Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Prof. Ke Xu
1
Q&A 2
= + + ...
x p q r
Uncertainty of mean
evolve as a function of N? 0.8
0.6
m = / N
0.4
0.2
0.0
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# of measurements
s
= xt
N Students t
distribution
Homework due a week from today in class
Alice and Bob are re-enacting Cao Chongs weighing experiment. They found two
types of rocks, one type being ~50 kg in weight, and the other being ~20 kg in
weight. Now for an elephant that weighs ~1 ton, the measurement could be done
with 20 of 50 kg rocks, or 50 of 20 kg rocks.
Alice argues that the first approach gives a more precise result as more
rocks will introduce more error. Bob argues that the second approach is better as
the error from different rocks tends to cancel out each other.
Calculate the uncertainty of the final result for the two approaches for the
following two cases: (A) The absolute measurement uncertainty for each rock is
fixed to be 0.5 kg. (B) The relative measurement uncertainty for each rock is fixed at
2%. Which of the above two approaches win out for the two cases? (C) Is there a
mathematical form of uncertainty-weight relationship for each rock that would lead
to equal uncertainty of the final result for the two approaches?
4
Hardware devices for noise reduction
Modulation
Moves the measurement to higher f (reduces flicker noise)
Separation of real signal at the modulated frequency from random noise
Flicker noise is a form of noise that exhibits an inverse AC type of measurement. 1/f = flicker noise. removing
frequency power density curve. Flicker noise has a 1/f the 100hz frequency. doing spectroscopy. the sample is
characteristic, or a "pink noise" power density spectrum. emiting light. singanl chopping: a) plate with sluts
roates with fast speed, light can only pass through the
slut, using the rotation frequency chop the beam and
Signal chopping measure the frequency of the light.
5
Lock-in amplifier
Picks up only signal at the exact same frequency as the reference signal
Reject signals/noises at other frequencies
6
Improving S/N through averaging -repeated experiments
Software base.
5
increasing the
measurement, the
Improvement in S/N
4 noise would be
reduced.
3
0
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# of measurements
7
For moving targets, averaging and smoothing 8
Moving
average
Quadratic fitting
quartic fitting
Cutoff frequency
10
Performance characteristics of instruments
Dynamic range: Useful working range with reasonable sensitivity (or, for
linearly calibrated systems: range of linear response)
11
Generation of calibration / working curves 12
Most
straightforward
Extrapolation
x Matrix effects
+ + Subject to
instrument
instability
http://www.chromedia.org
core valence
nuclear molecular nuclear
electron electron molecular
transition vibrations spin flip
transition transition rotations
micro-
wave
Visible light: 400-700 nm 16
Absorption of water