PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PLOTTERS

definition
Photogrammetric plotting instruments are designed to provide accurate solution
for object point positions
The general concept of photogrammetric plotters is to use physical,
analytical, or digital techniques for recreating precisely, scaled and leveled
three-dimensional model of the area from the stereo pair.

TYPES OF PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PLOTTERS

1. Stereoscopic plotters,
2. Analytical plotters, and
3. Digital plotters.

STEREOSCOPIC PLOTTERS
overlapping pair of aerial photos is exposed first. Then dispositive -
transparencies- carefully prepared from the negatives and placed in two
stereo plotter projectors

Light rays are then projected through diapositives. After the relative
orientation of the projectors, the rays from corresponding images on the left
and right dispositive intersect below and create a stereo model. This model
is then brought to the desired scale and leveled with respect to a reference
datum.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF STEREOPLOTTERS

i. Projection system: which creates the true three- dimensional
stereo model
ii. Viewing system: This makes it possible for an operator to see the model
three dimensionally.
iii. Measuring or tracing system: which enables measurements of the
stereomodel to be made and recorded.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEREOSCOPIC PLOTTERS

Stereoscopic plotters can be classified according to their projection system

adopted, accuracy, type of photographs used, or capabilities of instrument

1. Direct optical projection instruments

Create a true three-dimensional stereomodel by projecting transparency
images through projector lenses.
2. Mechanical projection instruments
Simulate direct optical projection of light ray by means of two precisely
manufactured metal space rod.

3. Optical and Mechanical projection instruments

Few stereoplotters have projection systems, which are partly optical and
partly mechanical.

ORIENTATIONS OF STEROPLOTTERS
1.Inner orientation
Include preparations necessary to re-create the geometry of the projected
rays
o Preparations of diapositives,
o Compensation for lens distortion,
o Centering the diapositives in the projectors,
o Setting of the proper principal distance in the
projector.

2. Relative orientation
To re-create the relative position and altitude relationship for the two
diapositives by means of rotations movements imparted to the projectors.

3.Absolute orientation
In this step the model must be fixed at the desired scale and leveled with
respect to datum

ANALYTICAL SOLUTION IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY

1.PHOTO-COORDINATES MEASUREMENT
Precise photocoordinates are usually measured utilizing special instruments
called comparators. There are two basic types of comparators:
(a) Monocomparator; which make measurements on
one photograph at a time, and
(b) Strereocomparator; by which image positions are measured by
simultaneously viewing an overlapping stereo-pair of photographs.
2.THREE-DIMENSIONAL COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION
This involves converting from one three-dimensional system to another.

x2 s(m11 x1 m21 y1 m31 z1 t x

y2 s(m12 x1 m22 y1 m32 z1 t y

z2 s(m13 x1 m23 y1 m33 z1 t z
Where,
m11m33 are the elements of rotation matrix,
s is the scale factor, and
tx, ty, tz are the shifts along the axis

3.Collinearity Condition Equations

are one of the most fundamental equations in analytical and digital
photogrammetry
(m ( X X L )m12 (YA YL )m13 ( Z A Z L )
x f 11 A
(m31 ( X A X L )m32 (YA YL )m33 ( Z A Z L )
.......... .......... (1)
(m21 ( X A X L )m22 (YA YL )m23 ( Z A Z L )
yf
(m31 ( X A X L )m32 (YA YL )m33 ( Z A Z L )
Where:
x, y are the photo coordinates of the control points,
XA, YA, ZA are the object space coordinates of the control points,
XL, YL, ZL are the object space coordinates of the perspective center; and
f is the focal length of the camera.

ANALYTICAL PLOTTERS
Definition
Is an alternative and important type of photogrammetric instrumentation that
based on the use of analytical photogrammetric procedures implemented in
suitably programmed computers.

Main Components of Analytical plotters:

i. Precise stereoscopic system for measuring
photo- coordinates (stereo- comparator),
ii. Computer, and
iii. Sophisticated analytical photogrammetry software.
Servomotors and encoders are integral parts of the system.
The basic arrangement of an analytical plotter

ANALYTICAL PLOTTER ORIENTATION

1. INTERIOR ORIENTATION
The principal distances and fiducial coordinates are input to the
computer.
Machine image coordinates of the fiducial marks are then read.
A choice of coordinate transformation is available
Computer solve coordinate transformation to locate the principal points
of the diapositives
Corrections for shrinkage or expansion are included in the
transformation.
2. RELATIVE ORIENTATION
In this stage, photo coordinates of at least five well distributed photo
points are measured.
The computer then calculates the elements of relative orientation.
3-D model coordinates can then be calculated.

3. ABSOLUTE ORIENTATION

Ground coordinates of all control points must be first input to the

computer.
The operator places the reference mark on corresponding images.
After absolute orientation is accomplished, ground coordinate for any
point measured can be calculated
Analytical plotter instrumentation

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PLOTTER

Digital photogrammetric plotter is the latest development in the evolution of
stereoscopic plotting instrument. It utilizes digital or softcopy images,
therefore the term of softcopy stereoplotter or digital photogrammetric
workstation (DPW) may be used.

MAIN COMPONENT OF DPW

1. The central processing unit CPU: should be reasonably fast

considering the amount of computations to be performed.
2.The operating system OS: suitable OS for real time processing is
required.
3. The main memory: should be sufficient to meet the large amount of
data to be processed.
4.The storage: requirements in digital photogrammetry can be met through
a carefully selected c
5. The graphic display system: The purpose of the display processor is to
fetch data such as raster (images) or vector data (GIS)
6. 3-D viewing system: For human operator to see stereoscopically, the left
and right image
 DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PLOTTER ORIENTATION
I. INNER ORIENTATION
inner orientation on a DPW relates the digital image to the digitized
diapositives
ii. RELATIVE ORIENTATION
This is accomplished on the DPW by keeping one of the stereo cursors in a
fixed position while moving the other on.

iii. ABSOLUTE ORIENTATION

During the process of absolute orientation, the relationship between the
model and the object space is established.

ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRIC PLOTTERS

1. More accurate determination of position and height.
2. It is possible to form and measure stereo-models using photography
taken with cameras with different focal lengths.
3. It is also possible to measure images, plot maps and form terrain models
from the non-photographic remotely sensed imagery.
4. Possibility of automating photogrammetric procedures.
5. DPWs offer more flexibility in viewing and measuring several images
simultaneously.
6. several persons can stereoscopically view a model.
Airborne LIDAR Topographic Surveying
definition
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). is an active sensory system that
uses light (laser light) to measure distances

Operating Principles
A LIDAR device mounted in an airborne platform emits fast pulses
from a focused infrared laser which are beamed toward the ground
across the flight path by a scanning mirror.
The reflectance from the ground, and a time interval meter which
measures the elapsed time between the transmitted and received signal.
From this information, the distance separating the ground and airborne
platform is determined.
LIDAR System Components
1. LIDAR sensor:
The types of LIDAR sensors used for topographic applications (Scanning
laser) operate in the near infrared band of electromagnetic spectrum
2. GPS
Provides timing and positional information to the LIDAR system.
3. IMU
The internal measuring unit measures the LIDAR system orientation in roil,
pitch, and heading (, , and ).

4. OPERATOR AND PILOT DESPLAY

 The pilot has a display of the aircraft along the flight line path with
left/right/elevation indicators.
5. Digital imagery/ video
A digital camera is used to provide an image of the areas being collected

Types of Airborne LIDAR

1. Topographic LIDAR
I. Wide Area Systems
ii. Corridor Mapping Systems
2. Bathymetric LIDAR

Wide Area LiDAR

Characterized by:
i. Fixed-wing platform
ii. High altitude data collection
iii. Wide swath width
iv. Low point density
v. Low resolution
vi. Lower levels of accuracy
vii. Non-eye-safe laser

Corridor Mapping LiDAR

Characterized by:
i. Helicopter platform
ii. Low altitude data collection
iii. Narrow swath width
iv. High point density
v. High resolution
vi. Higher levels of accuracy
vii. Eye-safe laser

LIDAR Accuracy
Accuracy of elevation in range of 6 to 30cm
Accuracy of XY position in range of 10 to 46 centimeters.
Accuracy depends on:
1. pulse rate,
2. flying height,
3. GPS configuration,
4. location of ground stations, and
5. position of the scanner with respect to nadi
LIDAR Advantages
LiDAR performs better in vegetated areas than
photogrammetry
Able to collect data in leaf on condition
Robust data sets with many possible products
In office data mining
No need to return to the field to collect more data
Cost savings for the right project
Remote Sensing
What is Remote Sensing?
Remote sensing is defined as the science and art of obtaining information
about any subject/surface/phenomena without the sensing device being in
contact with the subject.
Types of Remote Sensing?
Passive Remote Sensing
Here the sensing devices measure the targets reflected solar
radiation
Active Remote Sensing
Here the sensing devices sent their own radiation and records
back their reflected energy from the target.
Remote Sensing
The major process in remote sensing is the interaction of the
electromagnetic radiation with the atmosphere and the target. Several elements
are involved in this process.

These elements are shown in the diagram as:

1 Energy source
2 Interaction with the atmosphere
3 Interaction with the target
4 Measuring or recording of reflected energy
5 Transmission/ground reception of the recorded information
6 Processing of the received information
7 Applications development