POSTNOTE
Number 999 February 2015
Precision Agriculture
Precision agriculture (PA) is an agricultural
approach that uses modern technology to help
farmers decide when, where and how much to
use of a number of inputs. It has the potential to
make agricultural operations more profitable, as
well as less damaging to the environment. It can
also help with record keeping and proving
compliance with legal requirements. This POST
note describes the technologies, summarises
economic and environmental benefits and
examines drivers and constraints of PA adoption,
with a focus on arable farming.
Background
What is Precision Agriculture?
Precision agriculture (PA), or site-specific farming, relies on
collection of spatial data, as well as monitoring of other
variables such as soil and plant status, to optimise farming
operations and includes satellite-navigated tractors and
variable rate technology to control fertiliser application. By
optimising inputs to the specific needs of a certain site, PA
can reduce unnecessary inputs, making farming operations
more profitable. Optimised use of inputs such as fertilisers
and pesticides may also reduce environmental damage
associated with agriculture. The economic and
environmental benefits and constraints of PA use have to be
assessed on a case-by-case basis.
The spread of PA has been facilitated by the wide
availability of technologies such as GPS and broadband
The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 7 Millbank, London SW1P 3JA; Tel: 020 7219 2840; email: post@parliament.uk www.parliament.uk/post
Overview
! Precision agriculture (PA) is a farming
approach that aims to tailor inputs (e.g.
fertiliser, pesticides) to the needs of a
specific site. Field measurements, in
connection with appropriate farming
machinery, can help to optimise inputs.
! Agricultural inputs such as nitrogen,
potassium and phosphorus fertilisers are
expensive and can have negative effects on
the environment. More efficient application
can result in the protection of land and the
environment, and safer working conditions.
! PA can provide financial benefits to
individual farmers, and help to comply with
environmental regulations.
! Several important farming associations in
tbe UK are in favor of precision agriculture.
! PA is expected to become more
widespread over the next years, as the
technologies become more affordable and
well-established.
! The UK is in a strong position to exploit
precision agriculture, with funding already
allocated.
internet connectivity. Because initial setup costs are often
high, PA is currently more commonly used by larger farms,
but as the technologies become more affordable, PA use is
expected to rise in farms of all sizes in the coming years.
Investment in PA could contribute to promoting the
Box 1. Current state of UK farming
According to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(Defra), the average croppable area per farm in the UK is 62 hectares.1
It estimates the value of agriculture and the food and drink
manufacturing sector to the UK economy at 9 billion and 26 billion
respectively. 327,000 holdings make up 70% of land area and the UK
produces 60% of the food it eats. It also views the UK as having well-
funded scientific research and institutions that will allow growth in the
sector, with government spending 450m in 2011/12 on agri-food R&D.
1 The global market value of agricultural input sales is estimated to be
worth over 355 billion.2 In the UK, the average income is 28,426 for
each unit of labour, for examples farmers and their partners.
POSTnote 999 February 2015 Precision Agriculture
competitiveness of British agriculture (Box 1).
PA technology
Site-specific agricultural management requires monitoring of
a number of environmental factors. Examples include soil
pH, nitrogen content, and local yield variation. PA employs
technologies such as satellite imaging, tractor-mounted and
handheld devices and remote sensors to measure these
factors.
Overlapping in consecutive passes over the field leads to
areas of double treatment and wasted inputs. Furthermore,
soil compaction by heavy machinery damages the soil. This
leads to negative consequences such as reduced yield,
increased greenhouse gas emissions, decreased water
infiltration and increased fertiliser run-off. Accurate steering
can alleviate this and can be achieved by GPS- as well as
ground-based technology. The most expensive of these
systems can achieve an accuracy of 2cm. Controlled traffic
farming (CTF) restricts equipment to pre-defined permanent
lanes on the field, reducing the compacted area to down to
15% of the field.
Variable Rate Technology (VRT) allows application of inputs
according to site-specific requirements. This can be map- or
sensor-based. VRT is used for application of materials such
as seeds, fertilisers and pesticides.
The use of drones, or unmanned aircraft (UA) is projected to
increase dramatically in the coming years (see POSTnote
479). Drones can be equipped with a range of sensors,
including cameras and infrared sensors, to monitor plant
health, developmental status, water needs, etc. In the longer
term, drones could also be used to deliver inputs like
fertiliser and herbicides in a site-specific manner.
PA technology is most advanced in arable agriculture but
there is PA used in livestock farming such as automatic
milking machines which can monitor animals and their yields
and can flag up issues to farmers. Another technique is the
use of tagging to manage selective breeding of livestock.
Environmental Impacts of UK farming
There are a number of ways in which agricultural
productivity can damage the natural environment. These
include the large scale and imprecise use of inputs, such as
water, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. POST notes
detailing the problems and supply chains are 418, 477, 478.
However, there are a number of effects that are relevant in a
discussion on PA including the following:
! Input procurement through mining: several inputs are only
available as scarce minerals that must be mined from a
finite pool of resources. This can be damaging as areas
of natural habitat are removed to access the raw
materials. As these become scarcer, the cost and
processes involved in their extraction increases.
3 improves overall soil health and water retention capacity. PA
! Fossil fuel use: nitrogen fertiliser production and water
usage for irrigation require large amounts of energy. This
Page 2
usually comes from fossil fuels, which are major
contributors to global warming through carbon dioxide
emissions. Changing agriculture is a potentially important
way in which emission targets may be met.
! Nitrogen emissions: nitrogen fertilisers also contribute to
climate change directly, in the form of emissions of the
greenhouse gas nitrous oxide, which is also associated
4
with acid rain. Since the adoption of catalytic converters
on cars, agriculture has become the main source of the
various oxides of nitrogen in the environment.
! Waterway pollution: nutrients running off fields following
rain and entering the surrounding environment can
damage aquatic ecosystems. When nutrients leak into
waterways, algal blooms may occur, using up oxygen,
making waters unsuitable for animals like fish. This
process is known as eutrophication. Reducing this
process is an important aspect of adhering to the water
5
framework directive.
! Water supply contamination: there can also be negative
impacts on human health. A large proportion of water
treatment costs (up to 90% in some areas) involve
removing agricultural inputs from drinking water. High
levels of phosphorus exposure can lead to serious health
6
problems, particularly involving the kidneys.
Box 2. Costs of environmental damage
A study of the external costs of agriculture in the UK from 2000
estimated 2,343m in negative externalities, including contamination of
water costing 120m/year from pesticides, 16m/year from nitrates and
55m/year from phosphate and soil contamination. Emissions were said
to cost 1113m/year and 125m from habitat loss. However, this study
included the mad-cow disease epidemic and a controversial valuation
of natural capital. 7
In general, these inputs are being used in increasingly large
amounts and the environmental impact of their production is
growing. This means that the pollution, climate change and
negative human health impacts of agriculture are on the
rise. There are several ways in which PA could ameliorate
these. For farmers, financial benefits are most likely to
promote adoption, meaning policy tools are required to
encourage the potential environmental safeguarding.
One major way PA may promote positive environmental
outcomes is through optimised resource use. By applying
inputs in a more targeted manner, the total quantity could be
reduced, thus reducing waste, as well as increasing returns
on the environmental penalties associated with producing
and using these inputs. Furthermore, these approaches
would cut the total amount of fertiliser employed, reducing
6
the risk of run-off in rainwater, a major pollution route.
Controlled traffic farming minimises soil compaction and
can thus reduce the risk of flooding.
POSTNOTE 999 February 2015 Precision Agriculture
Overall, PA can be seen as a means by which agriculture
can become more efficient, maximising output through the
more targeted use of inputs. More environmentally friendly
approaches may prove an outcome of PA though this is not
guaranteed. Any environmental benefits may be marginal
and need to be quantified.
In many cases, PA involves additional components for
farming equipment. This can have beneficial effects in
intensive agriculture contexts However, the reliance on large
machinery may promote further increases in field size. The
trends of hedgerow removal and making agricultural
landscapes more uniform are thought to negatively affect
8
biodiversity. In addition, this tendency increases reliance on
fossil fuels to power equipment, although, in the case of UK
farming, extensive adoption of machinery is long-
established.
High input agriculture is most likely to show environmental
benefits, through its potential for waste reduction.
Assessments of PA may need to be made on a case-by-
case basis. Optimal outcomes are expected where
environmental impacts are factored into design.
Drivers and constraints of PA uptake
The 2014 Precision Agriculture: An Opportunity for EU
Farmers Potential Support with the CAP report for the
European Commission identified 4 main factors influencing
the decision to invest in PA technology: commodity prices,
energy prices, labour prices and the need to adhere to
9
environmental regulations. High commodity prices, as well
as high costs of energy and labour can increase the
profitability of PA techniques. PA can help farmers to
comply with environmental requirements set up under the
EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) as well as at
national level. PA can be used to meet laws protecting the
health and safety of workers, as well as public safety
18
regulations. In a 2012 survey conducted by Defra , the
major factors in uptake were, in order:
! Increased accuracy
! Reduced input costs
! Better soil condition
! Improved operator conditions.
In the same survey, half of the farmers that did not use PA
said that lack of cost-effectiveness or high initial setup costs
prevented their adoption of precision technology.
This agrees with the above mentioned EU report, which also
identified high initial costs as an important constraint for PA
adoption. High setup costs are being tackled by grants by
Defra for PA technology.
There is a perceived difficulty in identifying the cost-
effectiveness of PA use amongst a background of crop and
weather variation. Coupled with high start-up costs, this
creates uncertainty in investment in new technologies. This
is coupled with a lack of industrial standards for PA
Page 3
technologies having resulted in the production of
incompatible technology components.
Also, the overall effect of the environment must still be
quantified for PA techniques. While advice on precision
farming can be obtained through a number of private
consultants, the national farming advice service (FAS) may
need strengthening, to continue to provide independent
information on PA. With the increasing amount of data
collected on farms, issues of data protection and privacy
could become more prominent.
Estimates of economic impacts
A number of PA techniques are simple in their conception,
such as yield monitoring, but implementation depends on a
farmer being confident on a return on an investment,
assuming that issues such as grants or loans, acquisition
9
and social context are addressed (see above). In 2003, an
analysis of 5 farms over 6 years showed the benefits of
variable rate application of nitrogen fertiliser in cereal
production exceeded returns on uniform application by an
average of 22/ha, with the system costing between 5 to
18/ha depending on the system chosen, assuming a 250
ha area with 30% responding to treatment. This positive
study showed an improvement even with a relatively low
grain price and high interest rate, though it assumed a large
10
farm size. The technology studied cost between 4,500 to
16,150. This study illustrates some essential points, though
it would need to be repeated to account for type of farm,
interest rates, and the costs of technology and so on. The
breakeven point for implementation is above 75 ha for the
cheapest system, higher than average farm size and using
technology that represents an investment of 16% of average
annual income. However, this depends on capital
expenditure, training, interest rates, depreciation and the
actual gains in yield or quality.
In the above mentioned EU Precision Agriculture report, a
review of 234 studies between 1988 and 2005 showed PA
to be profitable in 68% of the cases. This clearly does not
take into account the increased precision and reduced cost
of technology. Also, the COPERNICUS EU Earth
Observation Programme will provide some satellite imaging,
at >10m resolution for free. The most successful PA
technique used so far is controlled traffic techniques,
9
reducing machinery and input costs by up to 75%. These
techniques are most useful in grain crops, however PA
could offer higher returns on crops that garner a higher price
for increased quality. For instance, the UK has a large soft
fruit and grapes market, where quality is highly important.
This demonstrates the complex nature of investment in PA,
but how valuable it can be, both economically and
environmentally. In particular, the nature of the loans used
by farmers is going to be important due to the large capital
costs.
POSTnote 999 February 2015 Precision Agriculture
PA perception by key stakeholders in the
agricultural sector
Defra
Box 3. Common Agricultural Policy reforms
The Common Agricultural Policy budget accounts for EUR 362.8 billion
of the EU budget, for 2014-2020. This is a complex system made up of
two pillars.12
Pillar 1:
! 76% of the budget of direct payments.
! 30% of which depends on greening cross-compliance requirements.
! Greening requirements include crop diversification, protecting
Ecological Focus Areas (using landscape features, nitrogen fixing
crops, cover crops, fallow or buffer strips) and the protection of
permanent grassland.
! Also includes basic payment, support for regions of natural
constraints, young farmers scheme, small farmer scheme.
Pillar 2:
! 24% of the budget for Rural development.
! 30% of this was for measures for environmental and climate change
and 70% for rural development including investment aid and grants.
DEFRA has created a UK Agri-Tech strategy for agricultural
technologies with funding of 160 m, including a 70 m
investment in bringing technology projects from the lab to
agricultural market and 90 m for Centres of Agricultural
2, 11
Innovation.
Farming Associations
The NFU are broadly supportive of the aims of precision
agriculture, reporting positively on agricultural engineering
events, and it states agriculture is making improvements
through improved resource use efficiency and innovations
13
such as precision farming. It is also directly involved in an
application for a Centre of Agricultural Innovation (above) as
a core partner. However, it also accepts that PA leaves
some bemoaning change. The Countryside Association is
broadly supportive of the NFU but with no campaigns on the
14
topic of precision agriculture.
The high input costs and high retail value of organic farming
make this type of agriculture highly suitable for the
implementation of some PA techniques. Furthermore, some
goals of PA (e.g. reduced input use) are in line with core
organic principles. For this reason, the Soil Association
gives information on some PA techniques such as controlled
traffic (above) and may prove a useful partner in supporting
15, 16
the implementation of PA.
Common Agricultural Policy reforms
The key piece of legislation regarding agriculture in the EU
is the Common Agricultural Policy, which has recently been
reformed. This represents 38% of the EU budget and the
aims of the new reforms include sustainable management of
natural resources. Several of the new policies could
facilitate a transition to PA, though this is not a necessity.
12
The funding is described in Box 3.
POST is an office of both Houses of Parliament, charged with providing independent and balanced analysis of policy issues that have a basis in science and technology.
POST is grateful to XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX for researching this briefing, to XXXXXXXXXX for funding his/her parliamentary fellowship, and to all contributors and reviewers.
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Page 4
The rural development priorities include fostering knowledge
transfer, enhancing ecosystems, poverty reduction,
economic development and promoting resource efficiency.
Depending on how PA is implemented, all of these aims
could be met. With a strong agricultural and engineering
sector, the UK could be in a strong position to make the
most of these opportunities.
Education
The Home-Grown Cereals Authority (HGCA) is the grain
and oilseed division of the Agriculture and Horticulture
development board and has been flagged up as a good
example of being able to provide independent advice to
farmers. It is a levy based system and as such, farmers and
those within the supply chain pay for advice. This includes
information the HGCA have gained from investing the levies
received into applied research. The HGCA also runs training
events, helps with business development, monitors pests
and crop diseases and has some calculators for roughly
calculating the profitability of PA. It is able to provide advice
that is independent from both government and industry and
facilitate the adoption of best practice and knowledge
transfer.
The government sponsored Farming Advice Service is a
service run by Defra, which has advice on a range of issues
including cross compliance rules, greening requirements
and legislation involving water use. They provide articles
and training days for free and work with a number of other
groups such as the HGCA and the Campaign for the
Farmed Environment (CFE), an industry led group.
Defra also have some apprenticeship schemes, managed
17
through the Rural Development Programme for England
and National Rural Networks for devolved regions. For
example, the National Rural Network for Scotland has
teamed up with Barnardos to tackle the skills gap in Moray
17
through farm-based work placements and training. These
projects link into the Europe-wide LEADER initiative (from
French - Links between the rural economy and development
actions).
Precision Agriculture is one of the major forces rapidly
changing the nature of farming. As more processes involve
computing and unmanned aircraft, the skills base required
for effective farming will grow. These initiatives are the early
signs of a shift in how agriculture is perceived. This industry
has changed radically in the past few decades from a
laborious, manual sector, to one that employs state-of-the-
art computing and robotics equipment. Moving forward,
education systems will need to reflect that, in addition to an
intimate knowledge of plant growth, practitioners will need
skills in information technology and robotics maintenance.
References
For references, please see:
POSTnote reference document 123-456-789
POSTNOTE 999 February 2015 Precision Agriculture
References for POSTnote 123-456-789
1) Defra, (2013), Agriculture in the United Kingdom, UK,
Available at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/agriculture-in-
the-united-kingdom
(Accessed: 30/01/2015)
2) Defra and BIS, (2013), UK strategy for agriculture
technologies: executive summary, UK, Available at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-agricultural-
technologies-strategy/uk-agricultural-technologies-strategy-
executive-summary
(Accessed: 30/01/2015)
3) Parliamentary Office for Science and Technology, (2014),
Phosphate Resources POST Note, Available at:
http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/post-pn-
477/phosphate-resources
(Accessed 30/01/2015)
4) Howarth, R, et al., 2005, Millenium Ecosystem
Assessment, Chapter 9: Nutrient Management, in
Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Policy Responses,
Island Press, Washington DC
5) Joint Nature Conservation Committee, (2010), Council
Directive 2000/60/EC establishing a framework for
Community action in the field of water policy (Water
Framework Directive) Available at:
http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-1375
(Accessed 26/01/2015)
6) Parliamentary Office for Science and Technology, (2014),
POST note 478: Diffuse Pollution of Water by Agriculture,
Available at:
http://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/research/bri
efing-papers/POST-PN-478/diffuse-pollution-of-water-by-
agriculture
(Accessed at: 30/01/2015)
7) J. N. Pretty, 2000, An assessment of the total external
costs of UK agriculture, Agricultural systems, 65, 113-136
8) W.S. Lee et al., 2010, Sensing technologies for precision
speciality crop production, Computers and Electronics in
Agriculture, 74, 2-33
8) Parliamentary Office for Science and Technology, (2012),
Balancing Nature and Agriculture, Available at:
Page 5
http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/POST-PN-
418/balancing-nature-and-agriculture
(Accessed at 30/01/2015)
9) Joint Research Centre and The European Commission
and the Monitoring of Agricultural Resources, 2014,
Precision Agriculture: an Opportunity for EU Farmers
Potential Support with the CAP 2014-2020, Available at:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/20
14/529049/IPOL-AGRI_NT%282014%29529049_EN.pdf
(Accessed 29/01/2015)
10) R.J. Godwin, G.A. Wood, J.C. Taylor, S.M. Knight, J.P.
Welsh, 2003, Precision Farming of Cereal Crops: a Review
of a Six Year Experiment to develop Management
Guidelines, Biosystems Engineering, 84, (4), 375391
11) Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Preferred Bidder
Selected for First Centre for Agricultural Innovation, 2014,
Available at:
https://agritech.blog.gov.uk/2014/12/24/preferred-bidder-
selected-for-first-centre-for-agricultural-innovation/
(Accessed 30/01/2015)
12) European Union, 2013, Overview of CAP reform 2014-
2020, DG Agriculture and Rural Development, Unit for
Agricultural Policy Analysis and Perspectives, Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/policy-perspectives/policy-
briefs/05_en.pdf
(Accessed 30/01/2015)
13) Countryside Alliance, 2014, 5bn boost to mobile phone
service is welcome still more can be done, Available at:
http://www.countryside-alliance.org/ca/campaigns-press-
releases/5bn-boost-to-mobile-phone-service-is-welcome-
still-more-can-be-done
(Accessed 30/01/2015)
14) National Farmers Union, Opportunities in Agricultural
Engineering, 2013, Available at:
http://www.nfuonline.com/news/popular-now/opportunities-
in-agricultural-engineering/
(Accessed 30/01/2015)
15) Soil Association, 1996, Just Say N2O: From
manufactured fertiliser to biologically fixed nitrogen,
Available at:
http://www.soilassociation.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=trTY
wH9W6Ck%3D&tabid=1862,
(Accessed 30/01/15)
16) Tim Chamen, Can the principles of controlled traffic be
used sustainably to good effect within organic farming
POSTnote 999 February 2015 Precision Agriculture Page 6

systems? CTF Europe, Available at:

https://www.soilassociation.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=ro5
gixpGl60%3D&tabid=1886

(Accessed 30/01/2015)

17) RDPE Network, About Us, Available at:

https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/rural-
development-programme-for-england-network/about

(Accessed 30/01/2015)

18) Defra, Farm Practices Survey October 2012, Available

at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/farm-practices-
survey-october-2012-current-farming-issues

(Accessed 30/01/2015)

POST is an office of both Houses of Parliament, charged with providing independent and balanced analysis of policy issues that have a basis in science and technology.
POST is grateful to XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX for researching this briefing, to XXXXXXXXXX for funding his/her parliamentary fellowship, and to all contributors and reviewers.
For further information on this subject, please contact the co-author, XXXXXXXXXX. Parliamentary Copyright 20XX. Image copyright XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX