Daltons Atomic Theory states

that:
1. The elements are made of atoms, which are tiny
particles, too small to see.

2. All atoms of a particular element are identical.

3. Atoms of diff erent elements have diff erent properties:

their masses are diff erent, and their chemical reactions are
diff erent.

4. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed or split.

5. In a chemical reaction, atoms link to one another, or

separate from one another.

6. Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form

compounds.Although we have learned that atoms of the
same element can have diff erent masses (isotopes),
and can be split in nuclear reactions, most of Daltons
Atomic Theory holds good today, over 200 years after John
Dalton described it. It is the foundation on which modern
chemistry has been built.

Mr. Daltons permanent reputation will rest upon his

having discovered a simple principle, universally
applicable to the facts of chemistry in fi xing the
proportions in which bodies combine, and thus laying
the foundation for future labors his merits in this
respect resemble those of Kepler in astronomy.

HUMPHRY DAVY, 1778 TO 182

Honors
Dalton did not marry and had no children. He remained a
faithful Quaker all of his life, living modestly.In 1810, he
declined an invitation to become a member of the Royal
Society. In 1822, he was elected without his knowledge. In
1826, he was awarded the Societys Royal Medal for his
Atomic Theory.In 1833, the French Academy of Sciences
elected him as one of its eight foreign members. In 1834,
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences elected him as a
foreign member.

The End
When he was 71 years old, Dalton had a small stroke or
paralysis as it was known then. A year later, a more
signifi cant stroke left him unable to speak as clearly as he
once could. In 1844, when he was 77, another stroke hit
him. He died aged 77 on July 27, 1844.

His scientifi c reputation was so great that when his body

was placed in Manchester Town Hall it was visited by more
than 40,000 people paying their respects. John Dalton was
buried in Manchester in Ardwick cemetery.
J. J. Thomson

Lived 1856 1940

J. J. Thomson took science to new heights with his 1897
discovery of the electron the fi rst subatomic particle.He
also found the fi rst evidence that stable elements can exist
as isotopes and invented one of the most powerful tools in
analytical chemistry the mass spectrometer.

Early Research Work

Atoms
When Thomson began his research career, nobody had a
clear picture of how atoms might look. Thomson decided he
would picture them as a kind of smoke ring and see where
the mathematics would take him. This work, for which he
was awarded both the Adams Prize and his masters
degree had the title A Treatise on the Motion of Vortex
Rings. Although the title and beginning chapters might
suggest applied mathematics is the major theme, the
headings of the fi nal sections are revealing:

Pressure of a gas. Boyles Law

Thermal eff usion

Sketch of a chemical theory

Theory of quantivalence

Valency of the various [chemical] elements

Thomson was pushing his powerful mathematical mind

towards a deeper understanding of matter.

Electricityand Magnetism
 In addition to atoms, Thomson began to take a serious
interest in James Clerk Maxwells equations , which had
revealed electricity and magnetism to be manifestations of
a single force the electromagnetic force and had
revealed light to be an electromagnetic wave.In 1893, at
the age of 36, Thomson published Notes on Recent
Researches in Electric ity and Magnetism, building on
Maxwells work. His book is sometimes described as
Maxwells Equations Volume 3.

J. J. THOMSON

I venture to give an alternative method

of regarding the processes occurring in
the electric field, which I have often
found useful and which is, from a
mathematical point of view, equivalent
to Maxwells Theory.

Thomsons Most Significant

Contributions to Science
Discovery of the Electron The first subatomic
particle

In 1834 Michael Faraday had coined the word ion to account

for charged particles that were attracted to positively or
negatively charged electrodes. So, in Thomsons time, it was
already known that atoms were associated in some way with
electric charges, and that atoms could exist in ionic forms,
carrying positive or negative charges. For example, table salt is
made of ionized sodium and chlorine atoms.Na+: A sodium ion
with a single positive charge Cl: A chloride ion with a single
negative charge In 1891 George Johnstone Stoney had coined the
word electron to represent the fundamental unit of electric
charge. He did not, however, propose that the electron existed as
a particle in its own right. He believed that it represented the
smallest unit of charge an ionized atom could have.Atoms were
still regarded as indivisible. In 1897, aged 40, Thomson carried
out a now famous experiment with a cathode ray tube.
A cathode ray tube, similar to that used by J. J.
Thomson. The air in the tube is pumped out to
create a vacuum. Electrons are produced at the
cathode by a high voltage and travel through the
vacuum, creating the green glow when they strike
the glass at the end. Here a metal cross casts a
shadow, establishing that the electrons are
traveling in straight lines. Image by Ztonyi
Sndor.
Thomson allowed his cathode rays to travel through air rather
than the usual vacuum and was surprised at how far they could
travel before they were stopped. This suggested to him that the
particles within the cathode rays were many times smaller than
scientists had estimated atoms to be.So, cathode ray particles
were smaller than atoms! What about their mass? Did they have
a mass typical of, say, a hydrogen atom? the smallest particle
then known.To estimate the mass of a cathode ray particle and
discover whether its charge was positive or negative, Thomson
deflected cathode rays with electric and magnetic fields to see
the direction they were deflected and how far they were pulled
off course. He knew the size of the deflection would tell him about
the particles mass and the direction of the deflection would tell
him the charge the particles carried. He also estimated mass by
measuring the amount of heat the particles generated when they
hit a target.Thomson used a cloud chamber to establish that a
cathode ray particle carried the same amount of charge (i.e. one
unit) as a hydrogen ion.From these experiments he drew three
revolutionary conclusions:Cathode ray particles were negatively
charged.Cathode ray particles were at least 1000 times lighter
than a hydrogen atom.Whatever source was used to generate
them, all cathode ray particles were of identical mass and
identical charge.2300 years earlier, Democritus in Ancient Greece
had used his intellect to deduce the existence of atoms. Then, in
1808, John Dalton had resurrected Democrituss idea with his
atomic theory. By Thomsons time, scientists were convinced that
atoms were the smallest particles in the universe, the
fundamental building blocks of everything.These beliefs were
shattered by J. J. Thomsons experiments, which proved the
existence of a new fundamental particle, much smaller than the
atom: the electron. The world would never be the same
again.Physicists now had an incentive to investigate subatomic
particles particles smaller than the atom. They have done this
ever since, trying to discover the building blocks that make up
the building blocks that make up the building blocks that make up
the building blocks of matter.Although many building blocks
have been discovered, Thomsons electron appears to be a truly
fundamental particle that cannot be divided further.Thomson was
awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery.

J.J.Thomson in his laboratory operating a

cathode ray tube. Although a brilliant
theorist, a brilliant designer of
experiments, and a brilliant interpreter
of experimental results, Thomson was
notoriously ham-fisted with laboratory
apparatus!
 As the cathode rays carry a charge
of negative electricity, are deflected
by an electrostatic force as if they
were negatively electrified, and are
acted on by a magnetic force in just
the way in which this force would act
on a negatively electrified body
moving along the path of these rays, I
can see no escape from the
conclusion that they are charges of
negative electricity carried by
particles of matter.
J. J. THOMSON

The Atom as a Plum Pudding

Based on his results, Thomson produced his famous (but
incorrect) plum pudding model of the atom. He pictured the atom
as a uniformly positively charged pudding within which the
plums (electrons) orbited.
Invention of the Mass
Spectrometer
In discovering the electron, Thomson also moved towards the
invention of an immensely important new tool for chemical
analysis the mass spectrometer.At its simplest, a mass
spectrometer resembles a cathode ray tube, although in the case
of the mass spectrometer, the beam of charged particles is made
up of positive ions rather than electrons. These ions are deflected
from a straight line path by electric/magnetic fields. The amount
of deflection depends on the ions mass (low masses are
deflected more) and charge (high charges are deflected more).By
ionizing materials and putting them through a mass
spectrometer, the chemical elements present can be deduced by
how far their ions are deflected.

Discovery that every Hydrogen

Atom has only one Electron
In 1907 Thomson established using a variety of methods that
every atom of hydrogen has only one electron.

Discovery of Isotopes of Stable

Elements
Although Thomson had discovered the electron, scientists still
had a long way to go to achieve even a basic understanding of
the atom: protons and neutrons were yet to be
discovered.Despite these obstacles, in 1912 Thomson discovered
that stable elements could exist as isotopes. In other words, the
same element could exist with different atomic masses.Thomson
made this discovery when his research student Francis Aston
fired ionized neon through a magnetic and electric field i.e. he
used a mass spectrometer and observed two distinct
deflections. Thomson concluded that neon existed in two forms
whose masses are different i.e. isotopes.Aston went on to win
the 1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for continuing this work,
discovering a large number of stable isotopes and discovering
that all isotope masses were whole number multiples of the
hydrogen atoms mass.Some Personal Details and the EndIn
1890, aged 33, Thomson married Rose Elizabeth Paget, a young
physicist working in his laboratory. She was the daughter of a
Cambridge medical professor. The couple had one son, George,
and one daughter, Joan.Humble and modest, with a quiet sense of
humor, would probably be the best words to summarize
Thomsons personality.Although scientific research consumed
most of his time, he liked to relax cultivating his large
garden.Despite his modesty he became Cavendish Professor of
Experimental Physics at Cambridge a role first held by James
Clerk Maxwell at the age of just 27. In his role as Cavendish
Professor, he would often sit doing calculations in the very chair
Maxwell himself had once occupied.As Cavendish Professor, in
addition to making remarkable discoveries himself, he paved the
way to greatness for a significant number of other scientists.In
fact, a remarkable number of Thomsons research workers went
on to become Nobel Prize Winners, including Charles T. R. Wilson,
Charles Barkla, Ernest Rutherford, Francis Aston, Owen
Richardson, William Henry Bragg, William Lawrence Bragg, and
Max Born.Thomson was aged 40 when Ernest Rutherford arrived
at his laboratory. After the meeting, Rutherford wrote of
Thomson:He is very pleasant in conversation and is not fossilized
at all. As regards appearance he is a medium-sized man, dark
and quite youthful still: shaves, very badly, and wears his hair
rather long.The icing on the Nobel cake for his research workers
came 31 years after Thomson was awarded his 1906 Nobel Prize
in physics, when his son George won the same prize in 1937.
Georges prize was also for work with electrons, which he proved
can behave like waves.

ERNEST
RUTHERFORD
 Lived 1871 1937.

Ernest Rutherford is the father of nuclear chemistry and

nuclear physics. He discovered and named the atomic nucleus,
the proton, the alpha particle, and the beta particle. He
discovered the concept of nuclear half-lives and achieved the first
deliberate transformation of one element into another, fulfilling
one of the ancient passions of the alchemists.
Rutherfords Most Significant Contributions
to Science
Discovery of alpha and beta radiation

Starting in 1898 Rutherford studied the radiation

emitted by uranium. He discovered two diff erent types of
radiation, which he named alpha and beta.By allowing
radiation from uranium to pass through an increasing
number of layers of metal foil, he discovered that:beta
particles have greater penetrating power than alpha rays
By the direction of their movement in a magnetic fi eld, he
deduced that: alpha particles are positively charged By
measuring the ratio of mass to charge, he formed the
hypothesis that:alpha particles are helium ions carrying a
2+ charge With his co-worker, Frederick Soddy, Rutherford
came to the conclusion that: alpha particles are atomic in
nature alpha particles are produced by the disintegration of
larger atoms and so atoms are not, as everyone had
believed, indestructible when large atoms emit alpha
particles they become slightly smaller atoms, which means
radioactive elements must change into other elements
when they decay Soddy, who would himself later win a
Nobel Prize, was exhausted by the eff ort of keeping up with
Rutherford:

Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for

his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the
chemistry of radioactive substances.

The age of planet Earth and

radiometric dating
 Rutherford realized that Earths helium supply is largely
produced by the decay of radioactive elements. He devised a
method of dating rocks relating their age to the amount of helium
present in them.Based on the fact that our planet is still
volcanically active, Lord Kelvin had indicated Earths age could
be no greater than 400 million years old. He said Earth could be
older than this only if some new source of energy could be found
that was heating it internally.Rutherford identified products of
radioactive decay to find out how old things are.the new source
the energy released by radioactive decay of elements.He also
began the science of radiometric dating using the

Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth,

provided no new source (of energy) was discovered.
That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now
considering tonight, radium!
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
Discovery of the atomic nucleus
After his move to the University of Manchester, Rutherford and
two of his researchers Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden
carried out in 1909 one of the landmark experiments in science
the gold foil experiment.Rutherford began the experiment
because he was puzzled that fewer alpha particles than expected
from a sample of radium were reaching a new detector in his
laboratory. The only medium the particles had to travel through
was a small amount of air. The huge amount of energy carried by
alpha particles should have allowed them to travel through a
small amount of air undisturbed, with no deflection.He gave
Geiger and Marsden the task of investigating to what extent
alpha particles would be deflected from their usual straight-line
path by passing through a very thin sheet of gold foil.Geiger and
Marsden used a sample of radium to provide a stream of alpha
particles, which passed through the gold foil. Where the alpha
particles ended up was recorded electrically.The results were
remarkable. If gold were a smooth substance on the atomic scale,
as it had been thought to be, a slight deflection of alpha particles
would have been expected. In fact, most alpha particles shot
straight through the gold without deflection, but a few were
deflected enormously, some even bouncing straight back from
the gold. Rutherford was utterly amazed by this. Famously, he
likened it to firing a battleships guns at tissue paper and
discovering some of the shells were bouncing back from the
tissue paper.Rutherford explained the effect by proposing a new
model for the atom, replacing the plum pudding model of his old
mentor J. J. Thomson.His new model required atoms to have a
small, very dense core. And with this step, inspired by his
experimental data, Rutherford had discovered the atomic
nucleus.
J. J. Thomson had modeled the atom as a
sphere in which positive charge and
mass were evenly spread. Electrons
orbited within the positive sphere. This
was called the plum pudding model.

The results of the gold foil experiment allowed Rutherford

to build a more accurate model of the atom, in which nearly
all of the mass was concentrated in a tiny, dense nucleus.
Most of the atoms volume was empty space. The nucleus
was like a fl y fl oating in a football stadium remembering
of course that the fl y was much heavier than the stadium!
Electrons orbited at some distance from the nucleus. This
was called the Rutherford model. It resembles planets
orbiting a star.Although Rutherford had received a Nobel
Prize for his earlier work, his discovery of the atomic
nucleus was probably his greatest achievement.A 26-year-
old Niels Bohr , who was spending time as a research
student in Rutherfords laboratory in 1912, was intrigued by
Rutherfords model of the atom. He could see that in terms
of classical physics, the separation of charge into positive
nucleus and orbiting electrons was unstable. He explored
the implications of such an atom, leading directly to the
fi rst quantum model of the atom the Rutherford-Bohr
atom.Rutherford and Bohr became the best of friends; they
and their wives would often vacation together in later
years.
 Ernest
Rutherford

Lived 1871 1937.

 Ernest Rutherford is the father of nuclear chemistry and
nuclear physics. He discovered and named the atomic nucleus,
the proton, the alpha particle, and the beta particle. He
discovered the concept of nuclear half-lives and achieved the first
deliberate transformation of one element into another, fulfilling
one of the ancient passions of the alchemists.

Most Significant Contributions to

Science Rutherfords
Discovery of alpha and beta radiation

Starting in 1898 Rutherford studied the radiation emitted by

uranium. He discovered two different types of radiation, which he
named alpha and beta.By allowing radiation from uranium to pass
through an increasing number of layers of metal foil, he
discovered that:

beta particles have greater penetrating power than alpha

rays

By the direction of their movement in a magnetic field, he

deduced that:

alpha particles are positively charged

By measuring the ratio of mass to charge, he formed the

hypothesis that:

alpha particles

With his co-worker, Frederick Soddy, Rutherford came to

the conclusion that:alpha particles are atomic in nature
 alpha particles are produced by the disintegration of larger
atoms and so atoms are not, as everyone had believed,
indestructible

when large atoms emit alpha particles they become

slightly smaller atoms, which means radioactive elements
must change into other elements when they decay

Rutherford coined the terms alpha, beta, and gamma for the
three most common types of nuclear radiation. We still use these
terms today. (Gamma radiation was discovered by Paul Villard in
Paris, France in 1900.)Rutherford began his investigation of alpha
and beta radiation in the same year that Pierre and Marie
Curie discovered the new radioactive elements polonium and
radium.

I have to keep going, as there are always

people on my track. I have to publish my
present work as rapidly as possible in order to
keep in the race. The best sprinters in this
road of investigation are Becquerel and the
Curies.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
In 1907 Rutherford discovered that radioactive elements have
half-lives he coined the term half-life period to identify the
phenomenon.Rutherford was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for his investigations into the disintegration of the
elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances.

The age of planet Earth and

radiometric dating
Rutherford realized that Earths helium supply is largely
produced by the decay of radioactive elements. He devised a
method of dating rocks relating their age to the amount of helium
present in them.Based on the fact that our planet is still
volcanically active, Lord Kelvin had indicated Earths age could
be no greater than 400 million years old. He said Earth could be
older than this only if some new source of energy could be found
that was heating it internally.Rutherford identified the new source
the energy released by radioactive decay of elements.He also
began the science of radiometric dating using the products of
radioactive decay to find out how old things are.

Lord Kelvin had limited the age of the Earth, provided no new source (of energy)
was discovered. That prophetic utterance refers to what we are now considering
tonight, radium!

ERNEST RUTHERFORD
Discovery of the atomic nucleus
After his move to the University of Manchester, Rutherford and
two of his researchers Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden
carried out in 1909 one of the landmark experiments in science
the gold foil experiment.Rutherford began the experiment
because he was puzzled that fewer alpha particles than expected
from a sample of radium were reaching a new detector in his
laboratory. The only medium the particles had to travel through
was a small amount of air. The huge amount of energy carried by
alpha particles should have allowed them to travel through a
small amount of air undisturbed, with no deflection.He gave
Geiger and Marsden the task of investigating to what extent
alpha particles would be deflected from their usual straight-line
path by passing through a very thin sheet of gold foil.Geiger and
Marsden used a sample of radium to provide a stream of alpha
particles, which passed through the gold foil. Where the alpha
particles ended up was recorded electrically.The results were
remarkable. If gold were a smooth substance on the atomic scale,
as it had been thought to be, a slight deflection of alpha particles
would have been expected. In fact, most alpha particles shot
straight through the gold without deflection, but a few were
deflected enormously, some even bouncing straight back from
the gold. Rutherford was utterly amazed by this. Famously, he
likened it to firing a battleships guns at tissue paper and
discovering some of the shells were bouncing back from the
tissue paper.Rutherford explained the effect by proposing a new
model for the atom, replacing the plum pudding model of his old
mentor J. J. Thomson.His new model required atoms to have a
small, very dense core. And with this step, inspired by his
experimental data, Rutherford had discovered the atomic
nucleus.
J. J. Thomson had modeled the atom as a
sphere in which positive charge and
mass were evenly spread. Electrons
orbited within the positive sphere. This
was called the plum pudding model.
 The results of the gold foil experiment
allowed Rutherford to build a more
accurate model of the atom, in which
nearly all of the mass was concentrated
in a tiny, dense nucleus. Most of the
atoms volume was empty space. The
nucleus was like a fly floating in a
football stadium remembering of
course that the fly was much heavier
than the stadium! Electrons orbited at
some distance from the nucleus. This
 was called the Rutherford model. It
resembles planets orbiting a star.

Although Rutherford had received a Nobel Prize for his earlier

work, his discovery of the atomic nucleus was probably his
greatest achievement.A 26-year-old Niels Bohr, who was
spending time as a research student in Rutherfords laboratory in
1912, was intrigued by Rutherfords model of the atom. He could
see that in terms of classical physics, the separation of charge
into positive nucleus and orbiting electrons was unstable. He
explored the implications of such an atom, leading directly to the
first quantum model of the atom the Rutherford-Bohr
atom.Rutherford and Bohr became the best of friends; they and
their wives would often vacation together in later years.

Discovery of nuclear reactions

Rutherford achieved the first deliberate transformation of one
element into another. In 1919 he converted nitrogen atoms into
oxygen atoms by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles. This
nuclear reaction was written:
14
N + 17O + 1H

Discovery of the proton

Finding hydrogen produced in the nuclear reaction above, Rutherford began to
suspect that the hydrogen nucleus may actually be a fundamental particle, a
building block of all atomic nuclei.He formalized this in 1920 by giving this
particle a name: the proton. The first nuclear reaction could now be rewritten:
14
N + 17O + proton
Predicting the existence of the neutron
Rutherford carried out calculations of the stability of atomic
nuclei. He found that unless some neutral particle were added to
the nucleus, the repulsion of the positively charged protons would
cause nuclei to fly apart. In 1920 he named this hypothetical
particle the neutron.James Chadwick, Rutherfords Assistant
Director of Research, discovered the neutron in 1932, proving its
existence by experiment.

Niels Bohr
 Lived 1885 1962.
Niels Bohr
Niels Bohr completely transformed our view of the atom and of
the world. Realizing that classical physics fails catastrophically
when things are atom-sized or smaller, he remodeled the atom so
electrons occupied allowed orbits around the nucleus while all
other orbits were forbidden. In doing so he founded quantum
mechanics.Later,as a leading architect of the Copenhagen
interpretation of quantum mechanics, he helped to completely
reshape our understanding of how nature operates at the atomic-
scale.

Physics Explodes
Bohr was entering physics at a particularly exciting time.In 1897,
when Bohr was 12, J. J. Thomson had discovered the electron.In
1898 Ernest Rutherford had discovered alpha and beta particles
emitted by uranium.In 1905, when Bohr was beginning his gold
medal winning research, Albert Einstein had unleashed a barrage
of new ideas in his miracle year, writing four world-changing
papers on: Brownian motion, the equivalence of mass and energy,
the photoelectric effect, and special relativity.In 1909 Ernest
Rutherford had discovered the atomic nucleus.

Niels Bohrs Contributions to Science

A New Way of Thinking about Atoms Bohr was able to secure
lecturing work on his return to the University of
Copenhagen.Meanwhile, his theoretical physics research focused
on understanding the electrons place in the atom.

Rutherfords work had revealed atoms were made up

of a tiny dense positively charged nucleus. The great
majority of an atoms volume was empty space
patrolled in some way by negatively charged
electrons. Bohr knew that Rutherfords picture of the atom
disagreed with the laws of classical physics. These held
that negatively charged electrons must be pulled into the
positively charged nucleus. Even when he wrote his Ph.D.
thesis, Bohr had stated that it was impossible for classical
physics to explain behavior at the atomic scale.Now he
looked to the new quantum physics of Max Planck and
Albert Einstein for a solution to the apparently impossible
behavior of electrons. In fact, he had started on this track
in Manchester in 1912.Quantum physics had established
that when an object radiates heat or light waves, the
emission comes not in a continuous stream, but rather in
distinct packets of wave energy.Einstein called these
distinct packets photons. Like all waves, photons have a
speed, frequency and a wavelength.Planck had deduced
that the amount of energy carried by a photon could be
found by multiplying just two numbers. These were the
lights frequency and a number we now call the Planck
constant. His equation said E = hf, where E is energy, h is
the Planck constant and f is frequency.Clearly a photon
could only carry an amount of energy which was a multiple
of one number Plancks constant. All other energies were
forbidden. This was the essence of quantum theory light
was allowed to have certain amounts of energy, but was
forbidden from having others.No matter how hard Bohr
worked, no matter how much literature he read, and no
matter how much he discussed the problem with
colleagues, he could not fi nd a way of bringing quantum
theory in other words, allowed states and forbidden states
into the electrons behavior in the atom.Then, in February
1913, came the breakthrough. He heard about the Balmer
Series and the Balmer Formula.
Part of the Balmer Series. These colors of light are
emitted by hydrogen at high temperatures. The
wavelength and frequency of the different colors of light
can be fitted to a formula the Balmer Formula.In 1885 the
Swiss mathematician Johann Balmer had stumbled upon a
mathematical formula that predicted the wavelengths and
hence colors of light emitted by hot hydrogen. There was no
theoretical basis for the formula. It just worked!Now Bohr felt he
was really on to something. He took Balmers formula and used
the new quantum theory to show why it worked. In doing so, he
became the father of quantum mechanics the physics of atom-
scale objects.Bohr proposed that the relation E = hf lay at the
heart of explaining the behavior of electrons. Just like light energy
came in distinct packets of energy, so did electrons. Only certain
values of electron energy were allowed, and they could be
calculated for hydrogen using Balmers formula.Into Balmers
formula Bohr substituted Plancks formula and some other
important numbers including the electrons mass, and its
charge.The mathematical result, in simple terms, was an atom
that (loosely) can be pictured as a tiny solar system. Just as
planets orbit the sun, electrons orbit the atomic nucleus in fixed
orbits. The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the higher its
energy. Unlike planets, more than one electron can share an orbit
around the nucleus.Bohr Sheds New Light on an old Problem
Scientists had long wondered precisely how matter could absorb
and emit light. Bohrs new model of the atom offered the
explanation.Bohr found that electrons are restricted to particular
circular orbits, but can jump from a lower energy orbit to a higher
energy orbit by absorbing light. They can also do the opposite
and fall from a higher energy orbit to a lower energy orbit by
emitting light as shown in the image below.

An electron falls from a higher energy orbit to a lower

energy orbit. Energy is released as a photon of light. The
difference in energy between the orbits is the same as the
energy of the photon, which can be calculated using
Plancks equation, E = hf.

In classical physics, electrons could have any energy. In the new

quantum physics electrons were confined to defined orbits of
fixed energy. Other electron energies were forbidden.When an
electron absorbed energy it made a quantum leap, disappearing
from one orbit and appearing in a higher one across a forbidden
energy zone. When an electron lost energy it disappeared from a
higher energy orbit and appeared in a lower energy orbit
separated by a for bidden zone.Quantum theory explained why
electrons do not radiate away their energy as they fall into the
nucleus, because this process is forbidden: the nucleus is not an
allowed energy orbit for an electron.Quantum theory also
explained the spectra of atoms, showing the intense colors in
spectra were related to the energies of electron orbits in atoms
The emission spectrum of helium. The intense lines
reveal the energies of the allowed electron orbits in
helium.The Founding of Quantum ChemistryBohr showed
that the chemical properties of the elements result mainly
from the behavior of electrons occupying the highest stable
orbit these are called the valence electrons. In doing so,
he explained much of the periodic tables structure and
founded a new scientifi c discipline quantum
chemistry.Bohr Pushes our Understanding of the Atom
Forward by a Quantum LeapIn 1912 many scientists had not
even taken on board Rutherfords model. In 1913 Bohr had
combined mathematics with his powerful physical intuition
to establish that electrons orbit the nucleus in defi ned
paths. It is the Rutherford-Bohr model of the atom that is
still generally taught in high schools.Bohr had opened the
atom to quantum theory: it was now an object that changed
its state in steps rather than smoothly.However, his theory
only worked well for atoms with one electron in other
words hydrogen or ionized helium. Nevertheless Bohrs was
the crucial step. He had opened the door. Soon the
quantum world was knee-deep in industrious physicists
eagerly exploring its bizarre nooks and crannies
 The whole field of work has
indeed from a very lonely state
suddenly got into a desperately
crowded one where almost
everybody seems hard at work.

The Compound Nucleus

With James Chadwicks discovery of the neutron in Rutherfords laboratory
in 1932, Bohr turned his attention to the atomic nucleus.Nuclear reactions
fascinated him, particularly reactions in which atomic nuclei were
bombarded with neutrons to form new, radioactive nuclei neutron capture
reactions.Dissatisfied with the attempts of other physicists to explain
neutron capture, Bohr formulated the compound nucleus theory in 1934 and
1935, publishing it in 1936. His idea was that when a neutron enters a
nucleus, it repeatedly collides with a large number of existing neutrons and
protons in the nucleus, not just one of them. The result is a semi-
stable compound nucleus. This nucleus is in a high-energy state as a result
of the collisions and loses this energy in different ways, such as losing a
neutron or emitting gamma rays.Bohrs theory held center-stage for the
following two decades, until in the 1950s his son Aage played a key role in
formulating an improved model of the nucleus and nuclear reactions.

The Nucleus as a Drop of Liquid

In 1939 Niels Bohr and John Archibald Wheeler cooperated to produce the
liquid-drop model. This model pictured the nucleus as a rotating drop of
incompressible liquid held together by surface tension.The drop of liquid
could be deformed from its basic spherical shape and a large drop of liquid
could fall apart to form two new drops. Similarly a large atomic nucleus, like
uranium, could fall apart to form two new atomic nuclei this is nuclear
fission, the energy source behind both the uranium atom bomb and the
uranium power plant.
The tiny atomic nucleus was modeled
as a drop of liquid held together
by surface tension. Just like a
liquid, the shape of the drop was
spherical, but could be deformed
from this shape.The liquid drop
model had its greatest successes in explaining the properties of heavy
nuclei, such as uranium.The Manhattan ProjectIn April 1940 Denmark was
invaded by the armed forces of Nazi Germany. Bohrs mother was Jewish,
which meant he could face problems. At first, thankfully, there were none.In
September 1943 the Nazis decided to deport Denmarks Jews to
concentration camps. Bohr received a tip-off that the Nazis intended to
arrest him. The Bohr family fled in fishing boats across the short stretch of
water separating Denmark from Sweden. Sweden was officially neutral and
had not been invaded by the Nazis. Nearly all of Denmarks 7000 Jews fled
over the sea to Sweden in 1943.In October 1943, one week apart, Niels and
his son Aage flew from Sweden over Nazi-occupied Norway to the United
Kingdom. They flew in the bomb bays of British warplanes, which came to
Sweden to collect them. Margrethe Bohr remained in Sweden until the war
ended.
 Arnold
Sommerfeld
 Arnold Sommerfeld was a renowned German physicist who did
pioneering work in the field of quantum physics. His work related
to the X-ray wave theory and introduction of the azimuthal and
spin quantum numbers to describe the unique quantum state of
an atom were major breakthroughs in the field of atomic physics.
As a child Sommerfeld was interested more in literature and
history and it was unclear as to what course he should pursue
further. Realization finally dawned onto him when he interacted
with the great mathematical minds like David Hilbert, Adolf
Hurwitz, and Ferdinand von Lindemann and he decided to pursue
a career in exact sciences. This mathematician also completed a
one year term in the defence forces and unlike his other
contemporaries who disliked the military servitude, Sommerfeld
engaged in voluntary military service time and again for the next
eight years. His interaction with mathematician Felix Klein
marked the beginning of a life-long professional collaboration and
Klein was a major influence in shaping the course of Arnolds
career. This genius mind is credited with serving as the doctoral
advisor for the most number of Nobel laureates in his teaching
career spanning over three decades. Read on to know more about
Sommerfelds contribution to the world of quantum physics.

Awards & Achievements

This eminent scientist was conferred with many awards
and honours throughout his life. He was a member of the
prestigious Royal Society of London, Indian Academy of
Sciences, Russian Academy of Sciences and the United
States National Academy of Sciences.

He had received honorary degrees from the Universities

of Athens, Calcutta, Rostock and Aachen.

The famous physicist was honoured with the Max-Palnck

Medal, Lorentz Medal and the Oersted Medal for his
outstanding contribution to the world of physics.

Personal Life & Legacy

 During his stay at Gottingen, Arnold took a liking to
Johanna Hpfner, but his financial condition proved a
hindrance and he was deemed unsuitable for Johanna.
Thus Sommerfeld took up a high paying job of
mathematics professor in Clausthal. Johanna and Arnold
then entered the wedlock and they were blessed with four
children.

The pioneering scientist lost his life in a road accident on

26 April 1951 while he was out on a stroll with his
grandchildren.

This famous scientist is the eponym for the Center of

Theoretical Physics in the University of Munich.
Trivia
Though he was nominated for the Nobel Prize, the most
number of times than any other physicist, this eminent
scientist never received the award

Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld

 ATOMIC
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