting major failures

involving a large amount of material. Lower velocities may also be recorded when

comparing slope stability radar data with data obtained using prisms. This is a result of

the two dimensional nature of the radar technology. The angle of ground movement

relative to the radar instrument determines this deviation as movement in a dimension not

in the three-dimensional plane but in the two-dimensional plane the radar is designed to

operate in and would not be detected. Survey monitoring prisms have the capacity to

obtain data in three dimensions and would be able to pick up movement in true three

dimensions and thus would record a different velocity and must be included as back-up

for the radar. (Cahill, 2005)

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 9.1.5 Failures Anticipated

During the life of the Harmony mine there were many situations in which wall failures

were accurately predicted with the aid of slope stability radar. A slip occurred in an area

where efforts to prepare for regular mining production after a previous failure had taken

place and this area is shown in the outlined area in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Failure at Harmony Mine (Cahill, 2005)

Figure 6 shows a major slip failure at Harmony Mine. Once the potential failure was recognized by
other instrumentation, slope stability radar was used to accurately predict when the failure was
going to take place.

This slip plane instability was accurately predicted through crack gauges, prism

monitoring and slope stability radar. Prism monitoring and crack gauge measurements

gave indication of a failure five days prior to when the actual failure took place. Once this

impending failure had been recognized, the area was then monitored by slope stability

27
radar. The radar was able to predict the failure with much more precision and gave

greater lead-time prior to the failure once the other instrumentation had indicated failure

was likely. There proved to be much more movement in the area twelve hours prior to the

failure which the radar was able to discern as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Movement Documented at Harmony (Cahill, 2005)

Figure 7 shows a plot of a movement over time in a specific point in the area outlined in the previous
Figure 6 as documented by the slope stability radar. As noted on the diagram movement was
relatively constant up until 12hours before the major slip occurred, at this point movement rapidly
increased moving almost half a meter in 12 hours until the point of failure.

Another failure had been accurately monitored by slope stability radar by recognising

an area of instability in fresh hard rock. It was very important to have this technology

employed at the area of interest because no new prisms could be mounted because of the

danger to personnel installing the prisms. The radar was able to accurately predict and

document a slab failure shown in Figure 8. The heat (rate of movement) map on the

28
right gives a visual representation of displacement that has taken place and on the left is

shown movement versus time of selected areas of the wall.

Figure 8: Slab Failure Documented at Harmony Mine (Cahill, 2005)

Figure 8 shows a slab failure documented by slope stability radar that at Harmony Mine. The area
boxed on the photograph as well as the deformation map corresponded to the plot of movement on
the left hand side of the figure. As the plot displays there was a lot of movement preceding and
during the failures, but minimal after failures occurred.

The major significance of the depictions and engineering predictions in the case of the

slab failure is the demonstrated ability of the radars ability in both hard and soft rock to

monitor wall slopes. It should be noted that in this case the initial failure occurred during

a period between the times the important prism readings were taken. Therefore the radar

was able to increase the precision in pinpointing the time of the occurrence of a failure

which prism monitoring could only achieve by monitoring a very few targets

29
continuously. Since the radar was able to detect two failures back to back, it also

provided confidence in the ability to detect further failures in any area of the mine.

9.1.6 Pit Closure

The Harmony pit was closed after a major movement in the wall incorporating the

ramp initiated the radars alarm system. Once the data from the radar and prisms as well

as a ramp inspection by the geotchnical engineers was gathered, the decision was made to

send the workforce home and the pit was closed. Two and a half days later a major wall

failure occurred involving the ramp (the ramp is the only means of extracting ore from

the pit), and it was decided that the pit would be permanently closed. The geotechnical

monitoring and ground support used at Harmony accounted for 10% of the total unit cost

of the mine but resulted in significant gains in revenue through extended pit life. Risk

was managed effectively and no major incidents occurred.

9.2 Potgietersrust Platinum Ltd. (PPRust), Limpopo, South Africa

9.2.1 Operation Overview

Anglo Platinums only open pit operation, Potgietersrust Platinum Ltd. (PPRust) is

located in the Limpopo province of South Africa. The operation is exploiting a 100m

thick tabular PMG deposit reaching depths of 1200m. Sandsloot is one of three open pits

currently in operation and is effectively managing and minimizing risks associated with

some of its slope stability issues.

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 9.2.2 Slope Stability Monitoring Techniques

From 2002 to 2005 PPRust has installed four new systems at the forefront of ground

movement and slope stability monitoring technology. Microseismic monitoring systems,

automated prism monitoring, laser scanners and slope stability radar are all examples of

new technology that PPRust believes will ultimately help them control and mitigate the

risks associated with slope stability. In addition equipment used to help monitor ground

movement, groundwater monitoring, visual monitoring (including crack monitors

installed wherever a hazardous tension crack is present) and digital photogrammetry for

recognition of possible future failures are also used. The role that slope stability radar

plays within the monitoring system implemented at PPRust is to monitor the high risk

areas once they have been identified by other means of monitoring. The strategy that

PPRust uses is shown in Figure 9.

31
 Figure 9: Slope Monitoring Method at PPRust (Little, 2005)

Figure 9: The slope stability radar is only implemented once the other means of monitoring have
recognized a potentially hazardous stability risk. GeoMoS, SiroVision, Riegl and Ground Probe
provide the automated prism monitoring, laser scanning and slope stability radar at PPRust
respectively.

Using this strategy PPRust has found that the geotechnical risk associated with mining

in difficult conditions can be accomplished in a safe and economical manner. The success

of this method is based on recognizing the specific strengths of each of the monitoring

devices. The instruments positioned on the left hand side of Figure 9 are used for long

term monitoring of trends and identification of high risk areas, but lack the ability to

provide early warning of failure for evacuation purposes. Therefore when used in

conjunction with the slope stability radar all stages of a pending failure can be monitored

and the appropriate measures can be taken. Another responsibility that the users of slope

stability radar at PPRust have is monitoring the western wall of the Sandsloot pit where a

large-scale fault zone intersects the wall has the potential to cause failure. (Little, 2005)

32
 9.2.3 The Effectiveness of Slope Stability Radar

Slope stability radar has proven to be an effective tool in both monitoring the west

wall in Sandsloot as well as monitoring more brittle failures anticipated in other areas by

the other instrumentation. It was determined that because of the speed in which failures

would occur from the first signs of instability of the west wall, the only equipment

capable of effectively monitoring that area was the slope stability radar. This was

imperative to PPRust in its ability to safely mine the west wall. As of 2005 eight brittle

failures have been recorded in Sandsloot by the slope stability radar. In each of these

cases the radar indicated that measurable ground movement occurred in less then two

hours. An example of one of these failures documented by slope stability radar is shown

in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Outputs from a Brittle Failure at PPRust (Little, 2005)

Figure 10 shows computer outputs from slope stability radar software showing a brittle failure. The
left hand side shows the deformation over time. Notice how extensive movement occurs in a very
short time once failure is initiated. The right hand side shows successive deformation images
documenting the movement.

33
9.3 Applications besides Wall Control

Using radar to measure the stability of slopes is quickly gaining popularity among

mining companies involved in open pit mining. The ability to measure stability is not

however solely exclusive to bench walls or faces. At the Sishen Iron Ore mine in South

Africa slope stability radar was used to measure the subsidence of an area on the floor of

the pit which contained high grades and tonnages. This area overlaid an underground

cave which caused complications with respect to the amount of subsidence experienced

in the area. Using radar to measure this subsidence enabled the safe mining of the area

and is shown in Appendix A.2.

9.4 Conclusion from Actual Applications

In both of the case studies documented, slope stability radar played an integral part in

managing and minimizing risk at each respective operation. In each case study, once a

potentially unstable slope was discovered, slope monitoring radar was used to provide

adequate warning time for evacuation procedures if necessary. The confidence to safely

mine areas considered too hazardous to mine because they could not be effectively

monitored is now possible with slope stability radar. The data that radar was able to

collect enable the Harmony mine to extend its life and the Sandsloot operation to safely

extract its west wall thereby extending its mine life.

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10. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In open pit mining, ground movements and deformations over time are inevitable. The

amount and rate at which walls move or deform is dependent on the local geology, rock

and discontinuity properties, mining methods and designs of the slopes. The ability of

mines to manage and minimize risks associated with wall failures can lead to safer

operations as well as increased profits. When proper monitoring is implemented at an

operation the nature of ground movements and the understanding of failure mechanisms

can be better documented leading to more informed decisions with respect to slope

stability for future push-backs and other mines.

The precision, continuous nature of collecting data in real time, and the ability to

recognize different failure modes offered by radar slope stability enables informed

decisions to be made. Having this system installed at an open pit mine allows for more

aggressive slope design while preserving a safe working environment for personnel.

Slope stability radar also provides a more complete picture of movement when faced with

a slope deemed hazardous by another means of monitoring. Through a better

understanding of rock slope movement, more appropriate decision regarding production

and mine planning can be made. The cost of implementing this system is usually far

outweighed by the extra revenue that a mine can generate. This extra revenue is provided

from safely steepening slopes, extending the life of a pit, as well as saving on the costs of

damaged equipment lost hours and injury to personnel. Therefore, from an economic

35
standpoint, using slope stability radar in conjunction with other forms of monitoring is

essential as it enables the maximum possible exploitation of a mineral deposit.

36
 REFERENCES

Blackwell G., Keast M.& Pow D. (1975). Slope Monitoring at Brenda Mines, 59-60.

Blackwell G.H., Calder P.N. (1980). Investigation of a complex rock slope displacement
at Brenda mines. Canadians in Mining Magazine, 73-76.

Cahill, J., & Lee M. (2005). Ground control at Lienster Nickel operations. The South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy International Symposium of Stability
of Rock Slopes in Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering, 322-330.

GroundProbe (n.d.). GroundProbe | Precision measurements using slope stability radar

and ground penetrating radar technology. Retrieved March 29, 2007, from
http://www.groundprobe.com/

Harris, N. (2005). Case studies of slope stability radar used in open cut mines. The
South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy International Symposium of
Stability of Rock Slopes in Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering, 338-341.

Little, M. J. (2005). Slope monitoring strategy at PPRust open pit operation. The South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy International Symposium of Stability
of Rock Slopes in Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering, 212-222.

McGavigan G. (2005). Management of subsidence associated with the mining of the roof
or the Sishen cave. An application of slope stability radar. The South African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy International Symposium of Stability of Rock
Slopes in Open Pit Mining and Civil Engineering, 595-603.

Noon D. A. (2003). Case studies of slope stability radar used in coal mines, 1-2.

Noon D. A. (2003). Slope stability radar for monitoring mine walls. Mine Risk
Management Conference, 1-10.

Reutech Radar Systems (Pty) Ltd. (n.d.). Reutech Radar Systems (Pty) Ltd-World leaders
in radar technology. Retrieved March 28, 2007, from http://www.rrs.co.za/

SARS Interferometry and Surface Change Detection. (n.d.) Retrieved February 27, 2007,
from http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/dixon/report7.html

SSR Brochure [Image] (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2007, from

http://www.groundprobe.com/docs/ssr/SSR%20Brochure%20(English).pdf

Taser D. J. (2003). Simulation of a slope stability radar for opencast mining. Msc. Eng.
Thesis. University of Cape Town. Retrieved February 13, 2007, 6-9.

37
 APPENDIX

ADDITIONAL FIGURES OF REAL WORLD APPLICATIONS

38
A.1 South African Metalliferous Mining Documented Rock Slab Failure

Figure A.1.1: Documented Rock Slab Figure (Harris, 2005)

Figure A.1.1 shows a rock slab failure documented by slope stability radar. This failure

was a result of undermining the toe of the face. These mining activities were recorded by

the slope stability radar shown in the lower right hand corner of the figure in the circled

area titled Excavation and Movement. The release in confinement caused by mining the

toe of the wall caused the unstable slab titled as such in the diagram to fail. Two very

different deformations in separate areas on the wall face were documented as shown

displaying the radars ability to accurately monitor wall slopes with full coverage.

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A.2 Subsidence Management at Sishen Iron Ore Mine, South Africa

Figure A.2.1: Schematic of Measuring Subsidence

through Slope Stability Radar (McGavigan, 2005)

Figure A.2.1 shows how subsidence was measured to manage the risk involved in mining

the roof of a cave at the Sishen Mine. The cave was filled with backfill by sinking a shaft

to the cave and backfilling, however the roof of the cave was still deforming with mining

activity. The slope stability radar was used to measure this deformation to ensure that the

material consisting of 6.8Mt of high grade ore could be mined safely.

40
 Figure A.2.2: Subsidence Recorded by Slope Stability Radar (McGavigan, 2005)

Figure A.2.2 shows the scan comprising a 120m by 300m area at the bottom of the pit.

The radar indicated, as shown in the figure, that subsidence was occurring around the

shaft although there was no visual evidence. Linear deformations of 11mm/day equating

to actual deformations of 38.7mm/day were recorded. Through the slope stability radar

ability to measure the subsidence when mining the Shisen cave, the Shisen Iron Ore Mine

was able to effectively manage risk and deploy equipment and personnel safely until

mining the area was completed.

41
 VITA

Name: Justin Hannon

Place and Year of Birth: Parry Sound ON, Canada, 1985

Education: Queens University, 2003-2007

Mining Engineering

Awards: L.H. & N.A. Timmins Awards, 2004-2006

42