Class XI

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ALIEM PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
FORMULAE

Basic Mathematics used in Physics

Unit and Dimension

Vectors

Kinematics ,

Newton's Laws of Motion & Friction

Circular Motion

Work, Energy & Power

Centre of Mass and Collision

Rotational motion

Gravitation

Simple Harmonic Motion

Elasticity

Hydrostatics

Surface Tension

Hydrodynamics

Viscosity

Thermal Physics.
'

Wave Theory & Doppler s Effect

(a) Some Fundamental Constants

(b) Conversions.

(c) Notations for units of measurements .

(d) Decimcal prefixes for units of measurements

Dictionary of Physics .
 [TM

ALLEM PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
KOTA (RAJASTMAN . .
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FORMULAE

(T Basic Mathematics used in Physics

Quadratic equation fa _

Roots of ax2 + bx + c=0 are x = -

2a
b c
sum of roots = x: + x2 -

; product of roots = x,x

'
= ~
Pi 1 * Pi

Binomial theorem

n(n-l) n(n - l)(n - 2)

(l+x)" = 1 + nx + x2+ x3 +

% , n(n-l) 2 n(n - l)(n - 2)

(l-x)" = 1 - nx + ---x - --- x3 +

If xl then (1 +x)n ~ 1 + nx & (l-x)"=l-nx

Logarithm
m
log mn = log m + log n log - =log m-log n

log m" = nlogm log m = 2.3031og]0m

e

log2 = 0.3010 log3 = 0.4771

Componendo and dividendo theorem
pa P+q a+b
If - r then -- -r
q b p-q a-b

Arithmetic progression-AP
a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, .a + (n - l)d here d = common difference

Sum of n terms S =
n
- [2a+(n-l)d]

n(n +1)
Note : (i)l + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5..,. + n =

n(n + l)(2n + 1)
(ii) l2 + 22 + 32 + ... + n2 =

Geometrical progression-GP
I 3
a, ar, ar
2
, ar .
here, r = common ratio
"
a(l-r )
Sum of n terms S = Sum of * terms S =
1-r 1-r

l
 ALLEN
CAREER INSTITUTE
PHYSICS
NOT A (RAJAS THANV FORMULAE

cosG~1 tanO=0 sinO=ta

sine law

sin A sinB sinC

a b c

cosine law

b2+c2--2
a a-
c
-
2 .
+ a _
2
- b a
'
+b2 -c;
cosA= -

,
cosB= - cosC =
2bc 2ca
,
2ab

For small 0
sin9 0

Differentiation

" " 1 dy 1
. y = x -> - = nx . y = fnx - - = -
dx dx x

dy dy
. y = sin x -> - = cos x . y = cosx - = -sinx
dx dx

+P
" dy dv du
. y = -> = ae . y = uv - - = u- + v -
dx dx dx dx

. y = f (g(x)) dy =
df(gU') x r'3'"))
dx dg(x) dx

Integration

. Jf x dx = --
"
+ C,n*-1 . J[ -x dx = tnx + C
n +1

. J sin xdx = - cos x + C . | cos xdx = sin x + C

n+,

f e""X+"}dx = -eX+P + C r/ nyi , (ax + p)

. . (ax + p) dx = +C
J rv
J aln + 1)

Maxima & Minima of a function y = f(x)

dy d2y
. For maximum value ~r~ ~ U & -ve
_

dx dx2

dy g d2y
. For minimum value ~ +V
_

Average of a varying quantity

X, x2

J ydx J ydx
If y = f(x) then < y >= y = -7:
x2 Xj
J dx

3
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Formulae for determination of area

2
. Area of a square = (side)
Area of rectangle = length * breadth
1
Area of a triangle = - a$e X height

Area of a trapezoid

1
=

2 X (diStanCS between parallel sides) x (sum of parallel, sides)

Area enclosed by a circle = n r2 (r = radius)

. Surface area of a sphere = 471 r2 (r = radius)

. Area of a parallelogram = base * height

. Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2n rC (r = radius and C = length)

. Area of whole surface of cylinder = 2nx (r + C) [C = length)

. Area of ellipse = n ab (a & b are semi major and semi minor axis respectively)

. Surface area of a cube = 6(side)2

. Total surface area of a cone = 7ir2+7ir where nxC = nr vr2 + h2 = lateral area

Formulae for determination of volume :

Volume of a rectangular slab = length * breadth * height = abt

Volume of a cube = (side)3

Volume of a sphere = - n r: (r = radius)

Volume of a cylinder = n r2C (r = radius and C = length)

Volume of a cone = - n r2h (r = radius and h = height)

 PHYSICS
formulae

Unit and Dimension

Fundamental or base quantities : The quantities which do not depend

upon other quantities for their complete definition are known as
fundamental or base quantities.e.g. : length, mass, time, etc.
Derived quantities : The quantities which can be expressed in terms of the
fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities .e.g.
Speed (=distance/time), volume, acceleration, force, pressure etc

Units of physical quantities

The chosen reference standard of measurement in multiples of which, a physical
quantity is expressed is called the unit of that quantity.
Physical Quantity = Numerical Value x Unit

Systems of Units

MKS CGS FPS MKSQ MKSA

(i) Length (i) Length (i) Length (i) Length (>) Length
(m) (cm) (ft) (m) (m)
(ii) Mass (ii) Mass (g) (ii) Mass (ii) Mass (ii) Mass
(kg) (pound) (kg) (kg)
(iii) Time (s) (iii) Time (s) (iii) Time (s) (iii) Time (s) (iii) Time
(S)
(iv) Charge (iv) Current
(Q) (A)

Fundamental Quantities in S.I. System and their units

SN
. .
Physical Qty. Name of Unit Symbol
1 Mass kilogram kg
2 Length meter m

3 Time second s

4 Temperature kelvin K
5 Luminous intensity candela Cd
6 Electric current ampere A
7 Amount of substance mole mol

6
 ALLSK PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
KOlA (KAJA,M MAN FORMULAE

Supplementary Units
Radian - for measurement of plane angle
>

Steradian - for measurement of solid angle

Dimensional Formula

Relation which express physical quantities in terms of appropriate powers

of fundamental units .

Use of-dimensional analysis

To find dimensions of derived physical quantities .

To check the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation

. To derive relationship between different physical quantities

To convert units of a physical quantity from one system to another

a b
( HT
r\Uj= n u
2 => n
2 = n
fM0 fk] ,
1
where u = MfLtTC
2 l
2 T
< > *2 /

Limitations of this method :

. In Mechanics the formula for a physical quantity depending on more

than three other physical quantities cannot be derived. It can only be
checked.

. This method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication

type. The formulae containing exponential, trigonometrical and
logarithmic functions can,t be derived using this method. Formulae
containing more than one term which are added or subtracted like

s = ut + - at2 also can t be derived.

,

. The relation derived from this method gives no information about the
dimensionless constants.

. If dimensions are given ,

physical quantity may not be unique as many
physical quantities have the same dimensions.
. It gives no information whether a physical quantity is a scalar or a vector

7
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Vectors

Vector Quantities
A physical quantity which requires magnitude and a particular direction when ,

it is expressed is called vector quantity.

,

AB+D=AC RorA+B=R>=JA
Triangle law of Vector addition
Bsin9
R= Va2 + B2 + 2ABcos0

B sin 0
tana=-r---- If A = B then R = 2A cos
A + Bcos0 2

Parallelogram Law of Addition of Two Vectors

If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides

of a parallelogram which are directed away from
their common point then their sum (i.e. resultant
vector) is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram
passing away through that common point.

Z + B2 + 2AB cosG

B sin 0 a Sin a
t3"C'"
A + Bcos0 3"d ta"P = B + A cos 0

Vector subtraction

BcosG /
R=A-B=A+ (~b )1 a

_
BsinQ
R= Va2 + B2 -
2AB cos 0 . t3"t= A - Bcos0

0
If A = B then R = 2Asin-

9
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Addition of More than Two Vcctors (Law of Polygon)

c
R=A+B+C+D

If some vectors are represented by sides of a polygon in same order then ,

their resultant vector is represented by the closing side of polygon in the

Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly 1. It has no dimensions

and no unit. In rectangular coordinate system , i, j and k denotes unit vectors
along the x, y and z axes.

Rectangular component of a 3-D vector

A = A i+Ax y
] + Azk

\ a
Angle made with x-axis cosa = =_
,
t

Angle made with y-axis

Angle made with z-axis

(, m, n are called direction cosines

t1 + m2 + n2 = cos2a + cos2P + cos2y = ,

(K+A;+ )
Here sin2a + sin2 p + sin2y =2

10
 PHYSICS
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FORMULAE
KQTA < rajas t ESSIE

General Vector in x-y plane r - xi + yj - rlcosGi 4-sin

>
/ .

r = r (cos0i + sinOj)

Examples
1. Construct a vector of magnitude 6 units making an angle of 60with x-axis.
'

lr 73,
Sol. ? = r(cos60i + sin60j)h = 6
"

'+ - 3i + 3%/3j
2 T>
2 . Construct an unit vector making an angle of 135 with positive x axis.

= l(cosl35 i + sinl35j) = ("j +

Sol.

Scalar product (Dot Product)

a A B = ABcosG
.

If A = A i + A x j + Azk & B = Bxi + Byj + Bzk then

y

A B = AJBX + AyBy + AZBZ and angle between A & B is given by

.

AB AXBX + A By + AZBZ
.
y
cos0 =
AB Ja , +A
*
+ A* fol + B + B|
a i i = 1 i j.j = 1 > k.k = 1 i.j = 0, i.k = 0 j.k = 0
.

Component of vector b along vector a b= (b. a);

b
U a

n Component of b perpendicular to a bj _
= b - b|i = b -|b. a a

11
 ALLEN
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Cross Product (Vcctor product)

n AxB = ABsinO n where n is a vector to A & B or th '

eir p|a
and its direction given by right hand thumb nile.

j k
a AxB = A
,
A
v A, = i(ABrABy) -j(AB-B A) +k(ABy-BA)
B .

a AxB~-BxA

(A x B) A = (A x B).B = 0
.

a ixi = 0> j x j = 0 , kxk = 0

0 ixj = k , jxk = i,kxi = j,jxi=-k, k x j = -i , i x k = - j

Differentiation

d / a o\
-(A.B) = --B + A.-
dA - v dB
n
d/X dA D t dB
-(A xB) = - xB + Ax -
dt dt dt dt dt dt

When a particle moved from (xp yv z

) to (x2, y2, z2) then
x

its displacement vector

r = r2 - = (x2i + y2j + z2k)-(x1i + yj + z,k)

U .7-
,

= (x2 -

x, )i + (y2 - yj )j + (z2 -

z, )k

Its magnitude : r=* |r| = yj{\2 - x )2 + (y2 -y,)2 -(z2 -z,)2

,

12
 FM

ALLEM PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
K0TA (RAJAS THAN I
FORMULAE

Lami,s theorem
A

sin A sin B sin C * 3

-

sinG

/
Area of triangle Area = 1A|M = |ABsin0
y
. BsinO

ft

BsinB
Area of parallelogram Area = |a x b| = ABsinG

For Parallel vectors A x B =0

For perpendicular vectors a B .

= 0

For caplanar vectors A (Bx C) = 0 .

Examples of dot products :

Work , W = p d = FdcosG where F -force, d - displacement

Power , P - F.v = FvcosO where F -> force, v -> velocity

Electric flux, <j>r /\ = EAcosO where E -> electric field, A -> Area

Magnetic flux <j>H = b A = BAcosO

, .
where B -> magnetic field, A - Area

Potential energy of dipole in uniform field U = - p.E ,

where p -> dipole moment, E -> Electric field

Examples of cross products :

Torque x = r x F where r -> position vector, F force

Angular momentum J = r x p where r -position vector p -linear momentum ,

Linear velocity v = w x r where r -> position vector to -> angular velocity

,

Torque on dipole placed in electric field x = p x E

where p -> dipole moment E -> electric field

,
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13
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(7 Kinematics

Distance and Displacement

Total length of path (ACB) covered by the particle in definite time interval is ,

called distance. Displacement vector or displacement is the minimum distance

(AB) and directed from initial position to final position.
C
*
-

Displacement in terms of position vector

From AOAB Ar = rB - r A

rB = x2i + y2j + z2k and rA = xj + yj + ztk

Ar = (x2 - xji + (y2 - yjj + (z2 - zjk

Displacement Ar
Average
a
velocity = I
---r = v =-
lme interval " At

Distance travelled
Average speed = Time interval

dr d i ~ c\ dx-r dy- dz,- T

Velocity V = -j7
dt = dt-(X,
\ + y3 + )' = 371
dt + 3rJ
dt + -Trk
dt = vxi + v
j + vzk y

total change in velocity _

Av
Average Acceleration total time taken
= a .

3U
=
At

Acceleration

dv d / ? ? +" f\ dvx r dvy - dvz

dT

s("-'+", -
)"ir'+ir,+"dTf a.,+=.)+3-f

15
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J
***

*" V -

In 1-D motion a

Graphical integration in Motion analysis

shaded area = change in

=> Change in velocity = area between

acceleration curve and time axis, from

shaded area = displaccnient

=> Change in position = displacement = area between velocity curve am

time axis from t, to t2.
,

Important point about graphical analysis of motion

(
Velocity is the slope of position time curve. 1V
~
~

'
dv
Slope of velocity-time curve = instantaneous acceleration

v-t curve area gives displacement Ax =

.

a t curve area gives change in velocity .

Iav=H

16
 ALLEN PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
*OTA 414 AJ A $ TM AN1
FORMULAE

Different Cases v -t graph s -t graph

v v=constant

1 . Uniform motion

2 .
Uniformly accelerated
motion with u = 0 at t = 0

s =]/2 at

* t

3 .
Uniformly accelerated
with u 0 at t = 0

/s = ut+1/2 at2

->t - t

4 .
Uniformly accelerated motion
with u 7 0 and s = s0 at t = 0

2
s =s0+ut+V2 at

->t >t

15. Uniformly retarded motion

till velocity becomes zero

s 2
s=ut -1/2 at

6 .
Uniformly retarded then
accelerated in opposite direction

- t
to

17
 PHYSICS
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CAREER INSTITUri
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Motion with constant acceleration : Equations of motion
a In vector form :
v = li -f at

/
U+ V I
.

1 .,2 1 -.2
It = ut + -at = vt - - at
_

At = r2 - Fj = s =
2 2

2
v =u 2+ 2a s
.

sn
=u + |(2n-l)
In scalar form (for one dimensional motion)
v = u + at

' X
u + v 1 2 1 2
s = t = ut + -at = vt-at
v /

v2 = u2+2as

sn = u + -(2n-l)

Differentiation Differentiation
Displacement Velocity Acceleration

Integration Integration

Relative Motion

There is no meaning of motion without reference or observer. If reference is

not mentioned then we take the ground as a reference of motion. Generally
velocity or displacement of the particle w.r.t ground is called actual velocity .

or actual displacement of the body. If we describe the motion of a particle

w r t a object which is also moving w.r.t. ground then velocity of particle
. . .

w r . .
t. g round is its actual velocity (v ) and velocity of particle w.r.t. moving
act

object is its relative velocity (v ) and the velocity of moving object (w.r.t.
rel

ground) is the reference velocity (vref) then vrel = v

acl
-
v
re(

V i = V , -f V ,
actual relative reference

18
 TM

PHYSICS
CAREER INSTITUTE
P*t< f S*ca*i CSESEK2 AJASIHANl
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FORMULAE

Relative velocity of Rain w r t the Moving Man : . . .

A man walking west with velocity v m,

represented by OA . Let the rain

be falling vertically downwards with velocity v r , represented by OB

shown in fig The relative velocity of rain w r t
.
. . .
man vrm = vr -

v
m ,
will

be represented by diagonal OD of rectangle OBDC .

V
m = VV *
+ Vm + 2v r
v
m cos90 = /vf + V Vertically up

If 0 is the angle which v makes

with the vertical direction then

/ \
BD v , v _

tan 0 =-= -!- => 0 = tan

OB v vVry ,

Swimming into the River

A man can swim with velocity v , i.e. it is the velocity of man w.r.t. still

water. If water is also flowing with velocity vR then velocity of man relative to
ground vm = v + vR
. If the swimming is in the direction of flow of water or along the downstream
then

-*v
*vu
-
Vm = V + VRK

If the swimming is in the direction opposite to the flow of water or along

the upstream then

v *-
v = v- V
m
m K

If man is crossing the river as shown in the figure i.e. v and vR not
V = W + V
collinear then use the vector algebra m r (assuming v > vR) t*

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For shortest path :

To reach at B, vsin 0 = vF

sin 0 = -
v

For minimum displacement

V

Note : If v > v then for minimum drifting sinO = v

R

For minimum time

B C
-
* -

*
"

then
v

A
(for minimum time)

PROJECTILE MOTION
u cos 0
Horizontal Motion

u cosO = u
X

a
x = 0

x = u
x
t or x = (u cos0)t

Vertical Motion :

2
inGt g gt
"
V
y
= u y - gt where u y = u sinO
=
y = uV t - -
Z
gt - us

Net acceleration = a = a x
i + a
y
j = -gj

O At any instant
v
x = ucos0 , vy = usin9 - gt

OA
 Velocity of particle at time t :

A A A A A

v = v i + v j = u i + (u - gt)j = ucosOi + (usinO - gt)j

x x

If angle of velocity y from horizontal is a then ,

tana = = = "&i"e-S*=tan0--
V
v
U U COS 0 U COS 0

At highest point v =0 v =ucosO

v
,
x

2uy 2usin0
Time of flight T =

Horizontal range R = (ucos9)T = 2"ZSi"8ES8 =

"
Si"28 =

It is same for 0 and (90 - 0) and maximum for 0 = 45'

a Maximum height l_j _ _ u sin 0 _ u

2g 2g 2g

g* f x
X

Equation of trajectory y = x tan 0 - = x tan0 1 --

2u2 cos2 0 V Ry

Horizontal projection from some height

2h
a Time of flight T =

2h
Horizontal range R = uT = u
 | ALLEN
CAREER INSTITUTE
(; y.s,- .mCXVm
Kswsew.w-" .-
PHYSICS
KOTA iUAJASTHAN FORMuTa-

Projectile motion on inclined plane- up motion

(ucosG)T

T =
2ux 2usin(9-a)
Time of flight
9j gcosa

H
u*
2
1
u sin2(0 a)-

Maximum height _
=

29i 2g cos a

R = OA =
2u2 sin (0 - a)cos0
Range on inclined plane
gcos a

Maximum range R *
=

g(l + sina) at 3"S1 = | + f

Projectile motion on inclined plane - down motion
(put a=-a in above)

2u 2usin(0 + a)
Time of flight : T
* = 2t = ~~~
a gcosa

u
*
u2 sin2 (0 + ot)
Maximum height H =
2d , 2gcosa

0 2u2 cos 0 sin (0 + a)

Range on inclined plane K = OA --2-
g cos a

u
k a
Maximum range R at angle e =
g(l - sina) 4 2

22
 CAREER INSTITUTE !*
PHYSICS
< *"* VV9MN
PntA to Smsecu IK OTA 1KAJASTHAN

5 Newton,s Laws of Motion and Friction

Force
A push or pull that one object exerts on another.
Forces in nature

There are four fundamental forces in nature :

1 .Gravitational force 2 .
Electromagnetic force
3 .
Strong nuclear force 4. Weak force

Types of forces on macroscopic objects

(a) Field Forces or Range Forces :
These are the forces in which contact between two objects is not
necessary.
Ex. Gravitational force between two bodies , (ii) Electrostatic force!
between two charges.

(b) Contact Forces :

Contact forces exist only as long as the objects are touching each
another.

Ex. (i) Normal forces. (ii) Frictional force

(c) Attachment to Another Body :

Tension (T) in a string and spring force (F = kx) comes in this group.;

Newton"s first law of motion (or Galileo's law of Inertia)

Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled by an external force to change that state.

Inertia : Inertia is the property of the body due to which body oppose the
change of itself state. Inertia of a body is measured by mass of the body.

inertia mass

Newton,s second law

_
dp _ d . _ dv _ dm
+ V~
dpmV' ~ m d7 dT linear momentum p = mv)
"
~~ ~~

For constant mass system F = ma

24
 PHYSICS
FORMULAE

Momentum

It is the product of the mass and velocity of a body i.e. momentum p = mv

SI Unit : kg m s 1 Dimensions : [M LT 1]
Impulse

Impulse = product of force with time .

For a finite internal of time from t1 to t

2

2 -

then the impulse = J Fdt

impulse - area under curve
If constant force acts for an interval At then Impulse = FAt
Impulse - Momentum theorem
Impulse of a force is equal to the change of momentum
;F At =

Newton,s third law of motion

Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another particle B B simultaneously ,

exerts a force on A with the same magnitude in the opposite direction.

Spring Force (According to Hooke,s law) :

In equilibrium F = kx
k is spring constant Natural Icnglh

Note : Spring force is

X-

non impulsive in nature

Ex. If the lower spring is cut, find acceleration of the blocks, iimiiiiiiri

immediately after cutting the spring.

mg
Sol. Initial stretches x.
"

K lower
upper lower
m
On cutting the lower spring, by virture of non-impulsive ~~

7
~

nature of spring the stretch in upper spring remains same

2k
immediately after cutting the spring. Thus,
i
Lower block :
( gj" ) J,
T
2mg= 2ma=> a = g
2m
,

2mg

!\ I

m ) t mg = ma => a = 2g
Upper block
-

T
mg

25
SSI ALLEN
CAREER ,NST,TUTE
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Frame of reference
Inertial frames of reference :

A reference frame which is either at rest or in uniform motion along th

straight line. A non-accelerating frame of reference is called an inertia]
frame of reference.

All the fundamental laws of physics have been formulated in respect of

inertial frame of reference.

Non-inertial frame of reference :

. An accelerating frame of reference is called a non-inertial frame of reference .

'

. Newton s laws of motion are not directly applicable in such frames before ,

application we must add pseudo force .

Pseudo force

/
o
A
'

O
I ma
/
/
a

*
/
. / m

,
mg
|u
Q ZIP
smooth surface
For observer O on ground train is moving with acceleration
" "

a for observer O, in side the train there is pseudo force

in opposite direction shown in figure.

The force on a body due to acceleration of nori-inertial frame is callcd

fictitious or apparent or pseudo force and is given by F = -ma0, where
frarrtfi
a0 is acceleration of non-inertial frame with respect to an inertial
and m is mass of the particle or body. The direction of pseudo force must
be opposite to the direction of acceleration of the non-inertial frame.
,
When we draw the free body diagram of a mass, with respect to an inertia
frame of reference we apply only the real forces (forces which are actually
acting on the mass).
But when the free body diagram is drawn from a non-inertia! frame of refcre
a pseudo force (in addition to all real forces) has to be applied to n1J
,

:
hc equation F = ma to be valid in this frame also.
 ALLEN PHYSICS
* ..

" > .
******
CAREER INSTITUTE
(ssxaKSESEBUSQZi) FORMULAE

Motion in a Lift
(a) If the lift moving with constant velocity v upwards or downwards. In
this case there is no accelerated motion hence no pseudo force
experienced by observer inside the lift .

So apparent weight W' = Mg = Actual weight .

(b) If the lift is accelerated upward with constant acceleration a .

Then net forces acting on the man are

(i) weight W = Mg downward (ii) fictitious force FQ=Ma downward .

So apparent weight W' = W + F0 = Mg + Ma = M(g + a)

(c) If the lift is accelerated downward with acceleration a < g .
Then
fictitious force F0 = Ma acts upward while weight of man W = Mg
always acts downward.
So apparent weight W'=W+F0 = Mg - Ma = M(g-a)
Spccial Case :
If a = g then W' = 0 (condition of weightlessness).Thus in a freely falling ,

lift the man will experience weightlessness.

(d) If lift accelerates downward with acceleration a > g . Then as in Case
'

c . Apparent weight W =M(g-a) is negative i.e., the man will be ,

accelerated upward and will stay at the ceiling of the lift.

Pulley system
A single fixed pulley changes the direction of force only and in general ,

assumed to be massless and frictionless.

SOME CASES OF PULLEY

Case - 1

net pulling force (m1 - m2)

Acceleration =
total mass to be pulled (mx + m2)

_
2 x Pr oduct of masses 2m1m2
Tension = -----g =
Sum of two masses (mt + m2

D 4m,m2 g
Reaction at the suspension of pulley K - 1 - ---
(m1 + m2)
Case - II

m2g m,m2 m
and T =
.

Acceleration a =
(m, + m2) (irij + m,

m .

27
fiirt n 5aw fiSSUKKIM2MI

Friction
Friction is the force of two surfaces in contact, or the force of a mediur
acting on a moving object, (i.e. air on aircraft.)
Frictional forces arise due to molecular interactions. In some eases frictj0r
acts as a supporting force and in some cases it acts as opposing force
Cause of Friction
Friction is arises on account of strong atomic or molecular forces of attractior
between the two surfaces at the point of actual contact.
Types of friction
Friction

__
L _

.
r
3t.C fr"C*|"
i
Dynamic friction (Kinetic friction)
|
/k. i

(No relative motion between objects) is relative motion between objects)

Graph between applied force and force of friction

Limiting friction
f = f /

Dynamic friction

spy
cfy
X45
F={
Applied force F

0 < f5 < fisN f = -F

Static friction coefficient Ms = y~j" , 3 applied

F
Sliding friction coefficient Hk = 77
N
fk =-(KN)0 relative

Angle of Friction (X)

"" "
contact
force

fs
tank - -
MN For smooth surface A.
= 0
N N

9Q
 Angle of Repose (0)
If a body is placed on an inclined plane and if its angle of inclination is
gia ually increased then at some angle of inclination 0 the body will just
,

on t e point to slide down. The angle is called angle of repose (0) .

~~

m9 sin0 and N = mg cos0 So = tan0 : p = tanO

Ex. The coefficient of friction between , and surface m

rn,
is Hj and the coefficient of friction between m, and
m
2 "S M2 What should be the minimum value of F
-
m, F
so that there is no relative motion between mt and
m

Sol. . For nij . For m

N,
[n2
i
ti P2N;
N ,

U,N, +
-

*F

,
y

m,g m2g

_
, .
F - jit. (m, + m?)g
. For system acceleration : a =---
j + m2
rri

F-ji mj +m2)g
. For m2 : p2 (m2g) = m2a = m2 m, + m2

=> Fmin = K + m2) (Mi + M2)S

Dependent Motion of Connected Bodies
Method I : Method of constraint equations

Zx = constant => Sxi = 0 => -0

For an moving bodies we have xv x2,...xn

No. of constraint equations = no. of strings
Method II : Method of virtual work
links of constant
The sum of scalar products of forces applied by connecting
length and displacement of corresponding contact points equal to zero.

y F . Si; = 0 => F, v,==>XF a, =

29
Examples
1 .
Find relation between a, and a2
iniiiiiiiiillllllllllllllltlltllllllillllllillliiiiiiiiiii

ummmiiuLniiiiiiiiiiiiininii

x, x,

T
T
a,
3.i c] m K
Sol. Here x} + x
2 + x
2 = constant

Differentiating with time xi+2x2 =0

Again differentiating with time xi + 2x2 =0

But xi = ax and X2 = -a2 therefore al-2a2 = 0 => a3 = 2a

2

or aj = 0 => 2Ta2- Ta = 0 => a =2a

: j 2

2 .
If block A is moving with uniform veloicty vA upwards then find out
velocity of block B.

UUU\\UU\U\UU\\\U\U\\tt\\\\\\\\UUtt\U\U\U\\

Sol. For string (1) : 2xA + d-xp=j =>2xa-Xp =0

For string (2) xp + x -x
p B
=f
2 => 2xp-xb =0 => 4xa-xb

But xa = -4va so xb=-4va

,

Therefore velocity of block B will be 4vA down the incline plan1

or XF , = = <4TK-TvB " = "=4Va
 Definition of Circular Motion
When a particle moves in a plane such that its distance from a fixed (or
moving) point remains constant then its motion is called as circular motion
with respect to that fixed point. That fixed point is called centre and the
distance is called radius of circular path.
Radius Vector : The vector joining the centre of the circle and the center
of the particle performing circular motion is called radius vector. It has con-
stant magnitude and variable direction.

. Small Angular displacement dQ is a vector quantity but large angular ,

displacement 0 is scalar quantity.

Frequency (n): No. of revolutions describes by particle per sec is its frequency..

Its unit is revolutions per second (r.p.s ) or revolutions per minute (r.p.m.)
.

Time Period (T) :

It is time taken by particle to complete one revolution T = - .

A0
Average angular velocity w = - (a scalar quantity)
d0
Instantaneous angular velocity co = (a vector quantity)
2n
For uniform angular velocity co = - =2rrf or 2 Tin
Angular displacement 0 = cot
co ->. Angular frequency n or f = frequency
,

Relation between co and v co = - . JIn vector form velocity v = co x r

n vector
r

Relative Angular Velocity

Relative angular velocity of a particle 'A' w r t . . .
other
moving particle B is the angular velocity of the
position vector of A w.r.t. B. That means it is the
r>te at which position vector of ,A, w r t
.
B rotates
B
. .

at that instant
 C0AB ~
-
(Var)i _ Relative velocity of A w.r.t. B perpendicular to line AB
r
AB seperation between A and B

here (vAB)L vA sinG, + vB sin02

= v
A sin ()| + v
R sin 0, "
AB
=

dv d
- dto dr - _ _ _ _ _ _

Acceleration a = - = Tio)xrj = -- x r + co x - = axr + toxv = a +a,

dt dt 1 C
,

dt dt

dv
Tangential acceleration at = -- =ar [a = component of a along v=(a v)v]
,

v
Centripetal acceleration ac = cov = co r or ac = a - a
t

,-

?
\(y2\* /j..>2
dv
Magnitude of net acceleration a = y]ac + a2 = +
t
V r y v dt/
Maximum and minimum speed of circular motion of car
4

. On unbanked road v max

= Ju Rg V r s o ?,
vmm. = 0

tan 0 + |is
On banked road V max
1 - |i tanG
Rg = tan(G + <J))Rg

/
tan 0 - j_i
V
miri
1 + (i tanG
Rg = tan(G - <J>) Rg
5

where <}> = angle of friction, 0 = banking angle

Circular motion in vertical plane
Suppose a particle of mass m is attached to an inextensible light string of
length R. The particle is moving in a vertical circle of radius R about a fixed
point O. It is imparted a velocity u in horizontal direction at lowest point A.
Let v be its velocity at point B of the circle as shown in figure.
Here, h = R (1 -cos0) ...(i) \
From conservation of mechanical energy

2
m(u2- v2)=mgh => v2 = u -2gh .... (ii) e mocosO

The necessary centripetal force is provided by the resultant of tension

mv

T and component of mg so T-mg cosG - ~

- - (iii)
R
Since speed of the particle decreases with height, hence tension is maxi-
mum at the bottom, where cosG=l (as 0=0 )
33
 9"
/2
mv mv ,
=> T max =-+mg; T = --nig at the top.
J mm R
Here, v' = speed of the particle at the top.

Condition of Looping the Loop (u > V gRj

The particle will complete the circle if the string does not slack even at the
highest point (0 = rc). Thus, tension in the string should be greater than or
equal to zero (T > 0) at 0 = tt. In critical case substituting T=0 and 0 = n in
2
mv
Eq. (iii), we get mg= -=> vmin = JgR (at highest point)

v=
v5R 9-Tf0

Umin= 5gR
;
T=6mg
-*u
A
Substituting 0 = ti in Eq. (i), Therefore, from Eq. (ii)

uL = VL + 2gh = gR + 2g(2R) = 5gR => u = figR mjn

Thus, if u > yj5gR , the particle will complete the circle.

At u= j5qR , velocity at highest point is v = /gR and tension in the string is

and v = 5gR in Eq. (iii), we get T =6mg or in the

zero.Substituting 0=0
critical condition tension in the string at lowest position is 6mg. This is
shown in figure. If u< >/5gR , following two cases are possible.

Condition of Leaving the Circle (\/2gR < u < V5gR j

If u < j5qR , the tension in the string will become zero before reaching the
highest point. From Eq. (iii), tension in the string becomes zero (T=0)

,
2 2gh - u2
-

v
where, cos0 = - - = -5--
Rg Rg
Substituting, this value of cos9 in Eq. (i),
2gh - u2 h u2 + Rg
=1 -- =>h
3g =h, (say)..(iv)
.
=
we get
---

or we can say that at height h. tension in the string becomes zero. Further,
 if u < yJbgR . velocity of the particle becomes zero
u
when 0 = u2 - 2gh h = - =h (say)...(v)
2g
i.
e., at height h2 velocity of particle becomes zero.
Now , the particle will leave the circle if tension

in the string becomes zero but velocity is not h > R

zero or

T = 0 but v; 0. This is possible only when ht < h

2

u 2 + Rg
< -- => 2u2 + 2Rg < 3u2 =>u2 > 2Rg =>u > J2Rg
3g 2g

Therefore, if yj2gR <u < 5gR the particle leaves the circle.,

From Eq. (iv) we can see that h > R if u2

,
> 2gR. Thus, the particle, will
leave the circle when h > R or 90 < 0 < 180. This situation is shown in

the figure 2gR < u < /5gR or 90< 0 <180

Note .-That after leaving the circle the particle will follow a parabolic path.
,

Condition of Oscillation (O < u < j2gR j

The particle will oscillate if velocity of the particle becomes zero
but tension in the string is not zero or v = 0, but T * 0 .
This is possible when

u 2 u 2 + Rg
h <h
2 i=> 2q< 3g

3u2 < 2u2 + 2Rg 1 -U T

[h< R
u2 < 2Rg => u < 2Rg

Moreover , if ht = h2, u= J2Rg and tension and velocity both becomes zero
simultaneously .
Further ,
from Eq. (iv), we can see that h < R if u < 2Rg .

Thus ,
for 0 < u < yj2gR , particle oscillates in lower half of the circle
(0 < 0 < 90)
This situation is shown in the figure 0 < u < 2gR or O<0 < 90.
 CP Work, Energy and Power

Work done W = JdW = jF.dr = |Fdrcos0

For constant force W = F d = FdcosO .

For Unidirectional force

W =JdW = |Fdx = Area between F-x curve and x-axis .

Calculation of work done from force-displacement graph

r1 dr r2

total work done , W= dW = = Area of PjP2NM

Nature of work done
Although work done is a scalar quantity yet its value may be positive, negative
,

or even zero

Negative work Zero work Positive work

1
(0 >90")

(H < 901

I mg
S*
f

Work done by
friction force Motion of particle ! mg
(8 = ISOe) on circular path
(e = 90T Motion under gravity
(e 0")
A S
N
f
B
9 -* F=2 5 N
t mg
.

f =10N
f=friction force
Work done by gravity Work done by friction
( = 1801
mg 100 N force on block A

As f - F. hence S = 0 (e = 0)

If F is a conservative force then V x F = 0

Conservative Forces
. Work done does not depend upon path.
. Work done in a round trip is zero.
forces
Central forces, spring forces etc. are conservative
. When only a conservative force acts within a system, the kinetic energy
and potential energy can change. '
However, their sum, the mechanical
energy of the system, doesn t change.
. Work done is completely recoverable.
Non-conservative Forces
. Work done depends upon path.
. Work done in a round trip is not zero.
. Force are velocity-dependent & retarding in nature e.g. friction, viscous
force etc.
. Work done against a non-conservative force may be dissipated as heat energy.
. Work done is not completely recoverable.
Kinetic energy
. The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic

energy. K
.. - - mv2 = - m(v.v)
2
Potential
>ntial energy
The energy which a body has by virtue of its position or configuration in a
conservative force field .

Potential energy is a relative quantity Reference is essential for PE

.

Potential energy is defined only for conservative force field .

Relationship between conservative force field and potential energy :

P V7I 1 m\ n ~ 9U -
F = -VU = -grad(U) = - -- 1 - -- j-k
ox dy dz
If force varies only with one dimension (along x-axis) then
dU
F =-

dx > U = - | Fdx
Potential energy may be positive or negative

. Repulsion forces
;+ve

U-ve

Attraction forces

(i) Potential energy is positive if force field is repulsive in nature

,

(ii) Potential energy is n. jative if force field is attractive in nature

,

If r ! (separation between body and force centre) U f force fiP|H

,

is attractive or vice-versa .

Ifr i , U v, force field is repulsive in nature .

Potential energy curve and equilibrium

position of particle ->

It is a curve which shows change in potential energy with postion of a particle.
Stable Equilibrium :
When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and it tends to
come back towards equilibrium then it is said to be in stable equilibrium
dU
At point C : slope is negative so F is positive

dU
At point D : slope is positive so F is negative

At point A : it is the point of stable equilibrium.

*
. t A ,, IT dU n j d2U
At point
1 A : U = U r,". , - = 0 and -5- = positive
dx dx2

Unstable equilibrium :
When a particle is slightly displaced from equilbrium and it tends to move
away from equilibrium position then it is said to be in unstable equilbirum
dU
At point E : slope is positive so F is negative

At point G : slope - is negative so F is postive

dx
At point B : it is the point of unstable equilibrium.
dU , d2U
At point
" B : U=U , - = 0 and r = negative
m3< dx dx"

Neutral equilibrium :
When a particle is slightly displaced from equilibrium position and no force
acts on it then equilbirum is said to be neutral equilibrium point H is at
dU . d2U .
neutral equilibrium => U = constant ; =0, =U
 Work energy theorem W = AKE
Change in kinetic energy = work done by all force
Law of conservation of Mechanical energy
Total mechanical (kinetic + potential) energy of a system remains constam
if only conservative forces are acting on the system of particles or the wort
done by all other forces is zero. From work energy theorem W = AKE
For internal conservative forces Wi Ilt
= -AU

So W = Wext + Winl = 0 + W nl= - AU .

=> -AU = AKE => (KE + U)) =0 KE + U = (constant)

dU
For conservative force F(x) =-
dx

change in potential energy AU = -F(x)Ax

Spring force F=-kx ,

Elastic potential energy stored in spring U(x) = -Vx2
Mass and energy are equivalent and are related by E = mc2
Power
. Power is a scalar quantity with dimension MJL2! 3

. SI unit of power is J/s or watt

. 1 horsepower = 746 watt = 550 ft lb/sec. -

Average power P = W/t av

dW F.dr
Instantaneous power P = _

= Fv .

dt dt

_' i

fig(a)
Hg(b) fig(c)

1
dt time -=
,
time . time
W-JPdt

instantaneous power average power

(a) (b)
p
-f-tone W
. W,
-

AW
(0 P=P-= 1TT =
-

dv dm
For a system of varyin g mass F= (mV) =m - +v dt dt
dm dm
If v = constant then F = v- +hpn P- p r,
v-v
- v
2

dt r-|
-

In rotatory motion : P = t - =
dt
 (T Centre of Mass and Co,,,s,on

Centre of mass : For a system of particles centre of mass is that point a;

which its total mass is supposed to be concentrated.
Centre of mass of system of discrete particles
y

m,(x y z,)
f m,(x2, y2, z2)
0

_
/ y3. z3)
V 7 V-*
y, 2,)
.
7,
x
(0,0,0)

Total mass of the body : M = m, + m2 + . + mn

T-. - m r + m,r, + m,r, +... 1
Then R - _U-Li-3j-= -m r
. .
_

,
m
, + m2 + m3 + ... M
co-ordinates of centre of mass :

1 1 1
an = TtE.*. , ym = 771m,yi and zcm = - Im,z
M * m "" """" "" M
Centre of mass of continuous distribution of particles

Rpw = - f rdm
cm MJ

X
-
= />dm '
dm

and z cm

The centre of mass after removal of a part of a body

Original mass (M) - mass of the removed part (m)
= {original mass (M)} + { - mass of the removed part (m)j

The formula changes to : xCT =

M*~,
M - m
. VcM =

M -m
. 2 CM
Mz-mz
M -m
MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS
For a system of particles velocity of centre of mass ,

V =
dRCM _
nijV, + m2v,, + ...
cm
dt in
, + m2 +....
d lr. m
, a,+m2a,+...
Similarly acceleration CM
dt m, + mz + ....

Law of conservation of linear momentum

Linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of mass of
the system with velocity of its centre of mass .

From Newton,s second law Fcxt

d(W0cM) If Fext = 0 then Mv = constant
_

dt

If no external force acts on a system the velocity of its centre of mass remains
constant, i.e., velocity of centre of mass is unaffected by internal forces .

Impulse - Momentum theorem

Impulse of a force is equal to the change of momentum
force time graph area gives change in momentum (AP)
Collision of bodies
The event or the process, in which two bodies either coming in contact
with each other or due to mutual interaction at distance apart, affect each
others motion (velocity, momentum, energy or direction of motion) is defined
as a collision.
In collision
. The particles come closer before collision and after collision they either
stick together or move away from each other.
. The particles need not come in contact with each other for a collision.
. The law of conservation of linear momentum is necessarily conserved in a
collision, whereas the law of conservation of mechanical energy is not.
TYPE OF COLLISIONS

j
On the basis of direction On the basis of kinetic energy

{ 1 1 I

One-dimensional collision Two dimensional collision

or
Elastic In-elastic- Perfectly inelastic
or collision
collision collsion
Head on collision Oblique collision

A collision is A collision is The collision in which

The collision, in The collision, in which ,

said to be said to be
which the particles move the particles move in the particles gets slicked together
elastic, it the inelastic, if the atter the collision is called
along the saiiu> straight same pbr.e at different total Kinetic
,

line More and after the
collision, is defined as one
total kinetic
angles before and after perfectly inelastic collision.
collision, is defined energy before energy docs not
and after collision
In this type of inelastic collision .

remains constant
dimensional collision as oblique collision. loss of energy is maximum
remains the same .
 Coefficient of restitution

velocity of separation along line of impact _ _

Yl
e = -
velocity of approach along line of impact u, u.
-

Value of e is 1 for elastic collision, 0 for perfectly inelastic collision

0 < e < 1 for inelastic collision.
Head on collision

V,

jL
A .+- ft
B ?'. .
,
'

A
'

B
vjr mP
v. ?
,.
<

m, m >
m, m,

Before collision Collision After collision

Head on inelastic collision of two particles

Let the coefficient of restitution for collision is e

(i) Momentum is conserved + m2u2 = m + m2v2 . (i) -

(ii) Kinetic energy is not conserved.

V2~V1
(iii) According to Newton's law c
-

U2-Ul

By solving eq. (i) and (ii)

N
m, + em2 (1 + e) m ,
m2 + em, (1 + e
V = +
1 " i u2 v2 = u2 + u,
m, + m" 1
2 / v mi +m2 j mi + m2 j
m ,
+ m2 j

Elastic Collision (e=l)

. If Khe two bodies are of equal masses : m
x = m
2 = m, v, = u2 and v2 = u,
Thus , if two bodies of equal masses undergo elastic collision in one dimension
then after the collision the bodies will exchange their velocities
,
.

. If the mass of a body is negligible as compared to other .

If m m and u2 = 0 then v
] 2 :
= u
t , v
2 = 2u:
When a heavy body A collides against a light body B at rest, the body *
should keep on moving with same velocity and the body B will move vvid1
velocity double that of A .

If m m .
and u = 0 then v = 0, v, = - u
, ,
*
*- , 1 1

When light body A collides against a heavy body B at rest the body A sho ,

start moving with same velocity just in opposite direction while the body $
should practically remains at rest .
 Loss in kinetic energy in inelastic collision
m,m2
AK = (l-e2) (u, -uz)Z
2(m, + m.,)
Oblique Collision

Before
collision

Conserving the momentum of system in directions along normal (x axis in our

case) and tangential (y axis in our case) m1u1cosa1 + m u cosa
2 2 2 = m cosp j

+ rn v
2 2 cosp2 and m2u2sina2
m -

sinc = m2v2sinp2 nrijVjSinPj-

Since no force is acting on mx and m2 along the tangent (i.e. y-axis) the
individual momentum of m and m2 remains conserved.
;

m U Sincij = nri V SinPj & m u sina = m v sinP

j j j j 2 2 2 2 2 2

By using Newton's experimental law along the line of impact

v2cosp2 -v osp,
U j cosocj -

u2 cosa2

Rocket propulsion
dm mo
Thrust force on the rocket = Vr => v= u-gt + v fn
~ ~

dt ( m

At t=0 At t=t
v=u m=m

m=m, v=v

exhaust velocity =v.

 Py , 'v .<..- f%

(9-
*

:" .' '

"

; '
-

.
.
*>: ,

-:

Rotational Motion

A 1 . . -
d9
Angular velocity od =
dt

dto d20
Angular acceleration a=
dt dt2

Angular momentum L = r x p = 1(6

- - e dL
Torque x= rxF=-
dt

1 l2
Rotational Kinetic energy K = -loo = -

Rotational Power P = xxb

For constant angular acceleration

1 OC
to = to
0 +at, 0=aot + -at2, o)2 = co02 +2a0, O n
-co +
0
- (2n -

1)

Moment of Inertia
A tensor but for fixed axis it is a scalar
2
For discrete distribution of mass I=m1r12 + m
2 2
r 2 + .
= Xr" 1i
>

For continuous distribution of mass I = J dl = J dmr 2

Radius of gyration k= h
Theorems regarding moment of inertia
2
Theorem of parallel axes Iaxis =-- Icm + md
where d is the perpendicular distance between parallel axes.
Theorem of perpendicular axes I = Ix + \ y

Rod

Mf2 \A o1
I = -r vU51
vjj 12 M
M
 Rectangular Lamina

Nl/'7
vU 12 45-M( ]
A .

r , _
.

.
V 12
1
'
V --

< -
-/J--
/ .

Ring Disc

vjj I = MR.

; (Geometrical axis)
i (Geometrical axis)

Circular Hollow Disk

T1f1+fi
2 t

45T : I = MR'

vjj >12 2)

Hollow cylinder

I
R =

MR"
v45 i
2
k - _

\\ . .
j
Solid cylinder
I
Solid & Hollow sphere

S,ir .1.'.Hollow-

Rolling motion

Total kinetic energy = 4mv m + 2 lco2 '

/TTTTTTTTTT TTTaTTTTTTTTZ
n Total angular momentum = MvcmR + Ico

Pure rolling (or rolling without slipping) on stationary surface

n Condition :v cm
= Rco
In accelerated motion a cm
= Ra
If vcin > Rco then rolling with forward slipping ,

If vrm < Rco then rolling with backward slipping

Total kinetic energy in pure rolling

T 1 vn lw ? f
k21
Mv2 + - (Mk2)
.

K total = - Mv 1 +
2 2 U 2
; 2 V RJ
Pure rolling motion on an inclined plane

gsinG
Acceleration a = + / p2
tan0
Minimum frictional coefficient pmin + z

.
dco d(lco) dL dJ
Torque x
_
ja _ J- =--or
dt dt dt dt

Change in angular momentum = xAt

Work done by a torque W = j x d9

 tfcT
Newton,s law of gravitation m, -r-rn2

Force of attraction between two point masses F=

r

. It is a conservative force field => mechanical energy is conserved.

. It is a central force field angular momentum is conserved.

Gravitational field due to spherical shell

Outside the shell E = -o-

GM where r > R
,
9 x

GM
On the surface E = -=75- where r = R
9 R2 ' ,

Inside the shell E =0 where r < R

,
g '

Gravitational field due to solid sphere

GM
Outside the sphere Eg = , where r > R
GM
On the surface E = ,
where r = R

R;
GMr
a Inside the sphere Eg = , where r< R

GM
Acceleration due to gravity g= -j r
GM ( 2h
At height h gh = R+hj 2 If h R ; gh g , R
'
GM(R - d) 1 ? -

o At depth d gd=- 3-= 9 R, S

Effect of rotation on g g = g-(o2Rcos2X where X is angle of latitude

"

Gravitational potential
w GW
Due to a point mass at a distance V=- --
Gravitational potential due to spherical shell
GM
o Outside the shell V=- - , r > R
r

GM
Inside/on the surface the shell V= - , r< R
R
Potential due to solid sphere
GM
V = , r > R
Outside the sphere r

GM
On the surface V = , r = R
R

V =
GM(3R2-r2)
Inside the sphere 2R3
GM
Potential on the axis of a V =
VrW
thin ing at a distance x
r

(2GM
Escape velocity from a planet of v =
e
R
mass M and radius R

Orbital velocity of satellite V =

IGM GM
o
(R + h)

Ve
For nearby satellite V
o
=
_

"

V2
2nr 2nr2/Z
Time period of satellite T =
~

v Vgm
Energies of a satellite
GMm
Potential energy U =

Kinetic energy .. 1 2 GMm

K = -mv =-
2 2r

o Mechanical energy GMm

E = U + K = "

2T
a Binding energy GMm
BE= -E = ~

2r
Kepler"s laws
0 I41 - Law of orbitals
Path of a planet is elliptical with the sun at a focus
dA
II"- - Law of areas Area! velocity - L
dt
,
con5tant .
2m

/ 3
III,t - Law of periods T2 cc a3 or T2 r r
oc rnax *min |
V 2 J
For circular orbits T2 oc R5
 (if Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic Motion
Any motion which repeats itself after regular interval of time (i.e. time period)
is called periodic motion or harmonic motion.
Ex. (i) Motion of planets around the sun.
(ii) Motion of the pendulum of wall clock.
Oscillatory Motion
The motion of body is said to be oscillatory or vibratory motion if it moves
back and forth (to and fro) about a fixed point after regular interval of time.
The fixed point about which the body oscillates is called mean position or
equilibrium position.
'

Ex.: (i) Vibration of the wire of Sitar'.

(ii) Oscillation of the mass suspended from spring.
Note : Every oscillatory motion is periodic but every periodic motion is not
oscillatory.
Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.)
Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form of vibratory or oscillatory motion.
Some Basic Terms in SHM
. Mean Position

The point at which the restoring force on the particle is zero and potential
energy is minimum is known as its mean position.
,

. Restoring Force
The force acting on the particle which tends to bring the particle towards
its mean position, is known as restoring force .

Restoring force always acts in a direction opposite to that of displacement.

Displacement is measured from the mean position .

. Amplitude
The maximum (positive or negative) value of displacement of particle from
mean position is define as amplitude .

. Time period (T)

The minimum time after which the particle keeps on repeating its motion
is known as time period.
The smallest time taken to complete one oscillation or vibration is also
define as time period.

It is given by T - - - - where to is angular frequency and n is frequency

. One oscillation or One vibration
When a particle goes on one side from mean position and returns hack and
then it goes to other side and again returns back to mean position then ,

this process is known as one oscillation .

one one

. Frequency (n or f)
The number of oscillations per second is define as frequency .

1 CO
It is given by n = - = -
I K

. Phase
Phase of a vibrating particle at any instant is the state of the vibrating
particle regarding its displacement and direction of vibration at that particular
instant.

In the equation x = A sin (cot + 0) (cot + 0 ) is the phase of the particle.

,

The phase angle at time t = 0 is known as initial phase or epoch.

The difference of total phase angles of two particles executing SHM with
respect to the mean position is known as phase difference.
Two vibrating particles are said to be in same phase if the phase difference
between them is an even multiple of n, i.e. A<j> = 2nn where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,....
Two vibrating particle are said to be in opposite phase if the phase difference
between them is an odd multiple of n i.e., A(J> = (2n + 1)tt where n = 0, 1,
2 3.
,

. Angular frequency (co) :The rate of change of phase angle of a particle

with respect to time is define as its angular frequency, w =

For linear SHM (F oc - x) :

F = m dt2r= -kx = -mco2x where co=

For angular SHM (t = -0 ) :

cl 0
x = I -jp- = la = - k0 = - mco20 where co =
Differential equation of 5HM
d20
d2x 2
0 Angular SHM: +26 -
0
Linear SHM:~jpr +co x ~

Displacement x = A sin (cot + <j>)

Angular displacement 0 =0O sin(cot+ <j>)
dx
Velocity V = " ~ = Aco C$(rt + <}>) = wx/A
' ;
- x

de
Angular velocity = 0O co 4 ({))

d2x
Acceleration a= -rrr = - AZ sin(a)t + <j)j = -co x
at

d20
Angular acceleration jpr= ~ 0ooo2sin(cot+<j))=-co20

Kinetic energy K = - mv2 = - mco2 A2cos2 (cot + <j))

W Cm*

Potential energy U = - kx2 = mco2A2sinZ (cot + <|>)

Total energy E = K + U = - mco2A2 = constant

1
- kA TE kA
TE

displacement time

cot

Note : (i) Total energy of a particle in S H M is same at all instant and at a

. . .

displacement (ii) Total energy depends upon mass amplitude an<

,

frequency of vibration of the particle executing S H M . .

.
 Average energy in S .
HM
. .

(i) The time average of P.E. and K E over one cycle is

. .

. <K>t = - kA2 .<PE>( = --kA2 + u

0 . < TE>
,
=
-

|kA2 + U0
(ii) The position average of P.E. and K.E. between x = -A to x=A

. <K> = -kA2 < pe> = U0+y kA2 . <TE> = kAZ + U0

o
.

* 6 2

The frequency of oscillation of potential energy and kinetic energy is twice as

that of displacement or velocity or acceleration of a particle executing S.H.M.

mmm
t
Spring block system T=
2,.If , m
777777777777777777777777777
T = 2k

da

(nTTI- (KkWOOtfM TI T=2tt where p= reduced mass = m

V k 1 + m2

Limmw

m,
lm + -7T
8 T = 271.1 3
When spring mass is not negligible
03

Series combination of springs

1
m _

T - 271 Jr
V Keff
where k CI! k2 k3

Parallel combination of springs

T = 27r Jl- where keff = k2 + k2 + k3

KWeff
L .

 rowtrcRrtRr\__ -Jtffltftn-nnnnmu
K t2
_

Spring cut into two parts : k c k> i

m
'
n (m + n) k (m + n)
C But k =kj = k 2 k M k
Ci = 2 ~ j 2 j
=
,

m 4- n
,

m+n) m n

Time period of Time period of compound

simple pendulum (Physical) pendulum
U1UM1LU

k
- + e,
T=2tt = 2n t
T=2n
mg \
U11L

Time period of Conical pendulum

T = 2n
l/?cos0 0 h
= c
. Ti .
-

g vs

Time period of Torsional pendulum T =2n

where k = torsional constant of the wire
I=moment of inertia of the body about the vertical axis

Ba pendulum Centre

(distance from orve end) I ,

IP o o o o o o o o o Q]

At four points P Q, R and S, the time period is the same T

,
.

The time period is minimum when I = K

The minimum period is T> = 2k ~

v g

/R
SHM of a particle in a tunnel inside the earth T= 2n J- .

Vg
 Internal restoring forcc _
Stress = rea 0f cross _ section A
There are three types of stress
Longitudinal Stress

...
J ..

tensile stress .ii _

(a) Tensile Stress: tensile stress

(b) Compressive Stress :

Compressive
Stress

(c) Volume Stress

(d) Tangential Stress or Shear Stress

.
Change in size of the body
Original size of the body

i .. .. , . change in length of the body AL

Longitudinal strain = ---71-1, , , , ,-- = -
initial length of the body L

., ,
Volume strain--,
. . change in volume of the body
---
AV rv= --
i .

-
- =_

original volume of the body V

Shear strain

C
tan <}> = -
or

C displacement of upper face

L distance between two faces

Relation between angle of twist (0) & angle of shear (<}>)

Relation Between angle of twist and Angle of shear
AA, = rO -

and

Arc AA, = so r0 = <j> y e ft

(
where 0 = angle of twist,
= angle of shear CL ,
0

Stress - Strain Graph Breaking

strength
Elastic
Limit

Strain

Hooke,s Law within elastic limit [Stress _ _

straj3
Longitudinal stress _
Fl
Young,s modulus of elasticity Y - j origjtudinal strain
_
A AC

.1 .U u/irp r is radius and C is the increase in length of the

by sending a weight Mg a. its one end then Young s modulus of
'

/ O \ % jT T

(Mg/nx2) _ MgL
elasticity of the material of wire Y~ (/ L) Ttr 2C

MgC pg
Increment in length due to own weight AI- 2AY 2Y

Volume stress _ F/A

ticity K =
Bulk modulus of elas Volume strain -
AV -
AV
V V
 Bulk modulus of an ideal gas is process dependence.
. For isothermal process PV = constant => PdV + VdP = 0
-dP
=> P= So bulk modulus = P
dV/V

For adiabatic process PVY = constant :=>yPV? ]dV + VYdP -0

-dP
=* yPdV + VdP = 0 =* 7P = So bulk modulus = yP
dV/V
. For any polytropic process PV "
= constant

-dP
n"1
=> nPV dV + V"dP = 0 => PdV + VdP = 0 => nP =
dV/V
So bulk modulus = nP
i i

Compressibility = C = Bulk modulus K

shearing stress ( tangential)/A

Modulus of rigidity n - shearing strain
~
-

lateral strain
Poisson,s ratio (a)=i :~T i 7-r~
Longitudinal strain
Work done in stretching wire
1 F AC
W = - x stress x strain x volume W
2
*
A
*
T
XAX,
| Fx

Rod is rigidly fixed between walls

a
. Thermal Strain = cxAQ
. Thermal stress = YaAO
. Thermal tension = YaAAO
Effect of Temperature on elasticity
When temperature is increased then due to weakness of inter molecular force
the elastic properties in general decreases i e elastic constant decreases.
. .

Plasticity increases with temperature For example at ordinary room

.
,

temperature carbon is elastic but at high temperature, carbon becomes plastic.

,

Lead is not much elastic at room temperature but when cooled in liquid nitrogen
exhibit highly elastic behaviour.
For a special kind of steel elastic constants do not vary appreciably temperature-
,

This steel is called 'INVAR steel,.

Effect of Impurity on elasticity
Y is slightly increase by impurity The inter molecular attraction force inside
.

wire effectively increase by impurity due to this external force can be easily
opposed.
 /j A-.-v
("j 0 Hydrostatics

mass
Density
volume

. . weight
Specific weight =-; -

= pg
volume

density of given liquid

Relative density -
density of pure water at 4C
Density of a Mixture of substance in the proportion of mass

M, +M2 + M3 ....

the density of the mixture is P - -

-

i + -2- + -1 +
Pi P2 P3

Density of a mixture of substance in the proportion of volume

Pl l + P2 2 + P3V3
the density of the mixture is P = -77---77
_

+ V2 + V + ....

normal force
Pressure =
area

Variation of pressure with depth

Pressure is same at two points in the same horizontal level .
P = P (P0-Pj)
2
= hpg which is the difference of pressure between two points separated b
a depth h.
Pressure in case of accelerating fluid
(i) Liquid placed in elevator :
When elevator .accelerates upward with
acceleration aQ then pressure in the fluid,
at depth
' '
h may be given by, P = hp[g + a0]
(ii) Free surface of liquid in case of horizontal acceleration :

tan0 =
mg g

If P3 and P2 are pressures at

point 1 & 2 then
P _P, = pg (hr h2) = pgr tan 0 = pf.a0
{Hi) Free surface of liquid in case of rotating cylinder

vS toV
29

Pascal,s Law

. The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all the points if gravity is ignored.
. A liquid exerts equal pressures in all directions.

. It the pressure in an enclosed fluid is changed at a particular point, the

change is transmitted to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the
container without being diminished in magnitude .

Types oil Pressure : Pressure is of three types

(i) Atmospheric pressure (P0) (ii) Gauge pressure (P gauqe

)

(iii) Absolute pressure (Pab ) s

Atmospheric pressure : Force exerted by

air column on unit cross-section area of sea up to top of
atmosphere
level called atmospheric pressure (P )
air
area=lnY
column
sea
p = - = 101.3 kN/m*
A level
v

P = 1.013 xlO& N/m2

o

Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Which was discovered by Torricelli.

Atmospheric pressure varies from place to place and at a particular place

from time to time.

Gauge Pressure :

Excess Pressure ( P- Patm) measured with

the help of pressure measuring instalment
called Gauge pressure.

P gauge = hog or p OC h
gauge

Gauge pressure is always measured witl i nelp

"
"
of manometer
 Absolute Pressure :

Sum of atmospheric and Gauge pressure

is called absolute pressure.
p=p +p => P .
= P + hpg
abs atm gau<jo abs o

The pressure which we measure in our automobile tyres is gauge pressure.

Buoyant force = Weight of displaced fluid = Vpg
Apparent weight = Weight - Upthrust
Rotatory - Equilibrium in Floatation :
for rotational equilibrium of floating body the meta-centre must always be
higher than the centre of gravity of the body.

Density of body
. Relative density of body =
Density of water
Floatation

(i) Weight of the body W = Mg = Vpg (directed vertically downwards through

CG. .
of the body).
(ii) Buoyant force or Upthrust Th = Vcrg (directed vertically upwards through
CB. . )
.

Case I Density of the body (p) is greater than that of liquid (a)
In this case if p > a then W > Th

So the body will sink to the bottom of the liquid .

W = W - Th = Vpg - Vag = Vpg (1 - a/p) = W (1 - a/p).

APP

Case II Density of the body is equal to the density of liquid (p = a)

In this case if p = c then W = Th
So the body will float fully submerged in the liquid. It will be in
neutral equilibrium.
W
APP = W-Th = 0
Case III Density of the body is lesser than that of liquid (p < a)
In this case if p < <7 then W < Th

So the body will float partially submerged in the liquid In this case th*,
.

body will move up and the volume of liquid displaced by the body (V,) i
will be less than the volume of body (V) So as to make Th equal to W
.

W .
= W - Th = 0
App
 Surface tension is basically a property of liquid The liquid surface behaves
.

like a stretched elastic membrane which has a natural tendency to contract

and tends to have a minimum possible area. This property of liquid is called
surface tension.
Intermolecular forces

(a) Cohesive force

The force acting between the molecules of one type of molecules of same
substance is called cohesive force.

(b) Adhesive force

The force acting between different types of molecules or molecules of different
substance is cailed adhesive force.
Intermolecular forces are different from the gravitational forces not obey the
inverse-square law
The distance upto which these forces effective, is called molecular range .

This distance is nearly 10~9 m Within this limit this increases very rapidly as
.

the distance decreases.

Molecular range depends on the nature of the substance

Properties of surface tension

. Surface tension is a scalar quantity .

. It acts tangential to liquid surface .

. Surface tension is always produced due to cohesive force .

. More is the cohesive force more is the surface tension.

,

. When surface area of liquid is increased molecules from the interior of the
,

liquid rise to the surface. For this, work is done against the downward cohesive
force.

Dependency of Surface Tension

. On Cohesive Force
Those factors which increase the cohesive force between molecules increase
the surface tension and those which decrease the cohesive force between
molecules decrease the surface tension.
 On Impurities
If the impurity is completely soluble then on mixing it in the liquid, its surface
tension increases, e.g., on dissolving ionic salts in small quantities in a liquid ,

its surface tension increases. If the impurity is partially soluble in a liquid then
its surface tension decreases because adhesive force between insoluble impurity
molecules and liquid molecules decreases cohesive force effectively, e.g.
(a) On mixing detergent in water its surface tension decreases.
(b) Surface tension of water is more than (alcohol + water) mixture.
. On Temperature
On increasing temperature surface tension decreases At critical temperature
.

and boiling point it becomes zero.

Note : Surface tension of water is maximum at 4C
. On Contamination
The dust particles or lubricating materials on the liquid surface decreases its
surface tension.

. On Electrification
The surface tension of a liquid decreases due to electrification because a force
starts acting due to it in the outward direction normal to the free surface of liquid.

Definition of surface tension

The force acting per unit length of an imaginary line drawn on the free liquid
surface at right angles to the line and in the plane of liquid surface, is defined
as surface tension.
'

For floating needle 21 C sinO = mg

Required excess force for lift

Wire Fex = 2TC Hollow disc Fex = 2nT (rl + ri>),

n For ring Fex = 4nrT Circular disc F =2rcrT

,x

o Square frame F = 8aT Square plate F = 4aT

*
Work = surface energy = TAA
Liquid drop W = 4nr2T Soap bubble W = 37rr2T
*
Splitting of bigger drop into smaller droples R n'/3 1
Work done= Change in surface energy = 4nR3T j = 4nR2T (nJ/3-l)
*
Excess pressure Px .
= P -
P
out

2T 4T

In liquid drop Pex = o In soap bubble P
ANGLE OF CONTACT (0 ) c

the liquidinside
The angle enclosed between the tangent plane atf contact s nd
e liquid
tangent plane at the solid surface at the point o
defined as the angle of contact.
The angle of contact depends the nature of the solid and hqu: d contact
_

Angle of contact 0 < 90 => concave shape, Liquid falls

rise up
Angle of contact 0 > 90 => convex shape, Liquid
Angle of contact 0 90 => plane shape Liquid neither rise nor

Effect of Temperature on angle of contact

On increasing temperature surface tension decreases,
1
thus cos0 increases COS 0 oc -
r
and 0 decrease.
T
So on increasing temperature, 0 decreases. c

Effect of Impurities on angle of contact

(a) Solute impurities increase surface tension so cos9 decreases and angle ,
c

of contact G increases.
c

(b) Partially solute impurities decrease surface tension so angle of contac ,

9 ,
decreases.

Effect of Water Proofing Agent

Angle of contact increases due to water proofing agent It gets converts .

acute to obtuse angle

ar.ntp. to nnhiQo anno
.

... , _
2Tcos0
Capillary rtse " "
.

rpg

Zurin's law h -
Jeager,s method T =
-(Hp - hd)
2
The height 'h' is measured from the bottom r>f tk
there exist some liquid above this line also If correction,T
this .

appW
rpg h +
then the formula will be j _ 3
2 cos 8
When two soap bubbles are in contact then -- -

r
radius of curvature of the common surface i ~ r2
r ' >

When two soap bubbles are combining to

form a new bubble then radius of new bubble

Force required to separate two plates

 Hydrodynamics

Steady and Unsteady Flow

Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure and density at a point do not change with time.

Streamline Flow
In steady flow all the particles passing through a given point follow the same
path and hence a unique line of flow. This line or path is called a streamline.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Laminar flow is the flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined
streamlines which are straight and parallel.

Compressible and Incompressible Flow

In compressible flow the density of fluid varies from point to point i e the
. .

density is not constant for the fluid whereas in incompressible flow the density
of the fluid remains constant throughout .

Rotational and Irrotational Flow

Rotational flow is the flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along
path-lines also rotate about their own axis. In irrotational flow particles do
not rotate about their axis.

Equation of continuity AjV, = A

2
v
2 Based on conservation of mass

Bernoulli"s theorem :
C P

P
Kinetic Energy

. . i Kinetic Enerou 1 m , 1 2
kinetic energy per unit volume ---- -
"
v - pv
volume 2 V 2V
Potential Energy

Potential energy per unit volume

Potential Energy m
= -

~~~=vSh = P3h
Pressure Energy

Pressure energy
Pressure energy per unit volume = -;- = p
volume

For horizontal flow in venturimeter

2gh
P1 + |pVl = P2 + |PV" => y 1 = A2
V Al - A;
Rate of flow :

Volume of water flowing per second

2gh
Q - A,v.
,
V
,
- A, A 2
- i
2
Aj - A

Velocity of efflux v = J2gh

Horizontal range R = 2 Vh(H - h)

*
aI?
f

H i B X
-
-v

hU
J
 (f? V,scos,ty

Newton s law of viscosity F = rjA-

'
*-

Ay

. SI UNITS : -- or deca poise

'"

. CGS UNITS : dyne-s/cm2 or poise (1 decapoise =10 poise)

Dependency of viscosity of fluids

On Temperature of Fluid
(a) Since cohesive forces decrease with increase in temperature as increase
in K.E.. Therefore with the rise in temperature the viscosity of liquids
,

decreases.

(b) The viscosity of gases is the result of diffusion of gas molecules from
one moving layer to other moving layer. Now with increase in tempera
ture, the rate of diffusion increases. So, the viscosity also increases.
Thus , the viscosity of gases increases with the rise of temperature.
On Pressure of Fluid

(a) The viscosity of liquids increases with the increase of pressure.

(b) The viscosity of gases is practically independent of pressure.
*
On Nature of Fluid

4
dV Ttpr
Poiseuillel,s formula Q = ~
~

* Viscous force F = 67tr|rv

2 r2(p~ o)g 2
Terminal velocity VT =

9 VT oc r

pvd
Reynolds number R_
=

R < 1000 laminar flow Rc > 2000 turbulent flow

 Thermal Physics

Scales of temperatures

Temperature - Lower fixed point

For any scale Constant
Upper fixed point- Lower fixed point
C-0 F - 32 T -
273.15 R-0
a ~

100-0 212-32 ~ 373.15-273 15

~

.
80 - 0
C F - 32 T-273 15 .
R C - Centigrade
K - Kelvin
~
"

5 9 5 4
F - Fahrenheit
AC AF AT AR R - Reaumur

e-o x-x ,

Old thermometry 100-0 X10o X0

[two fixed points - ice & steam points]

where X is thermometric property i.e. length, resistance etc.

T-0 X
Modern thermometry 273 16 0
~

- X

[Only one reference point - triple point of water is chosen]

Thermal expansion
a Linear expansion C = (0 (1 + aAT) -> In solids
Superficial expansion A = A0 (1 + PAT) - In solids
Volume expansion : V = V0 (1 + yAT) In solids, liquid & gases
Relation between a, P, & y of isotropic solids.
a : P : y = 1 : 2 : 3
Q
Thermal capacity = mc = -
1C (or IK).
Amount of heat required to raise the temp, of a given body by
Specific Heat capacity
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a body
Q
through 1C (or 1K) c =
Dulong & petit law
For solids :Atomic weight x specific heat = 3R = 6 cal/C
MWQ Q
Molar heat capacity C = Mwc =

Water equivalent: If thermal capacity of a body is expressed in terms of me>ssrj{

water, it is called water equivalent of the body. W = (mc) <-in gram
Heat required to change state (Latent heat) Q = mL
Clausins & clapeyron equation (effect of pressure on boiling point of liquids
dP L
melting point of solids related with latent heat)
~

jy _y
Principle of calorimetry Heat lost = Heat gained
T,+
Conduction K

dQ A dT Q KA(T -T,)
Rate of heat flow -j- - -KA -- Qr - =--
dt dx t C

C
Thermal resistance (RH) =
KA

Rods in series

A K K U
,

K = -
+ 2
eq
Xf/K
Rods in parallel K, K,

A, K , ka + k2a2 ika
A .
K Keq = Aj + A. IA

Growth of ice on ponds t = (xi - x?)

I
-.
2

2KB
Time taken by ice to grow a thickness from x to x
x 2
Radiation

Stefan-Boltzmann's law :
Radiated energy emitted by a perfect black body per unit area
per second E = gT4
For a general body E = e aT4
r

If surrounding has temperature T0 then E = e a(T4 - T4 ) r

0
 '

Newton s law of cooling (Cooling by radiation)

d0
If temp, difference is small then rate of cooling -(0-0o)
In general when a body cools from Oj to (), , in time t in a

0i -
0, + 9
surrounding ot temperature 0o then --- = K -

Oo
,
VVien s displacement law X T = b in

P 47iR2ctT1 (FL "l

Solar constant S= T
4nr2 4rcr2 V r

where Rs = radius of sun

r = average distance between sun and earth .

Note S = 2 cal crrr2min=1.4 kWmrZ

T = temperature of sun 5800 K
Gas laws
w 1
Boyle,s law :For a given mass at constant temperature. V c -
n Charles law : For a given mass at constant pressure VT
,

Gay-Lussac,s law For a given mass at constant volume P cc T

Avogadro,s law:If P,V & T are same then no. of molecules NX=N2
1

Graham"s law: At constant P and T, Rate of diffusion <x

Dalton,s law : P = Pj + P2 + .

Total pressure =Sum of partial pressures

Ideal gas equation
MRT NAkT (N) kT = nkT
pv = mrt p= V = -V
V V /

f nV
Real gas equation [Vander Waal,s equation] ' (V -- pb) = pRT
V j
where a & b are vander waal s constant and depend on the nature of gas.
'

8a

Critical temperature Tc = 27Rb

The maximum temperature below which a gas can be liquefied by pressure
alone.

a Critical volume V = 3b n Critical pressure P =

C 27ba
PCVC _
3
Note For a real gas g
Kinetic theory of gases
1 rnNvIim
P =

a Pressure of an ideal gas 3

3
lfmN ,
v
2 - -
=-P
Kinetic energy per unit volume Lv - 2 [ y
"
m 2
a

2 3RT |3kT
v? + vz +

Root mean square speed \ms \ N Mw m

2RT 2kT
n Most probable speed v
mp
=
Mw m

A 8RT 8kT
Vl+V2 + V3+-.-
Average speed vav= tcM w i ran
V N

Degree of freedom (t) :Minimum number of coordinates required to specif)

the dynamical state of a system.
l

a l
y n a
t
i o n
c i
o Total (f) cP
CPCv+R j
t
y = -J-
i
i
a
m l
t
Cv
Cv =-R
o
s
n
a
t
*- V 2
t o
a
A r R
T

Monoatomic
[He, Ar, Ne..].
3 0 3
! -1f7
! R R
2
Diatomic
[H2, n2..]
3 2 5 I
I
r
-

H
! - -

2
R

Triatomic
(Linear C02)
3 2 5
1
->4
! -

2
R

Triatomic
4
Non-linear-NH ) 3 3 6 ~ =133 3R 4R
O
& Polyatomic

Maxwell's law of equipartition of energy

Kinetic enerqy of a molecule per degree of freedom = - kT

2

Translational kinetic energy of a molecule = - kT

Total kinetic energy of a molecule = ifT

 Internal energy of a gas U = - pRT
2

Mean free path : Average distance between two consecutive collisions

1
=

42nd2n W frf = diameter of molecule, n = molecular density

For mixture of non-reacting gases

+ 2MW + ....
Molecular weight Mu, =
;

Hj+H2+....

Specific heat at constant V, Cv = -

+ H2+....

UiCp + UoCp -f.

n Specific heat at constant P, Cp =
Hi + 2 +

Cp mlM
l P, + +
Xnix Cy |JjCy M-2 V
mt* ' 2
'

First law of Thermodynamics

Q = W + AU or <5Q = 5W + dU
where Q = heat supplied to the system,

W = J PdV = work done by the system

AU = change in internal energy = pC AT v

Isothermal Process

T- constant or JT - 0 => PV - constant

In this process = pCvAT = 0

/n \
(- Pi
so Q = W = uRT = pRTfn p
v 2 y
 Adiabatic Process

PVY = constant or TY P)_Y = constant or 1 Vr

" = constant

In this process Q = 0 and W = -AU = pCv (Tt Tz) - Y

Isobaric process

P = constant => V oc T ; Q = |iCpAT, AU = |iCvAT, W = P(V2 V ) = mRat

i

Isochoric process V = constant =>P<xT&W = 0, Q - AU mCvat

Polytropic process : PVX = constant

rat r
Work done W =--
x -1
; Molar heat capacity C = Cv +
1 - x

Efficiency of a cycle \ Q2 p V Sink T.

' -
fill

Work done by working substance W Q ,

-

Q2 Q,
1
Q
_

Heat supplied = Q , Q

For carnot cycle ~ = ~ so Qi 5

12

Qi T,
j Q,
j T,

Source T]
For refrigerator

Q* Q2 T
Coefficient of performance (3 = ttt =
,

W Q, - Q2 t, - T,
 Effect
Wave Theory and Popple*
*

Wave Motion

A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space, transports energy and

momentum from one point to another without the transport of matter.
Classification of waves

Wave classification According to

I
l
-

J J T
Necessity Propagation Vibration
Dimension
of medium of energy of particle

Plane progressive wave y (x, t) = a sin (cot kx)

T 2 71
Wave propagation constant k = -

A ,

Speed of wave v = n X
Maximum particle velocity = Aco
Relation between path difference (A x) phase difference (A & time difference (ATI
,

A(j) _

~
Ax AT
2k X ~~T
Intensity of progressive wave I = 2rt2 a2 n2v

E
Speed of longitudinal wave V ~
VP

B
o v , =
V
scuid ,
liquid
VP
 yP [yRT
Speed of Longitudinal wave in gaseous medium v
qas
=
"

mT

T T
Speed of transverse wave v =
m v nr 2p

In super position of two coherent waves of intensity I( and l

2

Resultant intensity I= + \2 + 2 T2cos

a Resultant amplitude A = + A2 + 2A, Azcos<j)

For constructive interference

A <j) = 27in , Ax = nl, Imax = Ij + I2 + 2 Y2 = +V ) 2

n For destructive interference

A 4 =(2n-l) 71, A X =(2n - 1) A/2, I =

min 2 = T ) 2

max min v 1 AH
Degree of hearing = i *
, i
max min

Beats frequency = nt ~
n
2

Closed organ pipe

n Fundamental frequency =

o Frequency of m,h overtone = (2m +1)

Open organ pipe Fundamental frequency

Frequency of mth overtone - (m + 1) -

 Frequency with end correction

v
For COP n = where e = 0.6 R
4(f + e)
where R = radius of resonance tube.

v
n For OOP n =
2(f + 2e)

<- 2 -

3 1
In resonance tube X = 2 [C2 -

, ) end correction e -

Frequency of sonometer wire n = ~ J- where p = number of loops

2i V m

v ,
O
">Vc
Doppler,s effect in sound source Sound observer
wave

n' = observed frequency

f
_
sjieed of sound wave w.r.t observer _ V + Vo _
v + v
o
n
'
observed wavelength -O
v
v V - V
s }
n

If vQ, v
<<< v then n
'
= n
s
V V j

speed of source
Mach number =
speed of sound

Doppler effect in light 0 (observer) S (light source)

O v <-#

" / rr /
v =
1 + v/c
V ~
'
l+ V . A., =
1 - v/c
X = | 1-- Violet shift
1 - v/c C) 1 + v/c c

0 (observer) S (light source)

 19 (a) SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONSTANTS
Gravitational constant (G) 6 .
67 x 10 " N m2 kg 2
Speed of light in vacuum (c) 3 x 10f ms",
Permeability of vacuum (u0) 4 it x 10 , H m"1

Permittivity of vacuum (r>0) 8 85 x lO"J2 F m'

.

Planck constant (h) 6 63 x lO 34 Js

.

Atomic mass unit (amu) 1 . 66 x 10 2, kg

Energy equivalent of 1 amu 931.5 MeV

Electron rest mass (m ) 9 . 1xl0"3]kg= 0.511 MeV

Avogadro constant (N ) .

f\
6 02 x 1023 mol1
.

Faraday constant (F) 9 648 x 10" C mol-,

.

Stefan-Boltzman constant (o) 5 67 x lO W rrr2

.

Wien constant (b) 2 89 x 10-3 mK

.

Rydberg constant (RJ 1 097 x 107 m">

.

Triple point for water 273.16 K (0.01C)

Molar volume of ideal gas (NTP) 22.4 x 10~3 m3 mokJ

19 (b)
365.24 days = 3.16 x 10 s
o 1 year "
s
= 24 h = 8.64 x 10
1 day
107 ergs
a 1 J
= 4.184 J
1 ca\
= 1.6 x 10"W J
1 eV
= 0.746 k\W
a 1 hp
= 10& N/m2
a 1 bar
a 1 fm
, 760u.mH3-76cinH9
013x10
1 atm
= i 013 xlO& N/m2 =1
.

= 9.46 x 1012 km

a 1 light year = 3.26 ly

a 1 parsec = 1055 J = 252 cal
1 Btu .
. .
6J
1 kVJh 2 = *3
a _ i \\/b rrf
a IT
 ampere
angstrom
atomic mass unit
atmosphere
British thermal unit
coulomb
degree Celsius
calorie
degree (angle)
electronvolt
19 (d)
farad Decimal Prefixes
femtometer for
foot Units of
gauss Measurement
gram
henry T - tera (10J2)
hour
G -> giga (109)
horse power
hertz M -

mega (10f)
joule
J

kelvin
k -> kilo (103)
meter h - hecto (102)
minute
maxwell da - deca (101)
oersted d deci (10-1)
pascal
ohm c -> centi (10_2)
radian
m -y milli (10~3)
second 1
Siemens I -
> micro (10~&)
tesla
nano (10~9)
volt Jj
n

watt P ->
pico (10-J2)
w eber