Math Handbook of Formulas, Processes and Tricks: Geometry

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
Geometry

Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version2.9
November26,2015
Copyright20102015,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
Geometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter1:Basics
6 Points,Lines&Planes
7 Segments,Rays&Lines
8 DistanceBetweenPoints(1Dimensional,2Dimensional)
9 DistanceFormulainn Dimensions
10 Angles
11 TypesofAngles
Chapter2:Proofs
12 ConditionalStatements(Original,Converse,Inverse,Contrapositive)
13 BasicPropertiesofAlgebra(EqualityandCongruence,AdditionandMultiplication)
14 Inductivevs.DeductiveReasoning
15 AnApproachtoProofs
Chapter3:ParallelandPerpendicularLines
16 ParallelLinesandTransversals
17 MultipleSetsofParallelLines
18 ProvingLinesareParallel
19 ParallelandPerpendicularLinesintheCoordinatePlane
Chapter4:TrianglesBasic
20 TypesofTriangles(Scalene,Isosceles,Equilateral,Right)
21 CongruentTriangles(SAS,SSS,ASA,AAS,CPCTC)
22 CentersofTriangles
23 LengthofHeight,MedianandAngleBisector
24 InequalitiesinTriangles
Chapter5:Polygons
25 PolygonsBasic(Definitions,NamesofCommonPolygons)
26 PolygonsMoreDefinitions(Definitions,DiagonalsofaPolygon)
27 InteriorandExteriorAnglesofaPolygon
Version 2.9 Page 2 of 82 November 26, 2015

Geometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter6:Quadrilaterals
28 DefinitionsofQuadrilaterals
29 FiguresofQuadrilaterals
30 CharacteristicsofParallelograms
31 ParallelogramProofs(SufficientConditions)
32 KitesandTrapezoids
Chapter7:Transformations
33 IntroductiontoTransformation
35 Reflection
36 Rotation
37 Rotationby90aboutaPoint(x0,y0)
40 Translation
41 Compositions
Chapter8:Similarity
42 RatiosInvolvingUnits
43 SimilarPolygons
44 ScaleFactorofSimilarPolygons
45 DilationsofPolygons
46 MoreonDilation
47 SimilarTriangles(SSS,SAS,AA)
48 ProportionTablesforSimilarTriangles
49 ThreeSimilarTriangles
Chapter9:RightTriangles
50 PythagoreanTheorem
51 PythagoreanTriples
52 SpecialTriangles(454590Triangle,306090Triangle)
53 TrigonometricFunctionsandSpecialAngles
54 TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
55 GraphsofTrigonometricFunctions
56 Vectors
57 OperatingwithVectors

Geometry Handbook
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter10:Circles
58 PartsofaCircle
59 AnglesandCircles
Chapter11:PerimeterandArea
60 PerimeterandAreaofaTriangle
61 MoreontheAreaofaTriangle
62 PerimeterandAreaofQuadrilaterals
63 PerimeterandAreaofGeneralPolygons
64 CircleLengthsandAreas
65 AreaofCompositeFigures
Chapter12:SurfaceAreaandVolume
66 Polyhedra
67 AHoleinEulersTheorem
68 PlatonicSolids
69 Prisms
70 Cylinders
71 SurfaceAreabyDecomposition
72 Pyramids
73 Cones
74 Spheres
75 SimilarSolids
76 SummaryofPerimeterandAreaFormulas2DShapes
77 SummaryofSurfaceAreaandVolumeFormulas3DShapes
78 Index

Geometry Handbook
Table of Contents
UsefulWebsites
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontains
definitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
mathworld.wolfram.com/
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,basedonthe
author'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandinmath
tutoring.Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
www.mathguy.us
CaliforniaStandardGeometryTestAstandardizedGeometrytestreleasedbythestateof
California.Agoodwaytotestyourknowledge.
www.cde.ca.gov/ta/tg/sr/documents/rtqgeom.pdf
SchaumsOutlines
Animportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolmathstudentisa
SchaumsOutline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthe
varioustopicsinthecourseandasubstantialnumberofproblemsforthe
studenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthebook,sothe
studentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleand
otherbooksellers.

Chapter1 BasicGeometry
Geometry
Points,Lines&Planes
Item Illustration Notation Definition
Point Alocationinspace.
Segment Astraightpaththathastwoendpoints.
Astraightpaththathasoneendpoint
Ray andextendsinfinitelyinonedirection.
Astraightpaththatextendsinfinitelyin
Line lor
bothdirections.
Plane mor Aflatsurfacethatextendsinfinitelyin

twodimensions.
Collinearpointsarepointsthatlieonthesameline.
Coplanarpointsarepointsthatlieonthesameplane.
Inthefigureatright:
, , , , and arepoints.
lisaline
mandnareplanes.
Inaddition,notethat:
, , and arecollinearpoints.
, and arecoplanarpoints.
, and arecoplanarpoints.
Ray goesoffinasoutheastdirection.
Anintersectionofgeometric
Ray goesoffinanorthwestdirection. shapesisthesetofpointsthey
Together,rays and makeuplinel. shareincommon.
Linelintersectsbothplanesmandn. landmintersectatpointE.
Note:Ingeometricfiguressuchastheoneabove,itis
landnintersectatpointD.
importanttorememberthat,eventhoughplanesare mandnintersectinline .
drawnwithedges,theyextendinfinitelyinthe2
dimensionsshown.

Geometry
Segments,Rays&Lines
SomeThoughtsAbout
LineSegments
Linesegmentsaregenerallynamedbytheirendpoints,sothe
segmentatrightcouldbenamedeither or .
Segment containsthetwoendpoints(AandB)andallpointsonline thatare
betweenthem.
Rays
Raysaregenerallynamedbytheirsingleendpoint,
calledaninitialpoint,andanotherpointontheray.
Ray containsitsinitialpointAandallpointsonline
inthedirectionofthearrow.
Rays and arenotthesameray.
IfpointOisonline andisbetweenpointsAandB,
thenrays and arecalledoppositerays.They
haveonlypointOincommon,andtogethertheymakeupline .
Lines
Linesaregenerallynamedbyeitherasinglescriptletter
(e.g.,l)orbytwopointsontheline(e.g.,. ).
Alineextendsinfinitelyinthedirectionsshownbyits
arrows.
Linesareparalleliftheyareinthesameplaneandthey
neverintersect.Linesfand g,atright,areparallel.
Linesareperpendiculariftheyintersectata90angle.A
pairofperpendicularlinesisalwaysinthesameplane.
Linesfand e,atright,areperpendicular.Linesgand e are
alsoperpendicular.
Linesareskewiftheyarenotinthesameplaneandthey
neverintersect.Lineskand l,atright,areskew.
(Rememberthisfigureis3dimensional.)

Geometry
DistanceBetweenPoints
Distancemeasureshowfaraparttwothingsare.Thedistancebetweentwopointscanbe
measuredinanynumberofdimensions,andisdefinedasthelengthofthelineconnectingthe
twopoints.Distanceisalwaysapositivenumber.
1DimensionalDistance
Inonedimensionthedistancebetweentwopointsisdeterminedsimplybysubtractingthe
coordinatesofthepoints.
Example:Inthissegment,thedistancebetween2and5iscalculatedas:5 2 7.
2DimensionalDistance
Intwodimensions,thedistancebetweentwopointscanbecalculatedbyconsideringtheline
betweenthemtobethehypotenuseofarighttriangle.Todeterminethelengthofthisline:
Calculatethedifferenceinthexcoordinatesofthepoints
Calculatethedifferenceintheycoordinatesofthepoints
UsethePythagoreanTheorem.
Thisprocessisillustratedbelow,usingthevariabled fordistance.

Example:Findthedistancebetween(1,1)and(2,5).Basedonthe
illustrationtotheleft:
xcoordinate difference: 2 1 3.
ycoordinate difference: 5 1 4.
Then,thedistanceiscalculatedusingtheformula: 3 4 9 16 25
So,
Ifwedefinetwopointsgenerallyas(x1, y1)and(x2, y2),thena2dimensionaldistanceformula

wouldbe:

Geometry ADVANCED
DistanceFormulainnDimensions
Thedistancebetweentwopointscanbegeneralizedtondimensionsbysuccessiveuseofthe
PythagoreanTheoreminmultipledimensions.Tomovefromtwodimensionstothree
dimensions,westartwiththetwodimensionalformulaandapplythePythagoreanTheoremto
addthethirddimension.
3Dimensions
Considertwo3dimensionalpoints(x1, y1, z1)and(x2, y2, z2).Considerfirstthesituation

wherethetwozcoordinatesarethesame.Then,thedistancebetweenthepointsis2
dimensional,i.e., .
WethenaddathirddimensionusingthePythagoreanTheorem:
And,finallythe3dimensionaldifferenceformula:
nDimensions
Usingthesamemethodologyinndimensions,wegetthegeneralizedndimensional
differenceformula(wheretherearentermsbeneaththeradical,oneforeachdimension):
Or,inhigherlevelmathematicalnotation:
Thedistancebetween2pointsA=(a1, a2, , an)andB=(b1, b2, , bn)is
, | |

Geometry
Angles
PartsofanAngle
Anangleconsistsoftworayswithacommon
endpoint(or,initialpoint).
Eachrayisasideoftheangle.
Thecommonendpointiscalledthevertexof
theangle.
NamingAngles
Anglescanbenamedinoneoftwoways:
Pointvertexpointmethod.Inthismethod,theangleisnamedfromapointonone
ray,thevertex,andapointontheotherray.Thisisthemostunambiguousmethodof
naminganangle,andisusefulindiagramswithmultipleanglessharingthesamevertex.
Intheabovefigure,theangleshowncouldbenamed or .
Vertexmethod.Incaseswhereitisnotambiguous,ananglecanbenamedbasedsolely
onitsvertex.Intheabovefigure,theanglecouldbenamed .
MeasureofanAngle
Therearetwoconventionsformeasuringthesizeofanangle:
Indegrees.Thesymbolfordegreesis.Thereare360inafullcircle.Theangleabove
measuresapproximately45(oneeighthofacircle).
Inradians.Thereare2 radiansinacompletecircle.Theangleabovemeasures
approximately radians.
SomeTermsRelatingtoAngles
Angleinterioristheareabetweentherays.
Angleexterioristheareanotbetweentherays.
Adjacentanglesareanglesthatsharearayforaside. and
inthefigureatrightareadjacentangles.
Congruentanglesareaangleswiththesamemeasure.
Anglebisectorisaraythatdividestheangleintotwocongruent
angles.Ray bisects inthefigureatright.

Geometry
TypesofAngles
C
A B D
SupplementaryAngles ComplementaryAngles

AnglesAandBaresupplementary. AnglesCandDarecomplementary.
AnglesAandBformalinearpair.
90
180
Angleswhichareoppositeeachotherwhen
twolinescrossareverticalangles.
AnglesEandGareverticalangles.
F AnglesFandHareverticalangles.
E G
H
Inaddition,eachangleissupplementaryto
thetwoanglesadjacenttoit.Forexample:
VerticalAngles
AngleEissupplementarytoAnglesFandH.
Anacuteangleisonethatislessthan90.In
theillustrationabove,anglesEandGare
acuteangles.
Arightangleisonethatisexactly90.
Acute Obtuse
Anobtuseangleisonethatisgreaterthan
90.Intheillustrationabove,anglesFandH
areobtuseangles.
Astraightangleisonethatisexactly180.
Right Straight

Chapter2 Proofs
Geometry
ConditionalStatements
Aconditionalstatementcontainsbothahypothesisandaconclusioninthefollowingform:
Ifhypothesis,thenconclusion.
Statementslinked
Foranyconditionalstatement,itispossibletocreatethreerelated belowbyredarrows
conditionalstatements,asshownbelow.Inthetable,pisthehypothesis mustbeeitherboth
oftheoriginalstatementandqistheconclusionoftheoriginalstatement. trueorbothfalse.
Example
TypeofConditionalStatement
Statementis:
OriginalStatement: If p, then q. ( )
Example:Ifanumberisdivisibleby6,thenitisdivisibleby3. TRUE
Theoriginalstatementmaybeeithertrueorfalse.
ConverseStatement: If q, then p. ( )

Example:Ifanumberisdivisibleby3,thenitisdivisibleby6.
FALSE
Theconversestatementmaybeeithertrueorfalse,andthisdoesnot
dependonwhethertheoriginalstatementistrueorfalse.
InverseStatement: If not p, then not q. (~ ~ )

Example:Ifanumberisnotdivisibleby6,thenitisnotdivisibleby3.
FALSE
Theinversestatementisalwaystruewhentheconverseistrueand
falsewhentheconverseisfalse.
ContrapositiveStatement: If not q, then not p. (~ ~ )

Example:Ifanumberisnotdivisibleby3,thenitisnotdivisibleby6.
TRUE
TheContrapositivestatementisalwaystruewhentheoriginal
statementistrueandfalsewhentheoriginalstatementisfalse.
Notealsothat:
Whentwostatementsmustbeeitherbothtrueorbothfalse,theyarecalledequivalent
statements.
o Theoriginalstatementandthecontrapositiveareequivalentstatements.
o Theconverseandtheinverseareequivalentstatements.
Ifboththeoriginalstatementandtheconversearetrue,thephraseifandonlyif
(abbreviatediff)maybeused.Forexample,Anumberisdivisibleby3iffthesumof
itsdigitsisdivisibleby3.

Chapter2 Proofs
Geometry
BasicPropertiesofAlgebra
PropertiesofEqualityandCongruence.
DefinitionforEquality DefinitionforCongruence
Property
Foranygeometricelementsa,bandc.
Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:
(e.g.,segment,angle,triangle)
ReflexiveProperty
SymmetricProperty , ,
TransitiveProperty , ,
If , then either can be If , then either can be

SubstitutionProperty substituted for the other in any substituted for the other in any
equation (or inequality). congruence expression.
MorePropertiesofEquality.Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:
Property DefinitionforEquality
AdditionProperty ,
SubtractionProperty ,
MultiplicationProperty ,
DivisionProperty 0,
PropertiesofAdditionandMultiplication.Foranyrealnumbersa,b,andc:
Property DefinitionforAddition DefinitionforMultiplication
CommutativeProperty
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty

Chapter2 Proofs
Geometry
Inductivevs.DeductiveReasoning
InductiveReasoning
Inductivereasoningusesobservationtoformahypothesisorconjecture.Thehypothesiscan
thenbetestedtoseeifitistrue.Thetestmustbeperformedinordertoconfirmthe
hypothesis.
Example:Observethatthesumofthenumbers1to4is 4 5/2 andthatthesumofthe

numbers1to5is 5 6/2 .Hypothesis:thesumofthefirstnnumbersis 1 /2 .
Testingthishypothesisconfirmsthatitistrue.
DeductiveReasoning
Deductivereasoningarguesthatifsomethingistrueaboutabroadcategoryofthings,itistrue
ofaniteminthecategory.
Example:Allbirdshavebeaks.Apigeonisabird;therefore,ithasabeak.
Therearetwokeytypesofdeductivereasoningofwhichthestudentshouldbeaware:

LawofDetachment.Giventhat ,ifpistruethenqistrue.Inwords,ifone
thingimpliesanother,thenwheneverthefirstthingistrue,thesecondmustalsobe
true.
Example:Startwiththestatement:Ifalivingcreatureishuman,thenithasabrain.
Thenbecauseyouarehuman,wecanconcludethatyouhaveabrain.

Syllogism.Giventhat and ,wecanconcludethat .Thisisakindof
transitivepropertyoflogic.Inwords,ifonethingimpliesasecondandthatsecond
thingimpliesathird,thenthefirstthingimpliesthethird.
Example:Startwiththestatements:Ifmypencilbreaks,Iwillnotbeabletowrite,
andifIamnotabletowrite,Iwillnotpassmytest.ThenIcanconcludethatIfmy
pencilbreaks,Iwillnotpassmytest.

Chapter2 Proofs
Geometry
AnApproachtoProofs
Learningtodevelopasuccessfulproofisoneofthekeyskillsstudentsdevelopingeometry.
Theprocessisdifferentfromanythingstudentshaveencounteredinpreviousmathclasses,and
mayseemdifficultatfirst.Diligenceandpracticeinsolvingproofswillhelpstudentsdevelop
reasoningskillsthatwillservethemwellfortherestoftheirlives.
RequirementsinPerformingProofs
Eachproofstartswithasetofgivens,statementsthatyouaresuppliedandfrom
whichyoumustderiveaconclusion.Yourmissionistostartwiththegivensandto
proceedlogicallytotheconclusion,providingreasonsforeachstepalongtheway.
Eachstepinaproofbuildsonwhathasbeendevelopedbefore.Initially,youlookat
whatyoucanconcludefromthegivens.Thenasyouproceedthroughthestepsinthe
proof,youareabletouseadditionalthingsyouhaveconcludedbasedonearliersteps.
Eachstepinaproofmusthaveavalidreasonassociatedwithit.So,eachstatementin
theproofmustbefurnishedwithananswertothequestion:Whyisthisstepvalid?
TipsforSuccessfulProofDevelopment
Ateachstep,thinkaboutwhatyouknowandwhatyoucanconcludefromthat
information.Dothisinitiallywithoutregardtowhatyouarebeingaskedtoprove.Then
lookateachthingyoucanconcludeandseewhichonesmoveyouclosertowhatyou
aretryingtoprove.
Goasfarasyoucanintotheprooffromthebeginning.Ifyougetstuck,
Workbackwardsfromtheendoftheproof.Askyourselfwhatthelaststepintheproof
islikelytobe.Forexample,ifyouareaskedtoprovethattwotrianglesarecongruent,
trytoseewhichoftheseveraltheoremsaboutthisismostlikelytobeusefulbasedon
whatyouweregivenandwhatyouhavebeenabletoprovesofar.
Continueworkingbackwardsuntilyouseestepsthatcanbeaddedtothefrontendof
theproof.Youmayfindyourselfalternatingbetweenthefrontendandthebackend
untilyoufinallybridgethegapbetweenthetwosectionsoftheproof.
Dontskipanysteps.Somethingsappearobvious,butactuallyhaveamathematical
reasonforbeingtrue.Forexample, mightseemobvious,butobviousisnota
validreasoninageometryproof.Thereasonfor isapropertyofalgebracalled
thereflexivepropertyofequality.Usemathematicalreasonsforallyoursteps.

Chapter3 ParallelandPerpendicularLines
Geometry
ParallelLinesandTransversals

Transversal
Alternate:referstoanglesthatareon
oppositesidesofthetransversal.
A B Consecutive:referstoanglesthatare
onthesamesideofthetransversal.
C D
ParallelLines Interior:referstoanglesthatare
F betweentheparallellines.
E
H Exterior:referstoanglesthatare
G
outsidetheparallellines.
CorrespondingAngles
CorrespondingAnglesareanglesinthesamelocationrelativetotheparallellinesandthe
transversal.Forexample,theanglesontopoftheparallellinesandleftofthetransversal(i.e.,
topleft)arecorrespondingangles.
AnglesAandE(topleft)areCorrespondingAngles.SoareanglepairsBandF(topright),C
andG(bottomleft),andDandH(bottomright).Correspondinganglesarecongruent.
AlternateInteriorAngles
AnglesDandEareAlternateInteriorAngles.AnglesCandFarealsoalternateinteriorangles.
Alternateinterioranglesarecongruent.
AlternateExteriorAngles
AnglesAandHareAlternateExteriorAngles.AnglesBandGarealsoalternateexterior
angles.Alternateexterioranglesarecongruent.
ConsecutiveInteriorAngles
AnglesCandEareConsecutiveInteriorAngles.AnglesDandFarealsoconsecutiveinterior
angles.Consecutiveinterioranglesaresupplementary.
NotethatanglesA,D,E,andHarecongruent,andanglesB,C,F,andGarecongruent.In
addition,eachoftheanglesinthefirstgrouparesupplementarytoeachoftheanglesinthe
secondgroup.

Geometry
MultipleSetsofParallelLines
TwoTransversals
Sometimes,thestudentispresentedtwosetsofintersectingparallellines,asshownabove.
Notethateachpairofparallellinesisasetoftransversalstotheothersetofparallellines.
A B I J
C D K L
E F M N
H P
G O
Inthiscase,thefollowinggroupsofanglesarecongruent:
Group1:AnglesA,D,E,H,I,L,MandPareallcongruent.
Group2:AnglesB,C,F,G,J,K,N,andOareallcongruent.
EachangleintheGroup1issupplementarytoeachangleinGroup2.

Geometry
ProvingLinesareParallel
Thepropertiesofparallellinescutbyatransversalcanbeusedtoprovetwolinesareparallel.
CorrespondingAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavecongruentcorrespondingangles,
thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare4setsofcorresponding
angles.
AlternateInteriorAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavecongruentalternateinteriorangles
congruent,thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare2setsof
alternateinteriorangles.
AlternateExteriorAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavecongruentalternateexterior
angles,thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare2setsof
alternateexteriorangles.
ConsecutiveInteriorAngles
Iftwolinescutbyatransversalhavesupplementaryconsecutive
interiorangles,thenthelinesareparallel.Notethatthereare2setsof
consecutiveinteriorangles.

Geometry
ParallelandPerpendicularLinesintheCoordinatePlane
ParallelLines
Twolinesareparalleliftheirslopesareequal.
In form,ifthevaluesof are
thesame.
Example: 2 3 and
2 1
InStandardForm,ifthecoefficientsof and
areproportionalbetweentheequations.
Example:3 2 5 and
6 4 7
Also,ifthelinesarebothvertical(i.e.,their
slopesareundefined).
Example: 3 and
2
PerpendicularLines
Twolinesareperpendiculariftheproductoftheir
slopesis .Thatis,iftheslopeshavedifferent
signsandaremultiplicativeinverses.
In form,thevaluesof
multiplytoget 1..
Example: 6 5 and
3
InStandardForm,ifyouaddtheproductof
thexcoefficientstotheproductofthey
coefficientsandgetzero.
Example:4 6 4 and
3 2 5because 4 3 6 2 0
Also,ifonelineisvertical(i.e., isundefined)andonelineishorizontal(i.e., 0).

Example: 6 and
3

Chapter4 TrianglesBasic
Geometry
TypesofTriangles
Scalene Isosceles
AScaleneTrianglehas3sidesofdifferent AnIsoscelesTrianglehas2sidesthesame
lengths.Becausethesidesareof length(i.e.,congruent).Becausetwo
differentlengths,theanglesmustalsobe sidesarecongruent,twoanglesmustalso
ofdifferentmeasures. becongruent.
Equilateral Right
AnEquilateralTrianglehasall3sidesthe ARightTriangle isonethatcontainsa90
samelength(i.e.,congruent).Becauseall
angle.Itmaybescaleneorisosceles,but
3sidesarecongruent,all3anglesmust cannotbeequilateral.Righttriangles
alsobecongruent.Thisrequireseach havesidesthatmeettherequirementsof
angletobe60. thePythagoreanTheorem.
60 60
60

Geometry
CongruentTriangles
Thefollowingtheoremspresentconditionsunderwhichtrianglesarecongruent.
SideAngleSide(SAS)Congruence
SAScongruence requiresthecongruenceof

twosidesandtheanglebetweenthosesides.

NotethatthereisnosuchthingasSSA

congruence;thecongruentanglemustbe

betweenthetwocongruentsides.
SideSideSide(SSS)Congruence
SSScongruence requiresthecongruenceofall

threesides.Ifallofthesidesarecongruent

thenalloftheanglesmustbecongruent.The

converseisnottrue;thereisnosuchthingas

AAAcongruence.
AngleSideAngle(ASA)Congruence

ASAcongruence requiresthecongruenceof

twoanglesandthesidebetweenthoseangles.

Note:ASAandAAScombinetoprovide
congruenceoftwotriangleswhenever
anytwoanglesandanyonesideofthe
AngleAngleSide(AAS)Congruence trianglesarecongruent.

AAScongruence requiresthecongruenceof

twoanglesandasidewhichisnotbetween

thoseangles.

CPCTC
CPCTCmeanscorrespondingpartsofcongruenttrianglesarecongruent.Itisavery
powerfultoolingeometryproofsandisoftenusedshortlyafterastepintheproofwhereapair
oftrianglesisprovedtobecongruent.

Geometry
CentersofTriangles
Thefollowingareallpointswhichcanbeconsideredthecenterofatriangle.
Centroid(Medians)

Thecentroidistheintersectionofthethreemediansofatriangle.Amedianisa
linesegmentdrawnfromavertextothemidpointofthelineoppositethe
vertex.

Thecentroidislocated2/3ofthewayfromavertextotheoppositeside.Thatis,thedistancefroma
vertextothecentroidisdoublethelengthfromthecentroidtothemidpointoftheoppositeline.
Themediansofatrianglecreate6innertrianglesofequalarea.
Orthocenter(Altitudes)

Theorthocenteristheintersectionofthethreealtitudesofatriangle.An
altitudeisalinesegmentdrawnfromavertextoapointontheoppositeside
(extended,ifnecessary)thatisperpendiculartothatside.
Inanacutetriangle,theorthocenterisinsidethetriangle.
Inarighttriangle,theorthocenteristherightanglevertex.
Inanobtusetriangle,theorthocenterisoutsidethetriangle.
Circumcenter(PerpendicularBisectors)
Thecircumcenteristheintersectionofthe
perpendicularbisectorsofthethreesidesofthe
triangle.Aperpendicularbisectorisalinewhich EulerLine:Interestingly,
thecentroid,orthocenter
bothbisectsthesideandisperpendiculartothe
andcircumcenterofa
side.Thecircumcenterisalsothecenterofthe
trianglearecollinear(i.e.,
circlecircumscribedaboutthetriangle. lieonthesameline,
whichiscalledtheEuler
Inanacutetriangle,thecircumcenterisinsidethetriangle. Line).
Inarighttriangle,thecircumcenteristhemidpointofthehypotenuse.
Inanobtusetriangle,thecircumcenterisoutsidethetriangle.
Incenter(AngleBisectors)
Theincenteristheintersectionoftheanglebisectorsofthethreeanglesof
thetriangle.Ananglebisectorcutsanangleintotwocongruentangles,each
ofwhichishalfthemeasureoftheoriginalangle.Theincenterisalsothe
centerofthecircleinscribedinthetriangle.


Geometry
LengthofHeight,MedianandAngleBisector
Height
Theformulaforthelengthofaheightofatriangleisderived
fromHeronsformulafortheareaofatriangle:

where, ,and
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
Median
Theformulaforthelengthofamedianofatriangleis:

where, , , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.
AngleBisector
Theformulaforthelengthofananglebisectorofatriangleis:
where, , , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.

Geometry
InequalitiesinTriangles
Anglesandtheiroppositesidesintrianglesarerelated.Infact,thisisoftenreflectedinthe
labelingofanglesandsidesintriangleillustrations.
Anglesandtheiroppositesidesareoften
labeledwiththesameletter.Anuppercase
letterisusedfortheangleandalowercase
letterisusedfortheside.
Therelationshipbetweenanglesandtheiroppositesidestranslatesintothefollowingtriangle
inequalities:
If , then
If , then
Thatis,inanytriangle,
Thelargestsideisoppositethelargestangle.
Themediumsideisoppositethemediumangle.
Thesmallestsideisoppositethesmallestangle.
OtherInequalitiesinTriangles
TriangleInequality:Thesumofthelengthsofanytwosidesofatriangle
isgreaterthanthelengthofthethirdside.Thisisacrucialelementin
decidingwhethersegmentsofany3lengthscanformatriangle.

ExteriorAngleInequality:Themeasureofanexternalangleisgreaterthanthemeasureof
eitherofthetwononadjacentinteriorangles.Thatis,inthefigurebelow:

Note:theExteriorAngleInequalityismuchlessrelevantthantheExteriorAngleEquality.
ExteriorAngleEquality:Themeasureofanexternalangleisequaltothesumofthemeasures
ofthetwononadjacentinteriorangles.Thatis,inthefigurebelow:

Chapter5 Polygons
Geometry
PolygonsBasics
BasicDefinitions
Polygon:aclosedpathofthreeormorelinesegments,where:
notwosideswithacommonendpointarecollinear,and
eachsegmentisconnectedatitsendpointstoexactlytwoothersegments.
Side:asegmentthatisconnectedtoothersegments(whicharealsosides)toformapolygon.
Vertex:apointattheintersectionoftwosidesofthepolygon.(pluralform:vertices)
Diagonal:asegment,fromonevertextoanother,whichisnotaside.
Vertex
Diagonal
Side
Concave:Apolygoninwhichitispossibletodrawadiagonaloutsidethe
polygon.(Noticetheorangediagonaldrawnoutsidethepolygonat
right.)Concavepolygonsactuallylookliketheyhaveacaveinthem.
Convex:Apolygoninwhichitisnotpossibletodrawadiagonaloutsidethe
polygon.(Noticethatalloftheorangediagonalsareinsidethepolygon
atright.)Convexpolygonsappearmoreroundedanddonotcontain
caves.
NamesofSomeCommonPolygons
Number Number Namesofpolygons

ofSides NameofPolygon ofSides NameofPolygon aregenerallyformed
3 Triangle 9 Nonagon fromtheGreek
language;however,
4 Quadrilateral 10 Decagon
somehybridformsof
5 Pentagon 11 Undecagon LatinandGreek(e.g.,
6 Hexagon 12 Dodecagon undecagon)have
7 Heptagon 20 Icosagon creptintocommon
usage.
8 Octagon n ngon

Chapter5 Polygons
Geometry
PolygonsMoreDefinitions
Definitions AdvancedDefinitions:
Equilateral:apolygoninwhichallofthesidesareequalinlength. SimplePolygon:a
Equiangular:apolygoninwhichalloftheangleshavethesame polygonwhosesidesdo
measure. notintersectatany
locationotherthanits
Regular:apolygonwhichisbothequilateralandequiangular.That endpoints.Simple
is,aregularpolygonisoneinwhichallofthesideshavethesame polygonsalwaysdividea
lengthandalloftheangleshavethesamemeasure. planeintotworegions
oneinsidethepolygonand
oneoutsidethepolygon.
InteriorAngle:Anangleformedbytwosidesofapolygon.The
ComplexPolygon:a
angleisinsidethepolygon.
polygonwithsidesthat
ExteriorAngle:Anangleformedbyonesideofapolygonandthe intersectsomeplaceother
linecontaininganadjacentsideofthepolygon.Theangleisoutside thantheirendpoints(i.e.,
thepolygon. notasimplepolygon).
Complexpolygonsdonot
alwayshavewelldefined
insidesandoutsides.

Exterior Interior SkewPolygon:apolygon
Angle Angle forwhichnotallofits

verticeslieonthesame
plane.

HowManyDiagonalsDoesaConvexPolygonHave?
Believeitornot,thisisacommonquestionwithasimplesolution.Considerapolygonwithn
sidesand,therefore,nvertices.
Eachofthenverticesofthepolygoncanbeconnectedto otherverticeswith
diagonals.Thatis,itcanbeconnectedtoallotherverticesexceptitselfandthetwoto
whichitisconnectedbysides.So,thereare linestobedrawnasdiagonals.
However,whenwedothis,wedraweachdiagonaltwicebecausewedrawitoncefrom
eachofitstwoendpoints.So,thenumberofdiagonalsisactuallyhalfofthenumberwe
calculatedabove.
Therefore,thenumberofdiagonalsinannsidedpolygonis:


Chapter5 Polygons
Geometry
InteriorandExteriorAnglesofaPolygon
InteriorAngles
InteriorAngles
Thesumoftheinterioranglesinan sidedpolygonis: Sumof Each
Sides Interior Interior
Angles Angle
3 180 60
Ifthepolygonisregular,youcancalculatethemeasureof 4 360 90
eachinteriorangleas: 5 540 108
6 720 120
7 900 129

8 1,080 135
9 1,260 140
Notation:TheGreekletterisequivalent 10 1,440 144
totheEnglishletterSandismathshorthand
forasummation(i.e.,addition)ofthings.
ExteriorAngles
ExteriorAngles
Nomatterhowmanysidesthereareinapolygon,thesum Sumof Each
oftheexterioranglesis: Sides Exterior Exterior
Angles Angle
3 360 120
4 360 90
Ifthepolygonisregular,youcancalculatethemeasureof
5 360 72
eachexteriorangleas:
6 360 60
7 360 51

8 360 45
9 360 40
10 360 36

Chapter6 Quadrilaterals
Geometry
DefinitionsofQuadrilaterals
Name Definition
Quadrilateral Apolygonwith4sides.
Aquadrilateralwithtwoconsecutivepairsofcongruentsides,but
Kite
withoppositesidesnotcongruent.
Trapezoid Aquadrilateralwithexactlyonepairofparallelsides.
IsoscelesTrapezoid Atrapezoidwithcongruentlegs.
Parallelogram Aquadrilateralwithbothpairsofoppositesidesparallel.
Rectangle Aparallelogramwithallanglescongruent(i.e.,rightangles).
Rhombus Aparallelogramwithallsidescongruent.
Square Aquadrilateralwithallsidescongruentandallanglescongruent.
QuadrilateralTree:
Quadrilateral
Kite Parallelogram Trapezoid
Rectangle Rhombus Isosceles

Trapezoid
Square

Geometry
FiguresofQuadrilaterals
Kite Trapezoid IsoscelesTrapezoid
2consecutivepairsof 1pairofparallelsides 1pairofparallelsides
congruentsides (calledbases) Congruentlegs
1pairofcongruent Anglesonthesame 2pairofcongruentbase

oppositeangles sideofthebasesare angles
Diagonalsperpendicular supplementary Diagonalscongruent
Parallelogram Rectangle
Bothpairsofoppositesidesparallel Parallelogramwithallangles
Bothpairsofoppositesidescongruent congruent(i.e.,rightangles)
Bothpairsofoppositeanglescongruent Diagonalscongruent
Consecutiveanglessupplementary
Diagonalsbisecteachother

Rhombus Square
Parallelogramwithallsidescongruent BothaRhombusandaRectangle
Diagonalsperpendicular Allanglescongruent(i.e.,rightangles)
Eachdiagonalbisectsapairof Allsidescongruent
oppositeangles

Geometry
CharacteristicsofParallelograms
Characteristic Square Rhombus Rectangle Parallelogram
2pairofparallelsides
Oppositesidesarecongruent
Oppositeanglesarecongruent
Consecutiveanglesaresupplementary
Diagonalsbisecteachother
All4anglesarecongruent(i.e.,rightangles)
Diagonalsarecongruent
All4sidesarecongruent
Diagonalsareperpendicular
Eachdiagonalbisectsapairofoppositeangles
Notes:Redmarksareconditionssufficienttoprovethequadrilateralisofthetypespecified.
Greenmarksareconditionssufficienttoprovethequadrilateralisofthetypespecifiedifthequadrilateralisa
parallelogram.

Geometry
ParallelogramProofs
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaParallelogram
Toproveaquadrilateralisaparallelogram,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. Bothpairsofoppositesidesareparallel.(note:thisisthedefinitionofaparallelogram)
2. Bothpairsofoppositesidesarecongruent.
3. Bothpairsofoppositeanglesarecongruent.
4. Aninteriorangleissupplementarytobothofitsconsecutiveangles.
5. Itsdiagonalsbisecteachother.
6. Apairofoppositesidesisbothparallelandcongruent.
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaRectangle
Toproveaquadrilateralisarectangle,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. All4anglesarecongruent.
2. Itisaparallelogramanditsdiagonalsarecongruent.
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaRhombus
Toproveaquadrilateralisarhombus,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. All4sidesarecongruent.
2. ItisaparallelogramandItsdiagonalsareperpendicular.
3. Itisaparallelogramandeachdiagonalbisectsapairofoppositeangles.
ProvingaQuadrilateralisaSquare
Toproveaquadrilateralisasquare,prove:
1. ItisbothaRhombusandaRectangle.


Geometry
KitesandTrapezoids
FactsaboutaKite
Toproveaquadrilateralisakite,prove:
Ithastwopairofcongruentsides.
Oppositesidesarenotcongruent.
Also,ifaquadrilateralisakite,then:
Itsdiagonalsareperpendicular
Ithasexactlyonepairofcongruentoppositeangles.
PartsofaTrapezoid Base
Midsegment
TrapezoidABCDhasthefollowingparts:
Leg
and arebases.
and arelegs. Leg
isthemidsegment.
and arediagonals.
AnglesAandDformapairofbaseangles.
Diagonals
AnglesBandCformapairofbaseangles. Base
TrapezoidMidsegmentTheorem
Themidsegmentofatrapezoidisparalleltoeachofitsbasesand: .
ProvingaQuadrilateralisanIsoscelesTrapezoid
Toproveaquadrilateralisanisoscelestrapezoid,proveanyofthefollowingconditions:
1. Itisatrapezoidandhasapairofcongruentlegs.(definitionofisoscelestrapezoid)
2. Itisatrapezoidandhasapairofcongruentbaseangles.
3. Itisatrapezoidanditsdiagonalsarecongruent.

Chapter7 Transformations
Geometry
IntroductiontoTransformation
ATransformationisamappingofthepreimageofageometricfigureontoanimagethat
retainskeycharacteristicsofthepreimage.
Definitions
ThePreImageisthegeometricfigurebeforeithasbeentransformed.
TheImageisthegeometricfigureafterithasbeentransformed.
Amappingisanassociationbetweenobjects.Transformationsaretypesofmappings.Inthe

figuresbelow,wesayABCDismappedontoABCD,or .Theorderofthe
verticesiscriticaltoaproperlynamedmapping.
AnIsometryisaonetoonemappingthatpreserveslengths.Transformationsthatare
isometries(i.e.,preservelength)arecalledrigidtransformations.
IsometricTransformations
Reflectionisflippinga Rotationisturninga Translationisslidinga

figureacrossalinecalled figurearoundapoint. figureintheplanesothat
amirror.Thefigure Rotatedfiguresretain itchangeslocationbut
retainsitssizeandshape, theirsizeandshape,but retainsitsshape,sizeand
butappearsbackwards nottheirorientation. orientation.
afterthereflection.
TableofCharacteristicsofIsometricTransformations
Transformation Reflection Rotation Translation

Isometry(RetainsLengths)? Yes Yes Yes
RetainsAngles? Yes Yes Yes
RetainsOrientationtoAxes? No No Yes

Geometry
IntroductiontoTransformation(contd)
TransformationofaPoint
Apointistheeasiestobjecttotransform.Simplyreflect,rotateortranslateitfollowingthe
rulesforthetransformationselected.Bytransformingkeypointsfirst,anytransformation
becomesmucheasier.
TransformationofaGeometricFigure
Totransformanygeometricfigure,itisonlynecessarytotransformtheitemsthatdefinethe
figure,andthenreformit.Forexample:
Totransformalinesegment,transformitstwoendpoints,andthenconnectthe
resultingimageswithalinesegment.
Totransformaray,transformtheinitialpointandanyotherpointontheray,andthen
constructarayusingtheresultingimages.
Totransformaline,transformanytwopointsontheline,andthenfitalinethroughthe
resultingimages.
Totransformapolygon,transformeachofitsvertices,andthenconnecttheresulting
imageswithlinesegments.
Totransformacircle,transformitscenterand,ifnecessary,itsradius.Fromthe
resultingimages,constructtheimagecircle.
Totransformotherconicsections(parabolas,ellipsesandhyperbolas),transformthe
foci,verticesand/ordirectrix.Fromtheresultingimages,constructtheimageconic
section.
Example:ReflectQuadrilateralABCD

Geometry
Reflection
Definitions
Reflectionisflippingafigureacrossamirror.
TheLineofReflectionisthemirrorthroughwhichthe
reflectiontakesplace.
Notethat:
Thelinesegmentconnectingcorrespondingpointsin
theimageandpreimageisbisectedbythemirror.
Thelinesegmentconnectingcorrespondingpointsin
theimageandpreimageisperpendiculartothemirror.
ReflectionthroughanAxisortheLine
Reflectionofthepoint(a,b)throughthex oryaxisortheline givesthefollowing
results:
PreImage Mirror Image

Point Line Point
(a, b) xaxis (a, b)
(a, b) yaxis (a, b)
(a, b) the line: (b, a)
Ifyouforgettheabovetable,startwiththepoint 3, 2 onasetofcoordinateaxes.Reflect
thepointthroughtheselectedlineandseewhichsetofa,bcoordinatesworks.
LineofSymmetry
ALineofSymmetryisanylinethroughwhichafigurecanbemappedontoitself.Thethinblack
linesinthefollowingfiguresshowtheiraxesofsymmetry:


Geometry
Rotation
Definitions
Rotationisturningafigurebyanangleaboutafixedpoint.
TheCenterofRotationisthepointaboutwhichthefigureis
rotated.PointP,atright,isthecenterofrotation.
TheAngleofRotationdeterminestheextentoftherotation.
Theangleisformedbytheraysthatconnectthecenterof
rotationtothepreimageandtheimageoftherotation.Angle
P,atright,istheangleofrotation.Thoughshownonlyfor
PointA,theangleisthesameforanyofthefigures4vertices.
Note:Inperformingrotations,itisimportanttoindicatethedirectionoftherotation
clockwiseorcounterclockwise.
RotationabouttheOrigin
Rotationofthepoint(a,b)abouttheorigin(0,0)givesthefollowingresults:
PreImage Clockwise Counterclockwise Image

Point Rotation Rotation Point
(a, b) 90 270 (b, a)
(a, b) 180 180 (a, b)
(a, b) 270 90 (b, a)
(a, b) 360 360 (a, b)
Ifyouforgettheabovetable,startwiththepoint 3, 2 onasetofcoordinateaxes.Rotatethe
pointbytheselectedangleandseewhichsetofa,bcoordinatesworks.
RotationalSymmetry
AfigureinaplanehasRotationalSymmetryifitcanbemappedontoitselfbyarotationof
180orless.Anyregularpolygonhasrotationalsymmetry,asdoesacircle.Herearesome
examplesoffigureswithrotationalsymmetry:

ADVANCED
Geometry
Rotationby90aboutaPoint(x0,y0)
Rotatinganobjectby90aboutapointinvolvesrotatingeachpointoftheobjectby90about
thatpoint.Forapolygon,thisisaccomplishedbyrotatingeachvertexandthenconnecting
themtoeachother,soyoumainlyhavetoworryaboutthevertices,whicharepoints.The
mathematicsbehindtheprocessofrotatingapointby90isdescribedbelow:
Letsdefinethefollowingpoints:
Thepointaboutwhichtherotationwilltakeplace:(x0,y0)
Theinitialpoint(beforerotation):(x1,y1)
Thefinalpoint(afterrotation):(x2,y2)

Theproblemistodetermine(x2,y2)ifwearegiven(x0,y0)and(x1,y1).Itinvolves3steps:
1. Converttheproblemtooneofrotatingapointabouttheorigin(amucheasier
problem).
2. Performtherotation.
3. Converttheresultbacktotheoriginalsetofaxes.

Wellconsidereachstepseparatelyandprovideanexample:
Problem:Rotateapointby90aboutanotherpoint.
Step1:Converttheproblemtooneofrotatingapointabouttheorigin:
First,weaskhowthepoint(x1,y1)relatestothepointaboutwhichitwillberotated(x0,
y0)andcreateanew(translated)point.Thisisessentiallyanaxistranslation,which
wewillreverseinStep3.
GeneralSituation Example
PointsintheProblem PointsintheProblem
RotationCenter:(x0,y0) RotationCenter:(2,3)
Initialpoint:(x1,y1) Initialpoint:(2,1)
Finalpoint:(x2,y2) Finalpoint:tobedetermined
Calculateanewpointthatrepresentshow Calculateanewpointthatrepresentshow
(x1,y1)relatesto(x0,y0).Thatpointis: (2,1)relatesto(2,3).Thatpointis:
(x1x0,y1y0) (4,2)
Thenextstepsdependonwhetherwearemakingaclockwiseorcounterclockwiserotation.

ADVANCED
Geometry
Rotationby90aboutaPoint(contd)
ClockwiseRotation:
Step2:Performtherotationabouttheorigin:
Rotatingby90clockwiseabouttheorigin(0,0)issimplyaprocessofswitchingthex
andyvaluesofapointandnegatingthenewyterm.Thatis(x,y)becomes(y,x)after
rotationby90.
Prerotatedpoint(fromStep1): Prerotatedpoint(fromStep1):
(x1x0,y1y0) (4,2)
Pointafterrotation: Pointafterrotation:
(y1y0,x1+x0) (2,4)
Step3:Converttheresultbacktotheoriginalsetofaxes.
Todothis,simplyaddbackthepointofrotation(whichwassubtractedoutinStep1.
(y1y0,x1+x0) (2,4)
Addbackthepointofrotation(x0,y0): Addbackthepointofrotation(2,3):
(y1y0+x0,x1+x0+y0) (0,7)
whichgivesusthevaluesof(x2,y2)
Finally,lookattheformulasforx2andy2:

Clockwise Rotation Noticethattheformulasfor
clockwiseandcounter
x2 = y1 - y0 + x0 clockwiserotationby90are
thesameexceptthetermsin
y2 = -x1 + x0 + y0 bluearenegatedbetweenthe
formulas.
Interestingnote:Ifyouareaskedtofindthepointaboutwhichtherotationoccurred,you
simplysubstituteinthevaluesforthestartingpoint(x1,y1)andtheendingpoint(x2,y2)and
solvetheresultingpairofsimultaneousequationsforx0andy0.


ADVANCED
Geometry
Rotationby90aboutaPoint(contd)
CounterClockwiseRotation:
Step2:Performtherotationabouttheorigin:
Rotatingby90counterclockwiseabouttheorigin(0,0)issimplyaprocessofswitching
thexandyvaluesofapointandnegatingthenewxterm.Thatis(x,y)becomes(y,x)
afterrotationby90.
Prerotatedpoint(fromStep1): Prerotatedpoint(fromStep1):
(x1x0,y1y0) (4,2)
(y1+y0,x1x0) (2,4)
Step3:Converttheresultbacktotheoriginalsetofaxes.
Todothis,simplyaddbackthepointofrotation(whichwassubtractedoutinStep1.
(y1+y0,x1x0) (2,4)
Addbackthepointofrotation(x0,y0): Addbackthepointofrotation(2,3):
(y1+y0+x0,x1x0+y0) (4,1)
whichgivesusthevaluesof(x2,y2)
Finally,lookattheformulasforx2andy2:

Counter-Clockwise Rotation Noticethattheformulasfor
clockwiseandcounter
x2 = -y1 + y0 + x0 clockwiserotationby90are
thesameexceptthetermsin
y2 = x1 - x0 + y0 bluearenegatedbetweenthe
formulas.
Interestingnote:Thepointhalfwaybetweentheclockwiseandcounterclockwiserotationsof
90isthecenterofrotationitself,(x0,y0).Intheexample,(2,3)ishalfwaybetween(0,7)and
(4,1).


Geometry
Translation
Definitions
Translationisslidingafigureintheplane.Each
pointinthefigureismovedthesamedistancein
thesamedirection.Theresultisanimagethat
looksthesameasthepreimageineveryway,
exceptithasbeenmovedtoadifferentlocation
intheplane.
Eachofthefourorangelinesegmentsinthe
figureatrighthasthesamelengthanddirection.
WhenTwoReflections OneTranslation
Iftwomirrorsareparallel,thenreflectionthrough
oneofthem,followedbyareflectionthroughthe
secondisatranslation.
Inthefigureatright,theblacklinesshowthepaths
ofthetworeflections;thisisalsothepathofthe
resultingtranslation.Notethefollowing:
Thedistanceoftheresultingtranslation
(e.g.,fromAtoA)isdoublethedistance
betweenthemirrors.
Theblacklinesofmovementareperpendiculartobothmirrors.
DefiningTranslationsintheCoordinatePlane(UsingVectors)
Atranslationmoveseachpointbythesamedistanceinthesamedirection.Inthecoordinate
plane,thisisequivalenttomovingeachpointthesameamountinthexdirectionandthesame
amountintheydirection.Thiscombinationofxandydirectionmovementisdescribedbya
mathematicalconceptcalledavector.
Intheabovefigure,translationfromAto moves10inthexdirectionandthe3inthey
direction.Invectornotation,thisis: , .Noticethehalfraysymboloverthe
twopointsandthefunnylookingbracketsaroundthemovementvalues.
So,thetranslationresultingfromthetworeflectionsintheabovefiguremoveseachpointof
thepreimagebythevector .Everytranslationcanbedefinedbythevectorrepresenting
itsmovementinthecoordinateplane.

Geometry
Compositions
Whenmultipletransformationsarecombined,theresultiscalledaCompositionofthe
Transformations.Twoexamplesofthisare:
Combiningtworeflectionsthroughparallelmirrorstogenerateatranslation(seethe
previouspage).
Combiningatranslationandareflectiontogeneratewhatiscalledaglidereflection.
Theglidepartofthenamereferstotranslation,whichisakindofglidingofafigureon
theplane.
Note:Inaglidereflection,ifthelineofreflectionisparalleltothedirectionofthe
translation,itdoesnotmatterwhetherthereflectionorthetranslationisperformedfirst.
Figure1:TranslationfollowedbyReflection. Figure2:ReflectionfollowedbyTranslation.
CompositionTheorem
ThecompositionofmultipleisometriesisasIsometry.Putmoresimply,iftransformationsthat
preservelengtharecombined,thecompositionwillpreservelength.Thisisalsotrueof
compositionsoftransformationsthatpreserveanglemeasure.
OrderofComposition
Ordermattersinmostcompositionsthatinvolvemorethanoneclassoftransformation.Ifyou
applymultipletransformationsofthesamekind(e.g.,reflection,rotation,ortranslation),order
generallydoesnotmatter;however,applyingtransformationsinmorethanoneclassmay
producedifferentfinalimagesiftheorderisswitched.

Chapter8 Similarity
Geometry
RatiosInvolvingUnits
RatiosInvolvingUnits
Example:
Whensimplifyingratioscontainingthesameunits:
3 1
Simplifythefraction.
12 4
Notice that the units disappear. They behave
Note:theunitinchescancelout,so
just like factors; if the units exist in the
theansweris ,not .
numeratoranddenominator,thecancelandare
notintheanswer.
Whensimplifyingratioscontainingdifferentunits:
Adjusttheratiosothatthenumeratoranddenominatorhavethesameunits.
Simplifythefraction.
Noticethattheunitsdisappear.
Example:
3 3 3 1

2 2 12 24 8
DealingwithUnits
Noticeintheaboveexamplethatunitscanbetreatedthesameasfactors;theycanbeusedin
fractions and they cancel when they divide. This fact can be used to figure out whether
multiplicationordivisionisneededinaproblem.Considerthefollowing:
Example:Howlongdidittakeforacartravelingat48milesperhourtogo32miles?
Considertheunitsofeachitem: 32 48
Ifyoumultiply,youget: 32 48 1,536 .Thisisclearlywrong!
If you divide, you get: 32 48 . Now,

thislooksreasonable.Noticehowthe" "unitcanceloutinthefinalanswer.
Now you could have solved this problem by remembering that , or
. However, paying close attention to the units also generates the correct answer. In
addition,theunitstechniquealwaysworks,nomatterwhattheproblem!

Chapter8 Similarity
Geometry
SimilarPolygons
Insimilarpolygons,
Correspondinganglesarecongruent,and
Correspondingsidesareproportional.
Bothoftheseconditionsarenecessaryfortwo
polygonstobesimilar.Conversely,whentwo
polygonsaresimilar,allofthecorresponding
anglesarecongruentandallofthesidesareproportional.
NamingSimilarPolygons
Similarpolygonsshouldbenamedsuchthatcorrespondinganglesareinthesamelocationin
thename,andtheorderofthepointsinthenameshouldfollowthepolygonaround.
Example:Thepolygonsabovecouldbeshownsimilarwiththefollowingnames:
~
Itwouldalsobeacceptabletoshowthesimilarityas:
~
Anynamesthatpreservetheorderofthepointsandkeepscorrespondinganglesin
correspondinglocationsinthenameswouldbeacceptable.
Proportions
Onecommonproblemrelatingtosimilarpolygonsistopresentthreesidelengths,wheretwo
ofthesidescorrespond,andtoaskforthelengthofthesidecorrespondingtothethirdlength.
Example:Intheabovesimilarpolygons,if 20, 12, 6, ?

Thisproblemissolvablewithproportions.Todosoproperly,itisimportanttorelate
correspondingitemsintheproportion:
20 12
10
6
Noticethattheleftpolygonisrepresentedonthetopofbothproportionsandthattheleft
mostsegmentsofthetwopolygonsareintheleftfraction.

Chapter8 Similarity
Geometry
ScaleFactorsofSimilarPolygons
Fromthesimilarpolygonsbelow,thefollowingisknownaboutthelengthsofthesides:
Thatis,theratiosofcorrespondingsidesinthe
twopolygonsarethesameandtheyequal
someconstant ,calledthescalefactorofthe
twopolygons.Thevalueof ,then,isallyou
needtoknowtorelatecorrespondingsidesin
thetwopolygons.
FindingtheMissingLength
Anytimethestudentisaskedtofindthemissinglengthinsimilarpolygons:
Lookfortwocorrespondingsidesforwhichthevaluesareknown.
Calculatethevalueof .
Usethevalueof tosolveforthemissinglength.
isameasureoftherelativesizeofthetwopolygons.Usingthisknowledge,itispossibleto
putintowordsaneasilyunderstandablerelationshipbetweenthepolygons.
LetPolygon1betheonewhosesidesareinthenumeratorsofthefractions.
LetPolygon2betheonewhosesidesareinthedenominatorsofthefractions.
Then,itcanbesaidthatPolygon1is timesthesizeofthePolygon2.
Example:Intheabovesimilarpolygons,if 20, 12, 6, ?

Seeingthat and relate,calculate:
12
2
6
Thensolvefor basedonthevalueof :
20
2 10
Also,since 2,thelengthofeverysideinthebluepolygonisdoublethelengthofits
correspondingsideintheorangepolygon.

Chapter8 Similarity
Geometry
DilationofPolygons
Adilationisaspecialcaseoftransformationinvolvingsimilarpolygons.Itcanbethoughtofas
atransformationthatcreatesapolygonofthesameshapebutadifferentsizefromtheoriginal.
Keyelementsofadilationare:
ScaleFactorThescalefactorofsimilarpolygonsistheconstant whichrepresentsthe
relativesizesofthepolygons.
CenterThecenteristhepointfromwhichthedilationtakesplace.
Notethat 0 and 1inordertogenerateasecondpolygon.Then,

If 1,thedilationiscalledanenlargement.
If 1,thedilationiscalledareduction.
DilationswithCenter(0,0)
Incoordinategeometry,dilationsareoftenperformedwiththecenterbeingtheorigin 0, 0 .
Inthatcase,toobtainthedilationofapolygon:
Multiplythecoordinatesofeachvertexbythescalefactor ,and
Connecttheverticesofthedilationwithlinesegments(i.e.,connectthedots).
Examples:
Inthefollowingexamples:
Thegreenpolygonistheoriginal.
Thebluepolygonisthedilation.
Thedashedorangelinesshowthemovementawayfrom
(enlargement)ortoward(reduction)thecenter,whichis
theorigininall3examples.
Noticethat,ineachexample:
Thisfactcanbeusedtoconstructdilationswhencoordinateaxes
arenotavailable.Alternatively,thestudentcoulddrawasetof
coordinateaxesasanaidtoperformingthedilation.

Chapter8 Similarity
ADVANCED
Geometry
MoreonDilation
DilationsofNonPolygons
Anygeometricfigurecanbedilated.Inthedilationofthe
greencircleatright,noticethat:
Thedilationfactoris2.
Theoriginalcirclehascenter 7, 3 andradius 5.
Thedilatedcirclehascenter 14, 6 andradius 10.
So,thecenterandradiusarebothincreasedbyafactorof 2.Thisistrueofanyfigureina
dilationwiththecenterattheorigin.Allofthekeyelementsthatdefinethefigureare
increasedbythescalefactor .
DilationswithCenter ,
Inthefiguresbelow,thegreenquadrilateralsaredilatedtotheblueoneswithascalefactorof
2.Noticethefollowing:
Inthefiguretotheleft,thedilationhascenter
0, 0 ,whereasinthefiguretotheright,the
dilationhascenter 4, 3 .Thesizeofthe
resultingfigureisthesameinbothcases
(because 2inbothfigures),butthe
locationisdifferent.
Graphically,theseriesoftransformationsthatisequivalenttoadilationfromapoint ,
otherthantheoriginisshownbelow.Comparethefinalresulttothefigureabove(right).
Step1:Translatetheoriginalfigureby , toresetthecenterattheorigin.
Step2:Performthedilation.
Step3:Translatethedilatedfigureby , .Thesestepsareillustratedbelow.
Step1 Step2 Step3

Chapter8 Similarity
Geometry
SimilarTriangles
Thefollowingtheoremspresentconditionsunderwhichtrianglesaresimilar.
SideAngleSide(SAS)Similarity
SASsimilarity requirestheproportionality of

twosidesandthecongruenceoftheangle

betweenthosesides.Notethatthereisnosuch

thingasSSAsimilarity;thecongruentanglemust

bebetweenthetwoproportionalsides.
SideSideSide(SSS)Similarity
SSSsimilarity requirestheproportionalityofall
threesides.Ifallofthesidesareproportional,
thenalloftheanglesmustbecongruent.

AngleAngle(AA)Similarity
AAsimilarity requiresthecongruenceoftwo
anglesandthesidebetweenthoseangles.

SimilarTriangleParts
Insimilartriangles,
Correspondingsidesareproportional.
Correspondinganglesarecongruent.
Establishingthepropernamesforsimilartrianglesiscrucialtolineupcorrespondingvertices.
Inthepictureabove,wecansay:
~ or ~ or ~ or
~ or ~ or ~
Allofthesearecorrectbecausetheymatchcorrespondingpartsinthenaming.Eachofthese
similaritiesimpliesthefollowingrelationshipsbetweenpartsofthetwotriangles:
and and

Chapter8 Similarity
Geometry
ProportionTablesforSimilarTriangles
SettingUpaTableofProportions
Itisoftenusefultosetupatabletoidentifytheproperproportions
inasimilarity.Considerthefiguretotheright.Thetablemightlook
somethinglikethis:
Triangle LeftSide RightSide BottomSide
Top AB BC CA
Bottom DE EF FD
Thepurposeofatablelikethisistoorganizetheinformationyouhaveaboutthesimilar
trianglessothatyoucanreadilydeveloptheproportionsyouneed.
DevelopingtheProportions
Todevelopproportionsfromthetable:
Extractthecolumnsneededfromthetable:
AB BC
DE EF Alsofromtheabove
table,
Eliminatethetablelines.
Replacethehorizontallineswithdivisionlines.
Putanequalsignbetweenthetworesultingfractions:

Solvingfortheunknownlengthofaside:
Youcanextractanytwocolumnsyoulikefromthetable.Usually,youwillhaveinformationon
lengthsofthreeofthesidesandwillbeaskedtocalculateafourth.
Lookinthetableforthecolumnsthatcontainthe4sidesinquestion,andthensetupyour
proportion.Substituteknownvaluesintotheproportion,andsolvefortheremainingvariable.

Chapter8 Similarity
Geometry
ThreeSimilarTriangles
Acommonproblemingeometryistofindthemissingvalueinproportionsbasedonasetof
threesimilartriangles,twoofwhichareinsidethethird.Thediagramoftenlookslikethis:

PythagoreanRelationships

Insidetriangleontheleft:

Insidetriangleontheright:
Outside(large)triangle:

c
SimilarTriangleRelationships
Becauseallthreetrianglesaresimilar,wehavetherelationshipsinthetablebelow.These
relationshipsarenotobviousfromthepicture,butareveryusefulinsolvingproblemsbasedon
theabovediagram.Usingsimilaritiesbetweenthetriangles,2atatime,weget:
Fromtheinsidetriangleon Fromtheinsidetriangleon
Fromthetwoinsidetriangles theleftandtheoutside therightandtheoutside
triangle triangle
or or or
Theleftsidesquared Therightsidesquared
Theheightsquared
=theproductof: =theproductof:
=theproductof:
thepartofthebasebelowit thepartofthebasebelowit
thetwopartsofthebase
andtheentirebase andtheentirebase

Chapter9 RightTriangles
Geometry
PythagoreanTheorem
Inarighttriangle,thePythagoreanTheoremsays:
where,
a and b are the lengths of the legs of a right
triangle,and
cisthelengthofthehypotenuse.

Right,Acute,orObtuseTriangle?
Inadditiontoallowingthesolutionofrighttriangles,thePythagoreanFormulacanbeusedto
determinewhetheratriangleisarighttriangle,anacutetriangle,oranobtusetriangle.
Todeterminewhetheratriangleisobtuse,right,oracute:
Arrangethelengthsofthesidesfromlowtohigh;callthema,b,andc,inincreasingorder
Calculate: , , and .
Compare: vs.
Usetheillustrationsbelowtodeterminewhichtypeoftriangleyouhave.

ObtuseTriangle RightTriangle AcuteTriangle
Example: Example: Example:
Trianglewithsides:7,9,12 Trianglewithsides:6,8,10 Trianglewithsides:5,8,9

7 9 . 12 6 8 . 10 5 8 . 9
49 81 144 36 64 100 25 64 81


Geometry
PythagoreanTriples
PythagoreanTheorem:

Pythagoreantriplesaresetsof3positiveintegersthatmeettherequirementsofthe
PythagoreanTheorem.Becausethesesetsofintegersprovideprettysolutionstogeometry
problems,theyareafavoriteofgeometrybooksandteachers.Knowingwhattriplesexistcan
helpthestudentquicklyidentifysolutionstoproblemsthatmightotherwisetakeconsiderable
timetosolve.
345TriangleFamily 72425TriangleFamily
Sample Sample
Triples Triples
345 72425

6810 144850
91215

217275
121620 ...
304050
70240250

9 16 25 49 576 625
51213TriangleFamily 81517TriangleFamily
Sample Sample
Triples Triples

51213 81517

102426 163034

153639 244551

... ...
50120130 80150170

25 144 169 64 225 289


Geometry
SpecialTriangles
Therelationshipamongthelengthsofthesidesofatriangleisdependentonthemeasuresof
theanglesinthetriangle.Forarighttriangle(i.e.,onethatcontainsa90angle),twospecial
casesareofparticularinterest.Theseareshownbelow:
454590Triangle
Ina454590triangle,thecongruence oftwo
anglesguaranteesthecongruenceofthetwo

legsofthetriangle.Theproportionsofthethree
1
sidesare: .Thatis,thetwolegshave
thesamelengthandthehypotenuseis times
1 aslongaseitherleg.
306090Triangle

Ina306090triangle,theproportionsofthe
2 threesidesare: .Thatis,thelongleg
is timesaslongastheshortleg,andthe
hypotenuseis timesaslongastheshortleg.
Inarighttriangle,weneedtoknowthelengthsoftwosidestodeterminethelengthofthe
third.Thepoweroftherelationshipsinthespecialtrianglesliesinthefactthatweneedonly
knowthelengthofonesideofthetriangletodeterminethelengthsoftheothertwosides.
ExampleSideLengths
454590Triangle 306090Triangle


Geometry
TrigFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions

SOHCAHTOA
sin sin sin
cos cos cos
tan tan tan

SpecialAngles

TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles
Radians Degrees
0 0 0 4 0
0 1 0
2 2 4
1 1 3 1 3
6 30
2 2 2 3 3
2 2
4 45
1
2 2
3 1 1 3
3 60 3
2 2 2 1
4 0
2 90 1 0 undefined

2 2


Geometry
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthe
followingmanner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureoftheanglefromthex
axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna or signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin.
Examples:
inQuadrantIICalculate: 180
For 120,baseyourworkon180 120 60

sin 60 ,so:

inQuadrantIIICalculate: 180

cos 30
,so:

inQuadrantIVCalculate: 360

tan 45 1,so:


Geometry
GraphsofTrigonometricFunctions
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsareinverses.So:
1 1
sin and csc
csc sin
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsareinverses.So:
1 1
cos and sec
sec cos
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsareinverses.So:
1 1
tan and cot
cot tan

Geometry
Vectors
Definitions
Avectorisageometricobjectthathasboth
magnitude(length)anddirection.
TheTailofthevectoristheendoppositethearrow.
Itrepresentswherethevectorismovingfrom.
TheHeadofthevectoristheendwiththearrow.It
representswherethevectorismovingto.
TheZeroVectorisdenoted0.Ithaszerolengthand
allthepropertiesofzero.
Twovectorsareequalistheyhaveboththesamemagnitudeandthesamedirection.
Twovectorsareparalleliftheyhavethesameoroppositedirections.Thatis,iftheangles
ofthevectorsarethesameor180different.
Twovectorsareperpendicularifthedifferenceoftheanglesofthevectorsis90or270.
MagnitudeofaVector
Thedistanceformulagivesthemagnitudeofavector.Iftheheadandtailofvectorvarethe
points , and , ,thenthemagnitudeofvis:
| |
Notethat .Thedirectionsofthetwovectorsareopposite,buttheirmagnitudes
arethesame.
DirectionofaVector
Thedirectionofavectorisdeterminedbytheangleitmakes
withahorizontalline.Inthefigureatright,thedirectionisthe
angle .Thevalueof canbecalculatedbasedonthelengths
ofthesidesofthetrianglethevectorforms.
or
wherethefunctiontan1istheinversetangentfunction.Thesecondequationinthelineabove
reads istheanglewhosetangentis .

Geometry
OperationswithVectors
Itispossibletooperatewithvectorsinsomeofthesamewaysweoperatewithnumbers.In
particular:
AddingVectors
Vectorscanbeaddedinrectangularformbyseparatelyaddingtheirxandycomponents.In
general,
,
,
, , ,
Example:Inthefigureatright,
4, 3
2, 6
4, 3 2, 6 6, 3
VectorAlgebra
a a a
a b a b
1 ab a b b a
ScalarMultiplication
Scalarmultiplicationchangesthemagnitudeofavector,butnotthedirection.Ingeneral,
,
,
Inthefigureatright,
4, 3
2 2 4, 3 8, 6

Chapter10 Circles
Geometry
PartsofCircles
Centerthemiddleofthecircle.Allpointsonthecircle
arethesamedistancefromthecenter.
Radiusalinesegmentwithoneendpointatthecenter
andtheotherendpointonthecircle.Thetermradiusis
alsousedtorefertothedistancefromthecentertothe
pointsonthecircle.
Diameteralinesegmentwithendpointsonthecircle
thatpassesthroughthecenter.
Arcapathalongacircle.
MinorArcapathalongthecirclethatislessthan180.
MajorArcapathalongthecirclethatisgreaterthan
180.
Semicircleapathalongacirclethatequals180.
Sectoraregioninsideacirclethatisboundedbytwo
radiiandanarc.
SecantLinealinethatintersectsthecirclein
exactlytwopoints.

TangentLinealinethatintersectsthecircle
inexactlyonepoint.
Chordalinesegmentwithendpointsonthe
circlethatdoesnotpassthroughthecenter.

Chapter10 Circles
Geometry
AnglesandCircles
CentralAngle InscribedAngle
Vertexinsidethecircle Vertexoutsidethecircle
Tangentononeside Tangentsontwosides

Chapter11 PerimeterandArea
Geometry
PerimeterandAreaofaTriangle
PerimeterofaTriangle
Theperimeterofatriangleissimplythesumofthemeasuresofthethreesidesofthetriangle.
AreaofaTriangle
Therearetwoformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformationaboutthe
triangleisavailable.
Formula1:Theformulamostfamiliartothestudentcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightof
thetriangleareeitherknownorcanbedetermined.

where, isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
istheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthemeasureofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or or
Formula2:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhen
thelengthsofallofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,
thoughlessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
where, . Note: issometimescalledthesemiperimeterofthetriangle.
, , arethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.

ADVANCED
Geometry
MoreontheAreaofaTriangle
TrigonometricFormulas
Thefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecomefromtrigonometry.Whichoneisused
dependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandaside:
Twosidesandanangle:
CoordinateGeometry
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
Letthethreepointsinthecoordinateplanebe: , , , , , .Then,theareaof
thetriangleisonehalfoftheabsolutevalueofthedeterminantbelow:
Example:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:

Geometry
PerimeterandAreaofQuadrilaterals
Name Illustration Perimeter Area

1
Kite 2 2
2

1
Trapezoid
2

Parallelogram 2 2

Rectangle 2 2

1
Rhombus 4
2

1
Square 4
2

Geometry
PerimeterandAreaofRegularPolygons
DefinitionsRegularPolygons
Thecenterofapolygonisthecenterofitscircumscribed
circle.PointOisthecenterofthehexagonatright.
Theradiusofthepolygonistheradiusofits
circumscribedcircle. and arebothradiiofthe
hexagonatright.
Theapothemofapolygonisthedistancefromthecenter
tothemidpointofanyofitssides.aistheapothemof
thehexagonatright.
Thecentralangleofapolygonisananglewhosevertexisthecenterofthecircleandwhose
sidespassthroughconsecutiveverticesofthepolygon.Inthefigureabove, isa
centralangleofthehexagon.
AreaofaRegularPolygon
where, istheapothemofthepolygon
istheperimeterofthepolygon
PerimeterandAreaofSimilarFigures
Letk bethescalefactorrelatingtwosimilargeometricfiguresF1andF2suchthat .
Then,
and

Geometry
CircleLengthsandAreas
CircumferenceandArea
isthecircumference(i.e.,theperimeter)ofthecircle.
istheareaofthecircle.
where: istheradiusofthecircle.
LengthofanArconaCircle
Acommonprobleminthegeometryofcirclesistomeasurethelengthofanarconacircle.
Definition:Anarcisasegmentalongthecircumferenceofacircle.
where: ABisthemeasure(indegrees)ofthearc.Notethat
thisisalsothemeasureofthecentralangle .
isthecircumferenceofthecircle.
AreaofaSectorofaCircle
Anothercommonprobleminthegeometryofcirclesistomeasuretheareaofasectoracircle.
Definition:Asectorisaregioninacirclethatisboundedbytworadiiandanarcofthecircle.
where: ABisthemeasure(indegrees)ofthearc.Notethat
thisisalsothemeasureofthecentralangle .
istheareaofthecircle.

Geometry
AreaofCompositeFigures
Tocalculatetheareaofafigurethatisacompositeofshapes,considereachshapeseparately.
Example1:
Calculatetheareaoftheblueregioninthefiguretotheright.
Tosolvethis:
Recognizethatthefigureisthecompositeofa
rectangleandtwotriangles.
Disassemblethecompositefigureintoitscomponents.
Calculatetheareaofthecomponents.
Subtracttogettheareaofthecompositefigure.
Example2:
Calculatetheareaoftheblueregioninthefiguretotheright.
Tosolvethis:
Recognizethatthefigureisthecompositeofasquareanda
circle.
Disassemblethecompositefigureintoitscomponents.
Calculatetheareaofthecomponents.
Subtracttogettheareaofthecompositefigure.
~ .

Chapter12 SurfaceAreaandVolume
Geometry
Polyhedra
Definitions
Faces
APolyhedronisa3dimensionalsolidboundedbyaseries
ofpolygons.
Facesarethepolygonsthatboundthepolyhedron.
AnEdgeisthelinesegmentattheintersectionoftwofaces.
AVertexisapointattheintersectionoftwoedges. Edges
ARegularpolyhedronisoneinwhichallofthefacesarethe
Vertices
sameregularpolygon.
AConvexPolyhedronisoneinwhichalldiagonalsarecontainedwithintheinteriorofthe
polyhedron.AConcavepolyhedronisonethatisnotconvex.
ACrossSectionistheintersectionofaplanewiththepolyhedron.
EulersTheorem
Let: thenumberoffacesofapolyhedron. EulersTheoremExample:
thenumberofverticesofapolyhedron. Thecubeabovehas
thenumberofedgesofapolyhedron. 6faces
8vertices
Then,foranypolyhedronthatdoesnotintersectitself,
12edges
CalculatingtheNumberofEdges
Thenumberofedgesofapolyhedronisonehalfthenumberofsidesinthepolygonsit
comprises.Eachsidethatiscountedinthiswayissharedbytwopolygons;simplyaddingall
thesidesofthepolygons,therefore,doublecountsthenumberofedgesonthepolyhedron.
Example:Considerasoccerball.Itispolyhedronmadeupof20
hexagonsand12pentagons.Thenthenumberofedgesis:

ADVANCED
Geometry
AHoleinEulersTheorem
Topologyisabranchofmathematicsthatstudiesthepropertiesofobjectsthatarepreserved
throughmanipulationthatdoesnotincludetearing.Anobjectmaybestretched,twistedand
otherwisedeformed,butnottorn.Inthisbranchofmathematics,adonutisequivalenttoa
coffeecupbecausebothhaveonehole;youcandeformeitherthecuporthedonutandcreate
theother,likeyouareplayingwithclay.
Alloftheusualpolyhedrahavenoholesinthem,soEulersEquationholds.Whathappensif
weallowthepolyhedratohaveholesinthem?Thatis,whatifweconsidertopologicalshapes
differentfromtheoneswenormallyconsider?
EulersCharacteristic
WhenEulersEquationisrewrittenas ,thelefthandsideoftheequationis
calledtheEulerCharacteristic.
TheEulerCharacteristicofashapeis:
GeneralizedEulersTheorem
Let: thenumberoffacesofapolyhedron.
thenumberofverticesofapolyhedron.
thenumberofedgesofapolyhedron.
thenumberofholesinthepolyhedron. is
calledthegenusoftheshape.
Then,foranypolyhedronthatdoesnotintersectitself,
Example:
Thecubewithatunnelinithas
16
32
NotethatthevalueofEulersCharacteristiccanbe 16
negativeiftheshapehasmorethanoneholeinit(i.e.,if so,
2)!


Geometry
PlatonicSolids
APlatonicSolidisaconvexregularpolyhedronwithfacescomposedofcongruentconvex
regularpolygons.Therefiveofthem:
KeyPropertiesofPlatonicSolids
Itisinterestingtolookatthekeypropertiesoftheseregularpolyhedra.
Name Faces Vertices Edges TypeofFace

Tetrahedron 4 4 6 Triangle
Cube 6 8 12 Square
Octahedron 8 6 12 Triangle
Dodecahedron 12 20 30 Pentagon
Icosahedron 20 12 30 Triangle
Noticethefollowingpatternsinthetable:
Allofthenumbersoffacesareeven.Onlythecubehasanumberoffacesthatisnota
multipleof4.
Allofthenumbersofverticesareeven.Onlytheoctahedronhasanumberoffacesthat
isnotamultipleof4.
Thenumberoffacesandverticesseemtoalternate(e.g.,cube68vs.octahedron86).
Allofthenumbersofedgesaremultiplesof6.
Thereareonlythreepossibilitiesforthenumbersofedges6,12and30.
Thefacesareoneof:regulartriangles,squaresorregularpentagons.

Geometry
Prisms
Definitions
APrismisapolyhedronwithtwocongruentpolygonalfaces
thatlieinparallelplanes.
TheBasesaretheparallelpolygonalfaces.
TheLateralFacesarethefacesthatarenotbases.
TheLateralEdgesaretheedgesbetweenthelateralfaces.
TheSlantHeightisthelengthofalateraledge.Notethat
alllateraledgesarethesamelength.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebases.
ARightPrismisoneinwhichtheanglesbetweenthebasesandthe
lateraledgesarerightangles.Notethatinarightprism,theheightand
theslantheightarethesame.
AnObliquePrismisonethatisnotarightprism.
RightHexagonal
TheSurfaceAreaofaprismisthesumoftheareasofallitsfaces. Prism
TheLateralAreaofaprismisthesumoftheareasofitslateralfaces.
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofaRightPrism
SurfaceArea: where,

LateralSA:

Volume:
CavalierisPrinciple
Iftwosolidshavethesameheightandthesamecrosssectionalareaateverylevel,thenthey
havethesamevolume.Thisprincipleallowsustoderiveaformulaforthevolumeofan
obliqueprismfromtheformulaforthevolumeofarightprism.
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofanObliquePrism
SurfaceArea: where,

Volume:

Thelateralsurfaceareaofanobliqueprism isthesumofthe

areasofthefaces,whichmustbecalculatedindividually.

Geometry
Cylinders
Definitions
ACylinderisafigurewithtwocongruentcircularbasesinparallelplanes.
TheAxisofacylinderisthelineconnectingthecentersofthecircularbases.
AcylinderhasonlyoneLateralSurface.Whendeconstructed,thelateralsurfaceofa
cylinderisarectanglewithlengthequaltothecircumferenceofthebase.
TherearenoLateralEdgesinacylinder.
TheSlantHeightisthelengthofthelateralsidebetweenthebases.Note
thatalllateraldistancesarethesamelength.Theslantheighthas
applicabilityonlyifthecylinderisoblique.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebases.
ARightCylinderisoneinwhichtheanglesbetweenthebasesandthelateralsideareright
angles.Notethatinarightcylinder,theheightandtheslantheightarethesame.
AnObliqueCylinderisonethatisnotarightcylinder.
TheSurfaceAreaofacylinderisthesumoftheareasofitsbasesanditslateralsurface.
TheLateralAreaofacylinderistheareasofitslateralsurface.
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofaRightCylinder
SurfaceArea: where,

LateralSA:

Volume:
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofanObliqueCylinder
SurfaceArea: where,
right section*

Volume:

*Arightsectionofanobliquecylinderis
acrosssectionperpendiculartotheaxis
ofthecylinder.


Geometry
SurfaceAreabyDecomposition
Sometimesthestudentisaskedtocalculatethesurfaceareofaprismthatdoesnotquitefit
intooneofthecategoriesforwhichaneasyformulaexists.Inthiscase,theanswermaybeto
decomposetheprismintoitscomponentshapes,andthencalculatetheareasofthe
components.Note:thisprocessalsoworkswithcylindersandpyramids.
DecompositionofaPrism
Tocalculatethesurfaceareaofaprism,decomposeitandlookateachoftheprismsfaces
individually.
Example:Calculatethesurfaceareaofthetriangularprismatright.
Todothis,firstnoticethatweneedthevalueofthehypotenuseofthe
base.UsethePythagoreanTheoremorPythagoreanTriplesto
determinethemissingvalueis10.Then,decomposethefigureintoits
variousfaces:
Thesurfacearea,then,iscalculatedas:
2
1
2 68 10 7 87 67 216
2
DecompositionofaRightCylinder
Thecylinderatrightis
decomposedintotwocircles(the
bases)andarectangle(thelateral
face).
Thesurfacearea,then,iscalculatedas:
2 3 6 5 48 ~ 150.80

Geometry
Pyramids
Pyramids
APyramidisapolyhedroninwhichthebaseisapolygonand
thelateralsidesaretriangleswithacommonvertex.
TheBaseisapolygonofanysizeorshape.
TheLateralFacesarethefacesthatarenotthebase.
TheLateralEdgesaretheedgesbetweenthelateralfaces.
TheApexofthepyramidistheintersectionofthelateral
edges.Itisthepointatthetopofthepyramid.
TheSlantHeightofaregularpyramidisthealtitudeofoneof
thelateralfaces.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebaseandtheapex.
ARegularPyramidisoneinwhichthelateralfacesarecongruenttriangles.Theheightofa
regularpyramidintersectsthebaseatitscenter.
AnObliquePyramidisonethatisnotarightpyramid.Thatis,the
apexisnotaligneddirectlyabovethecenterofthebase.
TheSurfaceAreaofapyramidisthesumoftheareasofallits
faces.
TheLateralAreaofapyramidisthesumoftheareasofitslateral
faces.
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofaRegularPyramid
where,
SurfaceArea:

LateralSA:

Volume:
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofanObliquePyramid
where,
SurfaceArea:

Volume:

Thelateralsurfaceareaofanobliquepyramidisthesumof
theareasofthefaces,whichmustbecalculatedindividually.

Geometry
Cones
Definitions
ACircularConeisa3dimensionalgeometricfigurewithacircularbasewhichtapers
smoothlytoavertex(orapex).Theapexandbaseareindifferentplanes.Note:thereis
alsoanellipticalconethathasanellipseasabase,butthatwillnotbeconsideredhere.
TheBaseisacircle.
TheLateralSurfaceisareaofthefigurebetweenthebaseandtheapex.
TherearenoLateralEdgesinacone.
TheApexoftheconeisthepointatthetopofthecone.
TheSlantHeightofaconeisthelengthalongthelateralsurfacefromtheapextothebase.
TheHeightistheperpendicularlengthbetweenthebaseandtheapex.
ARightConeisoneinwhichtheheightoftheconeintersectsthebaseat
itscenter.
AnObliqueConeisonethatisnotarightcone.Thatis,theapexisnot
aligneddirectlyabovethecenterofthebase.
TheSurfaceAreaofaconeisthesumoftheareaofitslateralsurface
anditsbase.
TheLateralAreaofaconeistheareaofitslateralsurface.
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofaRightCone
SurfaceArea: where,

LateralSA:

Volume:
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofanObliqueCone
SurfaceArea: where,

Volume:
Thereisnoeasyformulaforthelateralsurfaceareaofan
obliquecone.


Geometry
Spheres
Definitions
ASphereisa3dimensionalgeometricfigureinwhichall
pointsareafixeddistancefromapoint.Agoodexampleof
asphereisaball.
Centerthemiddleofthesphere.Allpointsonthesphere
arethesamedistancefromthecenter.
Radiusalinesegmentwithoneendpointatthecenterand
theotherendpointonthesphere.Thetermradiusisalso
usedtorefertothedistancefromthecentertothepoints
onthesphere.
Diameteralinesegmentwithendpointsonthesphere
GreatCircletheintersectionofaplaneandasphere
Hemispherehalfofasphere.Agreatcircleseparatesa
planeintotwohemispheres.
SecantLinealinethatintersectsthesphereinexactly
twopoints.
TangentLinealinethatintersectsthesphereinexactly
onepoint.
Chordalinesegmentwithendpointsonthespherethatdoesnotpassthroughthecenter.
SurfaceAreaandVolumeofaSphere
SurfaceArea:
Volume:
where,

Geometry
SimilarSolids
SimilarSolidshaveequalratiosofcorrespondinglinearmeasurements(e.g.,edges,radii).So,
alloftheirkeydimensionsareproportional.
Edges,SurfaceAreaandVolumeofSimilarFigures
Letk bethescalefactorrelatingtwosimilargeometricsolidsF1andF2suchthat .
Then,forcorrespondingpartsofF1andF2,
and
And
Theseformulasholdtrueforanycorrespondingportionofthe
figures.So,forexample:

k k


Geometry
SummaryofPerimeterandAreaFormulas2DShapes
Shape Figure Perimeter Area

Kite
,
,

Trapezoid ,
, b ,b bases
h height

Parallelogram
,

Rectangle
,

Rhombus
,

Square
,

RegularPolygon

Circle

Ellipse


Geometry
SummaryofSurfaceAreaandVolumeFormulas3DShapes
Shape Figure SurfaceArea Volume

Sphere

Right

Cylinder

Cone

Square
Pyramid

Rectangular
Prism

Cube

General

RightPrism


Geometry Handbook
Index
Page Subject
16 AlternateExteriorAngles
16 AlternateInteriorAngles
23 AngleBisectorLengthinaTriangle
Angles
10 AnglesBasic
11 AnglesTypes
Area
65 AreaCompositeFigures
63 AreaPolygons
62 AreaQuadrilaterals
64 AreaRegionofaCircle
60,61 AreaTriangle
76 AreaFormulasSummaryfor2DShapes
69 Cavalieri'sPrinciple
CentersofTriangles
22 Centroid
22 Circumcenter
22 Incenter
22 Orthocenter
22 Centroid
Circles
64 CirclesArcLengths
58 CirclesDefinitionsofParts
64 CirclesRegionAreas
59 CirclesRelatedAngles
59 CirclesRelatedSegments
22 CirclesandTriangles
22 Circumcenter
12 ConditionalStatements(Original,Converse,Inverse,Contrapositive)
Cones
73 ConesDefinitions
73 ConesSurfaceAreaandVolume
21 CongruentTriangles
12 ContrapositiveofaStatement
12 ConverseofaStatement
16 CorrespondingAngles
55 CosecantFunction

Geometry Handbook
Index
Page Subject
5355 CosineFunction
55 CotangentFunction
68 Cube(Hexahedron)
Cylinders
70 CylindersDefinitions
70 CylindersSurfaceAreaandVolume
DistanceFormula
8 DistanceFormula1Dimensionaland2Dimensional)
9 DistanceFormulainn Dimensions
68 Dodecahedron
20 EquilateralTriangle
66,67 EulersTheorem
23 HeightLengthinaTriangle
60 Heron'sFormulaAreaofaTriangle
68 Icosahedron
22 Incenter
12 InverseofaStatement
20 IsoscelesTriangle
32 Kites
6,7 Line
Logic
12 ContrapositiveofaStatement
12 ConverseofaStatement
12 InverseofaStatement
23 MedianLengthinaTriangle
68 Octahedron
22 Orthocenter
ParallelLines
16,17 ParallelLinesandTransversals
19 ParallelLinesintheCoordinatePlane
Parallelograms
30 ParallelogramsCharacteristics
31 ParallelogramsProofs(SufficientConditions)
Perimeter
64 PerimeterArcLengthofaCircle
63 PerimeterPolygons
62 PerimeterQuadrilaterals

Geometry Handbook
Index
Page Subject
60 PerimeterTriangle
76 PerimeterFormulasSummaryfor2DShapes
19 PerpendicularLinesintheCoordinatePlane
6 Plane
68 PlatonicSolids
6 Points
Polygons
25,26 PolygonsDefinitions
45,46 PolygonsDilation
45,46 PolygonsDilationsofPolygons
27 PolygonsExteriorAngles
27 PolygonsInteriorAngles
25 PolygonsNames
26 PolygonsNumberofDiagonalsinaPolygon
63 PolygonsPerimeterandArea
44 PolygonsScaleFactorofSimilarPolygons
43 PolygonsSimilarity
Polyhedra
66 PolyhedraDefinitions
66,67 PolyhedraEuler'sTheorem
66 PolyhedraNumberofEdges
Prisms
69 PrismsDefinitions
69 PrismsSurfaceAreaandVolume
Proofs
18 ProofsParallelLines
31 ProofsParallelograms
15 ProofsRequirements
15 ProofsTipsforSuccess
Properties
13 PropertiesofAdditionandMultiplication
13 PropertiesofAlgebra
13 PropertiesofEqualityandCongruence
Pyramids
72 PyramidsDefinitions
72 PyramidsSurfaceAreaandVolume
50 PythagoreanTheorem

Geometry Handbook
Index
Page Subject
51 PythagoreanTriples
Quadrilaterals
29 QuadrilateralsCharacteristics
28 QuadrilateralsDefinitions
29 QuadrilateralsFigures
62 QuadrilateralsPerimeterandArea
42 RatiosDealingwithUnits
6,7 Ray
14 ReasoningInductivevs.Deductive
20 RightTriangle
20 ScaleneTriangle
55 SecantFunction
6,7 Segment
Similarity
4346 SimilarPolygons
4749 SimilarTriangles
75 SimilaritySolids
5355 SineFunction
75 SolidsSimilarity
Sphere
74 SpheresDefinitions
74 SpheresSurfaceAreaandVolume
SurfaceArea
73 SurfaceAreaCones
70 SurfaceAreaCylinders
69 SurfaceAreaPrisms
72 SurfaceAreaPyramids
74 SurfaceAreaSpheres
71 SurfaceAreaUsingDecomposition
77 SurfaceAreaFormulasSummaryfor3DShapes
5355 TangentFunction
68 Tetrahedron
Transformation
41 TransformationComposition
33 TransformationDefinitions
33 TransformationIsometric
35 TransformationReflection

Geometry Handbook
Index
Page Subject
36 TransformationRotation
37 TransformationRotationby90aboutaPoint(x0,y0)
40 TransformationTranslation
32 Trapezoids
Triangles
22 CentersofTriangles
21 TriangleCongruence(SAS,SSS,ASA,AAS,CPCTC)
24 TriangleInequalities
47 TriangleSimilarity(SSS,SAS,AA)
20 TrianglesGeneral
60,61 TrianglesPerimeterandArea
48 TrianglesProportionTablesforSimilarTriangles
52 TrianglesSpecial(454590Triangle,306090Triangle)
49 TrianglesThreeSimilarTriangles
TrigonometricFunctions
55 CosecantFunction
5355 CosineFunction
55 CotangentFunction
55 SecantFunction
5355 SineFunction
5355 TangentFunction
53 TrigonometricFunctionsDefinition
55 TrigonometricFunctionsGraphs
53 TrigonometricFunctionsSpecialAngles
54 TrigonometricFunctionsValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
Vectors
56 VectorsDefinitions
56 VectorsDirection
56 VectorsMagnitude
57 VectorsOperations
Volume
73 VolumeCones
70 VolumeCylinders
69 VolumePrisms
72 VolumePyramids
74 VolumeSpheres
77 VolumeFormulasSummaryfor3DShapes

Math Handbook of Formulas, Processes and Tricks: Geometry

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Math Handbook of Formulas, Processes and Tricks: Geometry

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Item Illustration Notation Definition

Plane mor Aflatsurfacethatextendsinfinitelyin

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Ifwedefinetwopointsgenerallyas(x1, y1)and(x2, y2),thena2dimensionaldistanceformula

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Considertwo3dimensionalpoints(x1, y1, z1)and(x2, y2, z2).Considerfirstthesituation

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InverseStatement: If not p, then not q. (~ ~ )

ContrapositiveStatement: If not q, then not p. (~ ~ )

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If , then either can be If , then either can be

Property DefinitionforAddition DefinitionforMultiplication

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Example:Observethatthesumofthenumbers1to4is 4 5/2 andthatthesumofthe

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Also,ifonelineisvertical(i.e., isundefined)andonelineishorizontal(i.e., 0).

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Number Number Namesofpolygons

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Kite Parallelogram Trapezoid

Rectangle Rhombus Isosceles

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Kite Trapezoid IsoscelesTrapezoid

2consecutivepairsof 1pairofparallelsides 1pairofparallelsides

congruentsides (calledbases) Congruentlegs

1pairofcongruent Anglesonthesame 2pairofcongruentbase

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Characteristic Square Rhombus Rectangle Parallelogram

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Reflectionisflippinga Rotationisturninga Translationisslidinga

Transformation Reflection Rotation Translation

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PreImage Mirror Image

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PreImage Clockwise Counterclockwise Image

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Ifyoumultiply,youget: 32 48 1,536 .Thisisclearlywrong!