Wear, 136 (1990) 1 - 17

TRIBOLOGY - ORIGIN AND FUTURE*

H. PETER JOST
President, International Dibology Council, K. S. Paul Products Ltd., Angel Lodge Labs.,
Nobel Road, London N18 3DB (U.K.)

1. Intr~uction

We all know the story of Newton asleep under an apple tree, when
an apple fell on his head. He woke up, and established the Laws of Gravity.
As Tribologists, we may well ask whether, had Newton slipped on a banana
skin, that would have led to his recognition of the importance of force trans-
ference between two surfaces in relative motion, from which the concept of
tribology might have been born 300 years ago.
Alas, bananas were not available in the 17th century, and this recogni-
tion therefore had to wait until 1966 when, on March 9,1966, the word and
concept of tribology were first enunciated to an unsuspecting world in a
report of a Committee of the British Department (Ministry) of Education
and Science [lf. In it, tribology, derived from the Greek tribes-rubbing, was
defined as The science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative
motion - and of associated subjects and practices.
Largely because of its multidisciplinary nature, the concept of tribol-
ogy had been universally neglected, or even overlooked. As a direct result of
this neglect, the development of mechanical engineering design had been
retarded, and vast sums of money had been lost through unnecessary wear
and friction and their consequences.

2. The search for a word

There can be no moving parts, whether sliding, rolling or rubbing,

where forces are not transmitted from one moving surface to another, whe-
ther in a large steel rolling mill, a person walking on a carpet, or indeed a
mechanism of a space station. Yet, during the Committees work, it was
found the English language, or any other language, had no existing word
for the concept of interacting surfaces in relative motion and its technical
and economic consequences. This surprised even the members of the specia-
list committee.
After consultation with the Editor of the Oxford Dictionary, the word
and concept of tribology were invented. Tribology is now recognized as a
vital ingredient of our technological age. It has become one of the few tech-
nologies, which is likely to influence signifi~~tly the design of many mech-

*Opening address of Eurotrib 89, Helsinki.

Elsevier Sequoia/Printed in The Netherlands

 2

anisms; furthermore it is one that could limit mechanical engineering devel-

opment, if additional research and development cannot bridge the present
knowledge gap, and all this even before the end of this century.
Tribology is now in the dictionary of every industrial country; it has
reached the ultimate etymological recognition, viz. a detailed entry in the
supplement of the Oxford English Dictionary [2]. All over the world there
are now professorial chairs and courses in tribology in universities and poly-
technics. Projects in tribology have even found their way into schoolwork.
Tribology Societies and Groups are flourishing in many countries, and their
world organisation, the International Tribology Council, provides an inter-
national link which strengthens all of them.

3. Economic savings

In spite of the fact that tribology has been identified as a subject of great
importance, largely because of its multi-disciplinary nature embracing phy-
sics, chemistry, metallurgy and engineering, the concept of tribology had
previously received insufficient attention. As a result, development of design
was retarded, and many hundreds of millions of pounds were lost each year
through unnecessary wear, friction and connected breakdowns, wasted
energy etc. The D.E.S. report stated that in the U.K. alone $515000000
(at 1965 values) could be saved, if greater attention were paid to tribology
(Fig. 1). It was this figure of savings that launched tribology on its successful
road. In other words economics, rather than logic or needs lie at the root of
the world-wide recognition of tribology. I am sure that a lesson is to be
learnt from this.
Experience over the past 23 years has shown that the estimated savings,
approximately 1% of the GNP, were a significant underestimate. It is now

Reduction in energy
28 ___- consumption through
lower friction

Savings in investment

Reduction in
manpower - -__

Savings in lubncant costs

due to higher utilisation
ratios and greater
mechanical efficiency

Fig. 1. Economic savings through tribology, as shown in D.E.S. Report, 1966, (in E
million at 1965 values).
 3

believed that proper attention to tribology, especially in education, research

and application, could lead to economic savings of between 1.3% and 1.6%
of the GNP. Even more important, the first 20% of such savings can nor-
mally be obtained without any significant investment.
A number of official investigations, much larger than the U.K. one, in
the Federal German Republic [3], Canada [4], China [5] and some other
countries in every case confirmed the estimated savings of these orders of
magnitude of the GNP. The last of these reports, conducted in China over a
period of 5 years, in which over 5000 people took part, outlined not only
the economic savings but also the cost of obtaining them, industry by
industry. These varied from 1:40 in the coal mining industry to 1:76 in the
metallurgical industry. In other words, for a once only expenditure of
21000, annual savings in the region of $40 000 or $76 000 respectively could
confidently be expected within a few years.
The Chinese Report went into details, far greater than any of its prede-
cessors, and far more thoroughly. For instance, in the area of Tribology in
Coal Mining, 24 coal mines were selected; the machinery in each was arran-
ged in ten categories: (1) drilling; (2) tunnelling; (3) mining; (4) loading; (5)
transportation; (6) hoisting; (7) ventilation ; (8) air cleaning; (9) compressed
air; (10) coal washing. The number of machinery and equipment in China
used under these headings numbers about 1 million. The total rate of savings
against the research and development, required in Chinese Coal Mining, to
achieve such savings, was conservatively estimated to be 40 units of savings
per annum for a once only expenditure of 1 unit. This investment/savings
ratio is similar to that of 1:64, contained in the U.S. Government funded
Report Strategy of Energy Saving for Tribology [ 61.

4. The trend towards materials science

Once the initial shortcomings relating to lubrication in design and appli-

cation had been dealt with, it became increasingly clear that materials
science and technology ranked equal with design in the reduction of wear of
machinery. This applied particularly in the field of unlubricated wear.
In 1983, an investigation in the F.R.G. estimated a total loss of 38.71
billion DM (~$13 billion) through tribological causes. Unlub~ca~ systems
accounted for 17.78 billion DM (f6 billion) [7]. However, in the coal and
metallurgical industries, the cost due to unlubricated wear of 53% was the
largest single cost component. In the German Steel Industry, out of a total
of 490 million DM ($163 million) maintenance cost of wear, 260 million DM
($87 million), i.e. 53% was due to unlubricated wear [S] (Fig. 2). Investiga-
tion of wear causes and prevention of unlubricated systems revealed that
materials science and technology was the principal subject area to remedy
the identified economic losses.
Therefore, if as the results of the developments of the past 20 years, the
subject of tribology were to be divided into its main constituents, i.e. in its
3

Others

gg3j Fractllres

CorrosNx

m Lubrl<.atcd Wear

600 llnlubr~catcd Wear

J

Fig. 2. Estimated cost of maintenance in German Steel Works (1983) by plant areas and
causes of maintenance (repair) requirements. (Source - Dr. Deutscher, BFI, Dusseldorf.)

input areas, and allowing for a considerable degree of overlap, the division
could be as follows: (a) materials science and technology, 40%; (b) mechan-
ical systems, 30%; (c) lubrication and lubricants, 20%; (d) others, including
condition monitoring, tribo-diagnostics, instrumentation, tribo-information
dissemination (data banks and others), 10%. The definition of mechanical
systems used is that of the 1984 ASME Report of the same title, viz. A
mechanical system can be defined as an interconnection of mechanical and/
or electromechanical components, coordinated and controlled by computa-
tional and informational networks (and often humans), which accomplishes
dynamic tasks involving mechanical forces and motions and energy flows
[91.
If these are the input areas, in which future research and development
will have to take place, what are the demand areas, i.e. in the customer
areas of tribology that have to be satisfied by additional knowledge and
application of tribology?
5. The demand areas of tribology*

Whilst materials science and technology has become the predominant

input subject, the principal (over 90%) user or customer of tribological
knowledge remains the subject of mechanical engineering design and opera-
tion. Because of the (a) rapidly changing and (b) technologically increasingly
demanding scenario, and (c) the reliance of mechanical systems on tribolog-
ical knowledge, tribology has become a technologically strategic subject.
Indeed, it is now universally realised, not only by designers and would-be
operators of space mechanisms, that lack of tribologi~~ knowledge is likely
to retard modern technological development; it may even halt it completely
in certain areas, hopefully only temporarily.
To prevent this eventuality from happening, governments, especially
those of the U.S., and of the F.R.G., have launched and/or supported large
research and development programmes. Many industrial undertakings are also
engaged in this work [ 10 - 121. Research and development pro~ammes are
expensive, therefore the question will invariably arise: What are the
demand areas, or what are the requirements which have to be satisfied by
the results of research and development in tribologys four constituent input
groups ?
Three such demand areas have been identified. They are: (a) fictional
reliability especially in difficult operating conditions; (b) economic pres-
sures; (c) environmental pressures.

5.1. Demands for functional reliability

The impetus for research and development under this heading is likely
to come from three directions: (1) operational conditions; (2) automation
and computerisation; (3) miniaturization.

5.1.1. Operating conditions -examples

Low heat rejection engine development is at present largely held back
by the insufficiency in tribe-materi~s and tribo-systems. Liquid lubrication
systems are required, permitting fluid film lubrication with coefficients of
friction of 0.001 to 0.0001, as well as good sealing characteristics at high
operating temperatures. If the lubricant film breaks down and boundary
lubrication takes place, a tenfold increase in friction would result, which is
likely to make the engine unreliable. In addition it will consume most, if not
all, of the energy saved by the low heat rejection design of the engine (Table
1).
In the fast growing application area of space tribology, tribological
reliability of the highest degree has to be guaranteed, and this in temperature
conditions varying from -50 C to I-300 C and a vacuum of up to lo-

*Tribological demand areas cannot be separated with any degree of accuracy, since
considerable overlap almost invariably occurs. The classification below is therefore made
on the basis of an areas paramount tribological requirements.
TABLE 1
Wear coefficients for different lubrication systems

Lubrication system Wear coefficients

--
IO.13 -
Hydrodynamic
Squeeze film lo-3
Elastohydrodynamic 10-9 _ IO_3
Boundary 10-6 - lo- 8
Composite bearing materials 1om2- 10-7
Bonded solid films 10-s - 10-7
Unlubricated 10-2 10-4
_~--

Torr. In the operation of space mechanisms the importance of functional

reliability is of course vital (Fig. 3). Even a small tribological failure can
clearly lead to catastrophic results. It is therefore this demand area which
may well provide the major impetus to tribological development during the
next 25 years [13].

Fig. 3. Space station (NASA Artists impression). Tribology reliability of the highest
order will be of crucial importance in the operation of the many interacting surfaces in
relative motion. (Source - European Space Agency.)
 7

Magnetic levitation is likely to be developed during the next two

decades. It will require tri~lo~c~ regimes, vastly different from those
presently known, but necessary for the operation of the units based on such
development.
On nuclear plants tribological reliability of mechanical systems in con-
ditions of radiation will be required, as nuclear power, probably in smaller
units, becomes more widespread [ 141.

5.1.2, Automation and computerization

The second area of impetus will come from automation and comput-
erization. The knowledge in this field is advancing exponentially yet, at the
end of the line somewhere there is a mechanism, and its tribological failure
will adversely affect the benefici~ effects of automation and compute~za-
tion, or even make them useless. We have already had many examples of
fully automated robot lines being brought to a standstill, because of tribolo-
gical failure of the ultimate, generally mechanical operating equipment.

The third impetus in this demand area will come from miniaturization
of equipment. Ultimate failure of such miniaturized equipment could well
be due to lack of tribological knowledge. Even if one does not go as far as
considering the tribological problems of a motor car engine of a matchbox
size, there is little doubt that engines, gear boxes and other transmission
eq~pment will be reduced in size. Therefore, whether in celestial or terres-
trial areas of operation, re~ability of such highly rated components will be a
principal requirement of advancing technologies. The advance in microelec-
tronics makes this development inevitable, and tribology will play an impor-
tant role in it.

5.2. Economic pressures

The second main demand area is an economic one. It will come from
the need to deal with the increased competitive nature of our world. As has
already been shown, unlubricated wear is one of the first candidates. Already
there have been calls for a concerted attack to be made on the economic
losses through unlubricat~ wear in mineral handling and transportation.
These losses, whilst not spectacular are both large and to a considerable
extent avoidable, or at least reduceable.
The first nrincinal attack
____.__~on
r___.*_y_.m ___an international basis: on a specific part of
this area, was last years international conference ANTIWEAR 88, which
dealt with the much neglected subject of wear during transportation and
handling of minerals, including coal (Fig. 4), gold, iron, cement etc. In this
area alone enormous avoidable wear losses mnecessarily add to the cost of
the ultimate product.
The tribological progress forced by economic necessity will be particu-
larly pronounced on applications where friction is desirable, such as in trac-
Fig. 4. Tribology in mining. A modern DOSCO Roadheading Machine (photograph:
Dosco Overseas Engineering Ltd.). To minimize wear much attention was paid to the
testing of the wear resistance of materials. (Source - The Industrial Unit of Tribology,
The University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K.)

tion, braking and similar usages, but where wear beyond a certain rate is
undesirable, or even unacceptable.
There can be little doubt that economic forces compelling tribological
development will be considerable; they will not be limited to conventional
applications, but apply to an even greater extent to the tribology of space
mechanisms.

5.3. Environmental pressures

The third main demand area will be environmental, under which head-
ing is included preservation and conservation of materials and energy, not for
merely economic purposes, and the need to eliminate unsocial working con-
ditions. A typical example of the beginning of this trend was the refusal of
forging operators, because of the fumes emitted to use the traditionally
accepted and effective graphite-oil parting and lubricating materials. This
led to the development of aqueous dispersions. Thereafter, there was the
refusal by the operators to handle materials that were black e.g. graphite,
 9

again forcing new tri~logic~ developments. This is just a minor example of

one aspect of environmental pressures.
Environmental considerations require improvements in the tribology of
sealing techniques. This requirement is of particular importance where dan-
gerous or obnoxious fluids are involved.
In addition, far greater effort will be needed to preserve those materials
which are becoming increasingly rare, and are now wasted through unneces-
sary wear,
It is probable that the pressures from this direction will not be as great
as those coming from the previous two forces, reliability and economics, but
it would be inadvisable to ignore them.

6. Future trends in tribology

As in the case of tribologys demand areas, there is no clear distinguish-

ing line between the constituent input groups of tribology and their future
areas of developments. The latter are therefore treated on the basis of
degrees of influence.

6.1. Materials science and technology

According to Belyi and Sviridyonok [ 15 ] , ~Tribo-technical materials
science is the connecting link between results of the theoretical studies in
tribology and the large amount of existing knowledge which constitutes the
scientific basis of tribo-engineering, Research and development of the tri-
bological aspects of materials development will therefore rank high in the
list of future tasks [ 161.

6.1.1. Materials
Under this heading fall the following.
(a) Materials that can operate in vacuum conditions up to lo- Torr,
and which retain their tribological properties, even after having been station-
ary for periods of up to 3 - 15 years (Fig. 5) ;
(b) Materials that can operate t~~logic~ly reliably in nuclear and
radiation conditions;
(c) metallic composites, especially those with thermal stability and
with high thermal and electrical conductivity and strength;
(d) composite materials, having a polymer matrix;
(e) materials capable of tribological surface interaction in temperature
ranges from -100 C to 900 C.

6. I. 2. Surace treatments
The tribotechnical aspects of these material developments will be one
of the two principal areas of much future research. The other will be the
surface treatments of materials for the purpose of enh~cing their tribo-
Fig. 6. Space tribology. A vacuum chamber test rig at the European Space Tribology
Laboratory (Risley) for the experimental determination of friction and wear of gears
for satellites. (Source - National Centre of Tribology, Risley, U.K.)

logical characteristics. This is an area which has already seen much research
and development, some yielding spectacular results.
To obtain tribological improvement of surfaces, either the surfaces can
be modified without altering the chemistry, or by chemical or thermo-chem-
ical diffusion treatments, altering the surface chemistry, or by impregnating
with, or adding layers to surfaces, which heading includes low shear strength
materials, such as molybdenum disulphide, graphite and others [17]. Phys-
ical vapour disposition (CVD), ion implantation and laser surface modifica-
tions are so far the best known techniques of tribological surface treatments.
Surface modifications range from 0.1 I.rrn for ion implantation to a
few microns. Roberts expressed the view that such surface treatments affect
the reliable and predictable performance, and lead to the avoidance of un-
scheduled downtime, and therefore have clear life-cost implications across
the whole spectrum of industry [lS]. However, he warns that the effect-
ive exploitation of the considerable potential benefits of this wideranging
technology by the end user in industry will require a conscious effort of
technological transfer on the part of the scientists engaged in this exciting
and fast developing field of applied science.

6.1.3. Mechanical systems

The availability of materials with vastly improved t~bo~ogi~al prop-
erties will require the reassessment of many mechanical systems and designs.
For instance, the availability of lubricating materials operating at 600 C
could lead to a dramatic change of compression ignition and internal com-
 11

bustion engine design, and that of tribological low energy loss materials to
new transmission designs. These two developments alone could make the
100 plus miles per gallon family ear a feasible reality during the next 15
years.
Whilst in the lubrication sphere of tribology, especially the hydro-
dynamic sphere, there are many formulations, parameters and models, that
can be used to optimize design, this is not the case in the tribomaterials
sphere. Formulae, quantifiable design criteria and models are required by
the mechanical engineering designer. There are at present few, if any, that
can convert simple friction and wear theories into actual designs; they must
essentially be evolved.
The tribology of metal cutting and forming is another branch of tribol-
ogy meriting research and development. Special attention to this subject has
been given by a number of researchers, especially in seizure tribology
[ 191; more attention is required to remove all the major constraints which
influence the efficiency of metal cutting processes.
Research leading to the identification of tribological, i.e. force transfer-
ence causes of tribo-deformation and damage, and to the establishment of
adequate models of frictional and wear processes is therefore urgently
needed. Belyi [ZO] suggests that the present unsatisfactory state of affairs
has led to a situation in which high margins of ignorance often reduce and
even minimize the progress made in areas of tribo-materials and tribo-tech-
nology. It is difficult to disagree with this statement.

6.1.4. Lub~icu~~s and lubricating ~~~er~~s and systems

Fluid lubricants, capable of operating at high temperatures will be
required to match high temperature structural materials. These lubricants are
unlikely to be based on naturally occurring hydrocarbon materials. For high
temperature lubrication, ethers, fluoro-ether and polyphenolethers may
prove to be materials, that could possibly approach the limit of liquid lubri-
cation (Fig. 6).
Gases and vapour phase lubricants must not be discounted as
materials, that can become the lubricants which fulfil the extreme require-
ments of the previously mentioned demand areas. For low temperature lubri-
cation, the handling not only of liquid nitrogen, but also fuels like oxygen
and hydrogen in liquid form could be the ultimate process for fluid lubri-
cants.
The use of solid lubricants, as distinct from lubricant surface treat-
ments, is another development of considerable promise, but will require new
lubrication and application systems. It is however an area, where research
and development can, in the not too distant future, reach the stage of pro-
ducing quantifiable and repeatable results.
Magnetic and electro-ma~etic lubrication systems are already being
used, where extremely low friction is required. Their future development can
confidently be predicted not only in the area of bearings [ 211, but also in
that of fluid seals [22].
12

100
I
I__ -.
?=i
I_ ..--. I _. 1
n
-_A. -I ___L
Miners1 Synlhcfic Ester FlUOK+ Poly(phenyl
Hydrocnrhon ether ether)

Fig. 6. Maximum application temperatures of different classes of lubricants based on

properties. (Source - Ford Motor Company, 1985).

Whilst considerable scientific and technological progress is likely to be

made in all these and allied areas, the cost of the end product may, in many
cases, make it uneconomical for general application, at least in the near
future. Therefore, due to the economic advantages gained from the success-
ful application of conventional, including synthetic based lubricants,
research and development, Ieading to an increase in a reliable operational
life with such materials, is likely to accelerate. Selective transfer [23] is such
a lubrication system development. It is a tribo-chemical process, which after
run-in gives low friction and low, even zero, wear because of the self-healing
nature of the processing involved. At present it is limited to glycerine-based
lubricants with copper-iron couples.

6.2. Tribe-monitoring, instrumentation, data processing dissemination

and standardization
Tribo-monitoring consists of the measurement of the basic friction
contact parameters (tribo-metrics) and of tribo-diagnostics.
Tribo-metrics, aiming at the simult~eous meas~ement and evaluation
of the basic factors of the interaction of the surface pairs leading to autom-
atic measurements and processing of the results, is yet in its early stage.
Tribo-metrics includes the development and standardization of methods and
means of classification of the properties of tribo-technical materials. Belyi
and Sviridyonok report that the wear data from a number of sources varied
by nearly a factor of twenty, and suggest that the whole field of tribo-
metrics should be classified and standardized [ 151. Considerable research will
be needed to achieve this end.
Tribo-diagnostics, although one of the youngest branches of tribology,
has advanced to a far greater extent. This is particularly true in the case of
liquid lubricated mechanisms. In this area advanced specialized test equip-
ment has been developed, which can analyse the rate and type of wear by
the debris collected (Fig. 7). Acoustic and electric tribo-diagnostical methods
 13

Fig. 7. Tribo-monitoring. A rotary particle depositor, developed by the Swansea Tribol-

ogy Centre, deposits wear debris for subsequent analysis by metallographic techniques.
(Source - Swansea Tribology Centre).

are also used, their advantages being: (a) fast response times, (b) very low
energy requirements, (c) the availability of a well-developed signal analysis
theory and highly sensitive equipment. Their use, however, is at present in
the main confined to liquid and semi-solid lubricated mechanisms.
There exists a large and unfulfilled need in the area of in-line condition
monitoring in unlubricated or solid lubricated tribological conditions. Begin-
nings have been made on certain industrial, automotive and nuclear applica-
tions. However, in general, it is an area which requires intensive research and
development during the next decade.

6.3. Tribo-information
The field of tribo-information has developed only during the past 10 -
15 years as an independent branch of technology transfer. More than 10 000
papers and articles on tribology are now published annually. Data banks have
been created for quick reference, that of the Federal German Materials Test-
ing Institute (BAM) being the most advanced and comprehensive in the
western world [ 241.
Probably the most advanced and potentially valuable scheme is the A
Computerised Tribology Information System (ACTIS), being developed in
the U.S. under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Hsu, director of ceramics, of the
U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly the National
Bureau of Standards). Centralised, comprehensive tribology information
system, PC - based and user-friendly, its aim is to facilitate &bo-technology
transfer to industry, to promote cross-disciplinary communication and
enhance the state of research. ACTIS will comprise DATA bases on six ele-
ments: (1) numerical data; (2) design codes; (3) bibliographic; (4) newsletter;
(5) research in progress; and (6) product literature. The objectives of ACTIS
are to provide: (a) quick, economic, direct access, up to date tribological
data on materials; (b) best judgement values by experts; (c) design codes in
conjunction with critical data. By the use of ACTIS it is aimed to: (1)
elevate the state-of-the-art of tribology; (2) avoid unnecessary research; (3)
facilitate new product development; (4) facilitate the use of triboligical data
by non-tribologists and thereby avoid catastrophies and save materials and
energy.
The pro~amme of ACTIS, which is intended to be wholly inter-
national, as indeed is tribology, is planned in three phases. The planning
phase 1 is now complete. Ultimately the international self-supporting non-
profit organisation and its work will cover these aspects.

7. Spin-off areas of tribological developments

In addition to the fast progress of tribology for technological applica-

tions, there have been a number of spin-off areas of tribology. The principal
of these are the applications of tribological knowledge to medical engineering.
In this field too, materials science and technology is playing an increasingly
important role.
In the area of bio-engineering the application of tribological theory and
practice has seen significant advances. Large reductions in human suffering
have been procured by its application. In addition the application of known
tri~logic~ knowledge, to replace long and costly trial and error experimen-
tation, must have saved medical research very large financial resources (Fig.
8). We are only at the beginning of this development.
Human beings and animals have already become the principal beneficia-
ries; the quality and the enjoyment of life has been enhanced by bio-tribo-
logical developments. For instance, Charnleys original artificial hip joints
had an expected life of 3 years. Now, a wear acceptable life of 15 - 25 years
is normal (Fig. 9); and Professor Dowson told us in his 1987 John Player
Lecture, that in his laboratories the materials were now available that could
lead to wear free operation of such hip joints for 150 years. The listeners
were left to ponder whether this was a case of over-design or over-optimism!
However, the spin-offs of tribological knowledge are not limited to the
biological field, they can be applied to botany to include development in
plants of those properties which are necessary for the sustenance of human
beings as well as animals.
The relationship between tribology and vibration has led to beginnings
of studies on the tribology of musical instruments, especially of the stringed
variety.
Scientific progress has also been made in many areas of sport, not only
in winter sports e.g. skiing, skating etc, but also in water based sports, such
 15

Fig. 8. Heart valve. Artificial heart valve, pumping corrosive liquid containing poorly sus-
pended crystals (blood) at a continuous rate of 37 million operations per annum. The
original design led to flap-hinge failure after relatively short periods. After redesign ac-
cording to best tribo-material and mechanical principles, these non-return valves can now
operate satisfactorily in excess of 15 years. (Source - National Centre of Tribology).

Fig. 9. Medical tribology. The original design of Charnleys hip joint had a life expectancy
of about 3 years. The tribologically redesigned hip joints can be guaranteed to have a 25
year useful wear life. (Source- Bio-Engineering Group for the study of Human Joints,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Leeds, Leeds, U.K.).
as rowing. The application of new tribological knowledge in these fields is
bound to lead to the breaking of numerous world records.
Advances have also been made in macro-terrestrial tribology, and con-
siderable development can be foreseen to take place in this area of tribology,
uiz. that of movement of plates on which our continents rest. This work
could well lead to the elimination of earthquake disasters, and to the direc-
tion of volcanic eruptions to areas, where they will do least harm.

8. Conclusion

Tribology is not an independent subject. It is unlikely that the acquisi-

tion of new tribological knowledge alone will create new technologies. How-
ever, the absence of the required knowledge of tribology can act as a severe
brake in the development of new technologies, and indeed has already done
so.
In our age of technologically rapid development throughout the world,
tribology can therefore be regarded as an enabling technology not only of
strategic, but of strategically crucial importance.
For the future of tribology, the important and yet unanswered question
must be whether developments in the materials science and technology
areas have been so rapid, that they have outstripped the mechanical engineer-
ing development of tribology. If this is so, the development of tribology has
become unbalanced. What has to be done to rectify any such imbalance and
thereby remove the brake on technological developments and practices?
I hope that during these next four days of Eurotrib 89, the lecturers
may provide some pointers as to the direction in which we tribologists shall
have to move. The papers to be presented are indeed of a high standard. I am
convinced that the discussions, resulting from them, will equal if not surpass
that standard.

References

1 Lubrication (tribology) education and research, Jest Rep., Department of Education

and Science, HMSO, London. 1966. p. 4.
2 R. W. Burchfield (ed.), A supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. 4,
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 17

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