Principles of Ideal-Fluid Aerodynamics Krishnamurty Karamcheti Profesor of deans and Arner ‘Staford UneryPreface ‘The alm of this Book i 1 explain the basic principles and analytic tmethods underlying the theory of he motion of an deal Rud (an inviscid {incompressible uid) andthe oe ofthe theory in describing and predicting the flows associated with the moon of certain bodies of aerodynamic interest such at wings and bodies of revolution. I have attempted 0 fesribe ideal aerodynamis, although restricted to certain problems, tsa branch of theoretical physic. ‘The subject is developed ftom basic principles showing clearly the ‘complementary features of physi! understanding and the mathematical handing of the theory. The intention isto show the role of physical ‘understanding in mathematical formulation o bring out the motivation forthe mathematical language and methods employed andthe neces for ‘spplying a certain amount of mathematical rigor in aeving at physically "ppeaing solutions. The book i writen to serve a elcomained text atthe senior undet= radate or frtyeat graduate level. The idea isnot a ive inadequately ‘plained sluions to many special problems, but rather to present, fora few selected practical problems, 2 unied treatment leading from base principles to practically meaningl revs. A lage part ofthe book deals With general concepts and mathematical methods, alway elated, however, to the solution of problems, In this way T Rope thatthe book wil efor the valuable Funetion of teaching subject matter tlaed to a broader ‘methodology that wl ead logically to more advanced topics and methods infid mechanics itshould be of nterest to students in various disciplines, Sch a8 applied mathematics, physics, and engineering, "Thi book has grow out af lectures on aerodynamic theory which 1 have offered for the last decade and which have been receved with considerable enhusi.m. Its Beeause of the students’ encouragement CT venture t publish them, Tam greatly indebted to Professor lmgaré Flgge Lote for reviewing the manserpt and for many valuable suggestions and discussions My "pei thanks ae dv 19 Dr. Maurice L. Rasmusyen who read the mand Seopl and offered valuable cc's, Many stodents have Felped me nthusistialy wth the preparation of the book and my dep poreeation| foe tall of them, i“ face 1 am very grateful to Profesor ©. G. Thetfnt fo frisbing me with orginal prints of aay ofthe How photographs. "Boe al sours of the photographs forthe pats and 9 the ate! Phyial Laboratory, England and 1 am grey obliged to reproduce the photogrs eaeeighe "The original photographs for plates 3 6 Ge, and 7 ae ll Fern ar German puiationy and T wish to ero my ndebedness {om Prepostve sources, Paes 3 and dare after F. Homann, Foch, (Sy Gebiee ds Igeicrween, 7936). nea aftr Pron Soctou der Experimenaipyak, 8, Part} (Legg, 1931), Pate 7 Tre Prandt, The Physcr of Soi and Fas (London, 1930) rr opin was capably handled by Min. Katherine Bradley, Mis Gall Contents INTRODUCTION. 1 Fluid a4 4 Coninaous Medion oe Propertie of t Fi at Res Thermodynamic properties Ciprentaiys Tncompresble Mid; Heat conduction and Teen ak ternal conduct) oe ess 13 Papers of Fluid in Mouon:, Friction or ‘ison: CoS" wong Compresibiy: Hest anaer 14 Lamina and turbalent metins $ Se Nan Parameters: lave mnie of te fos, Frowie number, Reynolis sun, and Mach oumber Poser cheacering compresbty, Prandtl ouaber Palcters on which free and tet tae epend 1.46 Range of Some Paracas s 19 Condon for Nepecung Compresibity Bea; Case of Case of pues : ts Cloister Negectig Gravity Bt 21 15. Nature of the Problem when Compresitiiy Eos are Nelle : “ 1.40 Veli Flow Paterna with Reyaids Number Flow pst ‘Sur bodirs Flow past streamlined bodies 1.11 Varian of Fow Patent Mach number = ILI Bfeiso Veo at High Reyokis Numbers: The Boundary liner Bouniny ayer concepts Some cburcertcn of the I tury yer Teton et Se. 1.43 Comguenee of be Boundsy-LayerConept A ea ad Theory fl 12 ELEMENTS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS 2 Repestaton of «Voor 22 Addon anaSebeacon 3 Betton of 2 ecoe 24 Mapictondy Nember 33 Unevesar 26 govecor 35 Sear otto Vesage 5 28 Vector Product of Two Vectors ee 29. Pane Are ana Vertor 2.10 Veo of Pint of Rotting Rig Body = © 21F Midori’ ets ‘ep 213 Componciaof « Ver 1114 Speristion of Vector 213 Canesan Coordinates and the, Syitam of Unit Vectors 4116 Notion of Cuvanear Coordinates 217 Orogenal Caner Coote: Bap Cina snd april coordinates 7 2.18 Prods of Vectors in Terma of Theis Componsaia | | 2.19 Funedonstnvoling Vector snd Salary 220 Sealer ané Vector Fields 7 2.21 Dilrentation of «Veto Function ofa Sate Varah 222 Cg inh Ut Vesa of Ce md Spr 22) Prmeset Rees | 234 Diterenation of Salar Funton oft Vitor Gonerp of Sgudent 2235 Deen of Vetr Function o Vat: Geter tenor gad’ ofa vector; Relation of diverges, san, tain, and cul the tenor gadieat =n = 1226 Det the Vector Dierental Operator 237 laupion of Vector Funston ofa Sear 22) 228 Line Imtepals:Ceulation 239 Surac egal Dit 230 Volume Inegals <3 7 | : 22 lata Detain of the Grae Hoes 232 Divergence of «Vector Field 233 Con ofa Vator Fd eae 234 Component aa Gras Cecsaion | | 235 Some Reatd Remarks 2236 Retin Between Surice tnd Voie Integra: Grint ‘teorem! Divergence theorem fl 2137 Theorem of Saker : 238 Father Operations. |< 239 Laplace Operator 240 Green's Theorem 241 routional Paid: Scar pois 21 Soleoial Feld Vestr potent : 243 Laps Eguation 244 Porson’ Equation 243 Expenions in Gerarst Orogceal Covnes’ Coors Unit vectors Infitem! dance betwen ve plone ‘ e ° m & 4 a o 6 * poms; Diferential volume and sutace elements, Gradient; Drsergene: Curt Laplacian 2.46 Some Ue! Relations 3. STRESS IN A FLUID 21 Surface Fores and Body Foret 32 Concept of Stree and the Speciation of Sea ata Point 33 Sir i a Flu at Rese: Hygronatepresure 34. Stren Fain Motion 415. Sir ins Noe Viucoes Fai a Motion: Prise 1346 Prenure Dianbusion ma Fld x Rest 37 Concluding Remar : 4 DESCRIPTION OF FLUID MOTION. 442, Laprngisn Method 42. Eulran Method 43) Conectioneiveen he Lagrngiq and Esler Bespns 464 Steady and Unsteady Motos " 45 Steamines 447. Steam Surface and Scam Tubes 415- Reterene Frame and Stati Patera 45. Steam Functions : 4111 Seam Fancon For Axymeretic Motion {422 Station Pointe 5. EULERIAN LQUATIONS FOR THE MOTION OF AN IDEAL FLUID 5.1 Local, Convective and Matra Derivaines 52. Euler's Equation 59 Equa Comration 0 i) Chg uns ot $4, Equation of Enegy : 55. Equston of Sate 36 Equations fran Invieid Compeeabe Pid 7 52 Condition of ncomprestty 33 Consequnce of Incompresiity 58. Eguntons for an Tel hg 5.0 Ina Condi 511 Boundary Conditions for an ideal Fi Candin at wit fant weary: Condition at fe sure 5:12 Condon at int m$413 Steam Functions for Jacompenie Flow a ‘S14 Vector Potts for Icom Flow tie Relation {Be Stream Fonction. ‘518 Bimini of the Body Foes fom te Eqaation ot Matca for a Cera compre Flow Prabien : (6 ALTERNATE FORMS OF THE EQUATIONS 61, Equation of Change. ss 7 62 Comervaton of Maat 221221 I I 3. Comeraton of Momenin | | 64 Comervaton f Energy ‘65. Intl Form ofthe Bgoions From the Pint of View of & hus Repo of Space (66. Integral Form of he Equaons From te Pitt View of inte Fi Region 67, Rate of Changs of« Quanity Following « Fiuidegion 668. Equations of Change ofa Ideal Ps Contents 14 196 19 69 Rt Cane of Qty Flowing egg ‘Spo a 7. EQUATIONS OF DISCONTINUOUS. MOTION. = 114A Staonay Dicontnty a Stdy Flow. 12 & Money bicety a e Uudy Pw fn nd 14 Rams eee ce Be BSRSE BeGE y Content a 9.3. Rate of Chang of Creon: Kein Theorem 8 96 Imoutond ica ss te teens ie 33 Nec romeal 22 cae! 58 Egon for iota Moto nied ed =< 3S 55 atonal Moton aaa \Geened Gta ‘abety rues ibe Pow ofas pues 26 20 Bony Conn Cnn os a ity, Conaiouso ater fl » 4.1 Robe of Coma = 3.2 Sone Toplogia Noos: Cotta Reco ind icone pat Reda td ret ere ecoriile and irecoce cea Sep comes fepon Dooby comet regen Mali comctd pon: ban SS a 9.19 [oon Moun «Singh Coma gon 2 2.14 total Maton ns Dob Come Repon |. | 918 Sema ie 38 9.6 Cond a ty. 2) as 511 Net Component indy a 5.18 Some Fart Proper of ional Motion” Si ‘connected region; Doubly connected region . % 10 919 Stream Fenton andthe Velo Plea Fo mado ‘motion; Axiymetne motion ™ ns UNSTEADY ACYCLIC MOTION. som 101 Mathematical Polen : im 102. Eapanding phere > 103 Problem for Tanning 268) in Ter of Body Fie Reference Frame ve am 104 Trasaing Sphere Evy 103 Fore ona Tranting Body of Atay Shape | >) Son 106 tmpate a 107 The Appaent Maw Tenior Pa TOS. Kine Energy an Unpale Ft 109. Moment ons Transat Bod) so 1010 Unto Tranarion Evy 1011 Permanent Tantion an 012 Remarks an STEADY ACYCLIC MOTION on 111 Statement of he Probie 32 2. Simple Pebaomal Saito can 13. Tae Soure Potent 7 114 Souree in « Uniform Flow (Axisymincic Flow vee a Semi- Innit Boy of Revlon). ma2 11.5 Soure and Sink ip « Uniform Flow (Aseyrnerc Flow ovr 1 Closed Boxy of Reston) mm 11.6 Lie Distbation of Sours and Sinai « Unio Flow: [Aisne Flow oer Sender Bodie of Revlon = 331 117 ‘The Dosbiet Potential 33 118 Doubt ina Uniorm Sram; Fw over Spire Be 19 Line Distrbuton of Doubles in « Uniform Seam: Later snd Aneyrnetrc Flow Pat «Body of Revoliion sa. 10 Flow Pat Arita Bode of Revoltion = = 3 ILI Flow Pax an Airy Body ae 1112 Prewurs| a 13 Dace Tila 11.14 Fore on am Arbitrary body: alb'Paradox ist ‘LIS Ciealation atthe Agency of Fore fil ass STEADY TWO-DIMENSIONAL ACYCLIC MOTION... 359 1 Recaption 389 122 Farter Considerations iting the Sevam Poncton |” 361 123. Problem in Terms ofthe Sueam Function 38 124. Unlorm Steam ss : ea 123 Souce Flow 3s 126 Combination of Sours and «Sak tu 3a 127 Double Gueappeee 4 128 Source and Sink of Egul Seng ina Usitrm Seam 1 129 Double in Unfonn Steam: Flow over a Cesar Cylsier| 372 12.10 Flow Past an Array Cnr ms ‘CIRCULATION AND LIFE FOR AN INFINITE WING IN STEADY FLOW... . 376 1341 Giealatory Flow wih Contant Vor - m6 133 Gieulatory ow without Rotation” Vorex Flow EY 3 Gicuation ate Seng ofa Vorex Flow = 2 = | 381 ‘Sceam and Poenal Function fora Vortex Pow EY 1555 Unform Flow Pst Cras Cylinder with Groltion > 32 13.6 Flow wth Cveultion Past an Artery Cylinder a 137. Kata-toucowsi Theorem and the ProBlem of he Cheution “Treaty of Lit a [Nfs Cresain, and the Kutta Conon 30 ‘The Generation of Creation rt 120 Mathai oom Ms ‘OF A COMPLEX. VARIABLE 402 UL General Solution of Laplace's Equation in Two Dimensions: Tnvodction f the Complex Variable mn 6 Nomenclature and Algta of Complex Nombet 5 Geometrical Polar and Exponential Forms of «Complex Namber Function of Complex Number : Analyte Funcion vs eure osc (Cescy Riemann Coitions ae Sone Crean of ay ia Epona emacs 1410 Some Atalytie Functions 1 Grong Sts of Comp i! No : = : 1412 Some Spe Taner | 13 Conformal Trnwormation’Tranfrmaon’ by" Analyse Functions 14.16 Creal Poa of Trormaton | > 1415 Comper ita ik 14.16 The Cauchy Intel Theos: T1417 Integration im Map Connecid Regions 2 | 1418 Some Simple Inge 1419 The Cavhy Integral Forms 1420 Untied Dif ofan Analytic Fonction” | 421 Taylor Sven : 2 Laurent Sere 2) Imepation of Pos wih Sgn’ he Rae ‘Theorem ‘TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION: AND THE COMPLEX VARIABLE eee 151 Complex Potential and Complex Velocity 152. Flows Represented by Some Simple Functions 153 Gievlaton snd Sourte Stength 134 Flow Past an Arbitrary Cinder 155 Flow Pasta Grolar Cynder 1515 ComplerReprseatition of Forse and Moments Acting 00 ‘an Arba Boy: Basis’ Relations 157 Force and” Moment onan Aritary Cylinder: “Kut. Soakowat Theorem 1s Mapping of Flow 189 Transformation of Crcuation an Source Seng 1510 Transformation of Flom ast an Arbary Cybern th Pasta Crear Cinder’ Transformation, Cope pea inthe plane ofthe arbtay svndrs The presur el, Fore apd momeston the afar ender) Rema 0 2 83n, coments PROBLEM OF THE AIRFOIL “6 161 Nomencitre os “ 162 Mapping ofthe Teng age eo 163 Kote Condon andthe Vue of Caton i 164 Liten the Auto ” 165. Moment on the AKO) Moment at soi” Aerodyamic utr ad the momeat abot the aerodynamic ence. 41 166 Veli and PreareDutibtons on he Aio Serace. | 474 162 Tranonmation of Ce ito an Avi os 168 The Joutowat Traaformation ” 163. The Jockowsi Aoi ” 1610 Properties of Joukowsk Aste om 1611 One Arti: Karman Trott sion pr 1612 Theodor’ Method forthe Arian Ail pH ELEMENTS OF THIN AIRFOIL THEORY. cies or m wa m2 oe a3 pt im 36 us 193. Elie Lin Disebuton: tiie Wi 184 Solution or he Arbre Wing Tres Mei Fores snd Moments on ta Arbitry Wing ‘Question ofthe Sales Determination of the Coefisent fy: Methods of Girt and lemgurd Letts = ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY FOR THE FLOW PAST A SLENDER BODY OF REVOLUTION 201 Formihion of he Pablo in Teme of he Perbation 202 Brunagy onion t's Sn’ Body ot Roisin: ee leceslece © root: Grou row or tntcs Pow Paste Sender sy of Reva 203 Runymncic Pow Pat'4 Ser Bey 0 Revlon: Soul by Sows Outeton 204 Grou Pow Pst t Sener Boy of Reon: Sion by Sethe Duca 203. Preure Diao Axl Fo Lt Flow; Pow aan age orvew 206, Foesan the Bn of Ration 281. Monat one Bay of Reston Sekcted Prolene Root sere lens ‘Some Boks “Theorems of Lear and Angus Momentum. CCharceritis of the Flow Fass of To Dimension ‘Source and Vortex Dsribtons Poisons Inegral Formulas Conjgste Fourier Seis : ‘Some legis, a a S S888E9 & “a 9 a “nrChapter 1 Introduction tes, both of which together are Known as thids. Fluid toechanics i very extensive subject encompassing widely diverse topics Sich as the motion of airplanes and mises Owough the atmosphere, Satlites through the outer atmosphere, submarines and ships through Water, the’ swinnming of microscope organisms, the ow of liquids and ue fooes through ducts the ten fr of eat and mass by tid motion, Fropagaton of ound rg” aes nd iis, the sty of ocean wave ees, the atady of srt ane nthe atmosphere, and many 3to- Payal, pephysea nd meleorlogial problems. derodmamts deals Pry withthe motion of it, or, more general. of any gas." The rence ding withthe moton of wero, more evry, of any liquid iSealed fydrochmamic. "A ret del of aerodyares is concerned with the phenomena on wich ig cha hat of on auplane) Sepends, and roduc usually thought of asthe sine of ig “Th pontity of ight esto he are ofthe orc experienced by 2 body moving through i Tis force on the body is wsual resolved nto fo composers one calla Hf in a ireion normal tothe fight Aivection anda ied detion in the body, andthe ote lle dag 8a Section opposed to hat of sion. I the praca! pode offing itis dene to sustain or Ht the body aginst ts own weigh, whereas apis undesble eus it des the motion of he bos, fcinges 0 pend energy (Oy meade of propulsive deve) to compensate fori The prncpal requirement of ecancal ight to have body that fuperenes a lage ft anda low dag. Fortunately there are certain fetiemch atthe wings of an plane which are capable of proouing mmo lift than drag. The sy of it and dag a important pact of Sodynamie, Tae sope of ths book ited to etn aspect ofthe Sted ott and deg. tn parol we shal be concerned many with the Su) of flows read to the motion ofa wing or an arsipte body fmoving with» constant velosty troup otherwse undisturbed atthe ‘then eed 2 ya.2 ea Fi Atrodyamis magnitude of the velocity being sficiett small compared tothe speed Sound in the undsterbed airs AS is Known from observation, essential ‘ierences exist between the phenomena underlying the motion of a body through ac at suficiently low speed and those underlying the mation of the body at high sped a8 compared to the speed of Sound inthe un siturbed ae "We now describe biely some ofthe properties ofa uid that are called into play n determining flows pertaining to our objective ad oulie the approximate Bais on which we shall analyse these ows. LL laid As » Contouous Medion, Fluds, ike all matter, ae made up of molecules. Thus the properties ‘of fad motion sch as are obrerved may be studied on the basis ofthe Irechance of the molecules composing the Bui. Although such a pro- ‘cedure may peat feasibein principle it wilindeed bea formidable tsk to achieve soltions of practical problems. Apart from this consideration, vee ae generaly not tnerested inthe details of the mechanis of the Irolecule What we wish todo ist establish relations between various Imacroscopialy observable quantities pertaining to a Auld at rest or in Irotion. Such observable properties are called macroscopic or bulk properties, They are mean valves in space and tine obtained by taking the average over a ruliciently large volume containing a considerable umber of molecule and suffcently long lime compared Yo a certain Time elated to the mechanics of the molecules. From the macroscopic pout of view this mill mean, in many practical flow problems, sich ‘xtemely small volumes and shoct ime intervals that the variations nthe bulk properties of the fui, wheter at rest or in motion, could hardly be sbserved within those volumes and time intervals. For instance, at hormal temperature and pressure, a volume of 10" ce (a cabe of width {11000 man ll contain about 2.7% 10 molecules, a large number. This being the cate 1s a reasonable approximation Co regard fui, heer at ret or in motion, asa continuous distibtion of mater. We Then speak of the Sid as a continous medium or as a continuum. With fuch 2 pctre of the fui, we call am infinitely small ud element a fd porte "We now consider some ofthe bulk properties ofa fuid. tn ding s0 we restrict oureives 10 fui in which chemical reactions, electromagnetic procestes, radiation, andthe like ae absent. 12. Properties of « Fld at Rest Thermodynamic: Properties. The properties demily, pressure, and Aemperaure ats point gud or & gs in state equitiam are well, Introdston 2 known. Tox ou ideas about the natare of fui, let us reall the notion of presure. At any point tis she magnitude of the normal stress acting ‘on an elemental plane ten passing through that point sce Chapter 3 for ‘more details onthe concept of ster, pressure, and s0 forth) [eit known ftom experience that ina uid at rest ony normal stresses occur apd that, in general, they ae “compressive” innatre. When only normal steses ‘ora, ican be shown easily that at any point they shouldbe equal na Giretions. Its also a matter of experience thatthe force exerted by 2 {uid in stati equim on a solid body submerged init de t only normal sueses ating onthe surface of the bod. "The fact that only normal strstr oocut fr a uid in static equim {nin contrast withthe state of afer fora soldi tate equilibrium (Both ‘being under the action of external forces). It is known that fora solid in tis equliriom both normal and tangential steses ocor in general The abtence of tangential sreses ina ate of state eli ts what dstngtshes ala from asohd and may be conidered asthe property tht ‘dines af. For a uid in static equilibrium, besides pressure, density, and tem= perature, the properties such as internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy ate tke familiar concepts. These various thermedynamic properin snd ‘others like them are not all independent of each other. As show by ‘observations, functional relations exist between them. Such relation are Known a charecteristic uations or uations of ate, For exampe, 2 = PRT, where Risa constant, isan equation of state for a perfect ga. Equations of state for liquids and other gases re not of such imple for Compessiity. All Suds undergo changes in volume under changes ‘of presture and temperature. For fis in static eqilibrium the changes in prewure result from the applied exteral forces and the changes in témperatre result from nonuniform heating ofthe fui. The abi for changes in vohone of a mass of uid is known as compressibility Is wel Kenov that gass are more easly compressed than iid, When a xed mass of afd undergoes changes in volume, its density also changes “Thus the capacity for changes in the density of « ase element of fd is alo known a compressibility. ‘Under normal circumstances, in liguds, the changes in density due to pressure changes are practically unobservable. Density changes due 10 temperature diferences ar, however, nor nelgble in general. If the tenpratue diflerences are sfcietly small, the density changes in 3 liquid ae almost nil and the liquid may then be regarded as an incom resale fd. An incompressible lid some whose elements nderg0 no ‘hanes in vohone or deny.‘ eal Ful Aerodynamics Compressibiity is easily noieable ia gases. In certain exrcumstances, however, the changes in volume or density ofan element ofa gas may be ‘eligily small. In sucha cate, as reasonable approximation, the gas may be regarded a an incompressible Rud Heat Conduction. When 4 fid ia static equilibrium is heated non sniformly, heat may be transfered (without causing motion ofthe Hi) {tom points at which the temperature i igh to those at which itis iow by ‘what called thermal conduction, Consider a surface element situated at ome pointin the Maid. Observations show that under usual eicuristances, the Att fur (whichis the amount of heat tanseted across the surface ‘lement per unit time per unit area) ia the diection ofthe normal the ‘emt 6 proportional to the spatial rte of change of the lemperatute at that point in the direction of the normal The heat flow occurs in the ‘retin of decreasing temperature. Thus, ify denotes te est fux and {Tfon denotes the rate of increase of temperature with distance inthe iection ofthe normal, we have =e son ee where K is a proportionality factor known as the coeffcen of thermal ‘Conductivity o spl athe thermal conductivity. Iisa material poperty ofthe fd, and this ite valve difers (oom Muid to uid. The thermal conductivity ofa Maid is always postive and, in general, a function of Temperature and pretsure. Ifthe context of macroscopic consideration Khas to be Known from experimental observations. The temperature sarlation of k'at atmosphere pressure for water and air is shown in Fig Lt Teis found that the static equilibrium ofa uid in which the temperature is not constant is unstable unless certain coadiions are fulfilled. This ‘nstabity lends to the appearance of conection currents in the Rid. which tend fo mix the Hid in Such a way thatthe temperature is equalized ay 1.3. Properties of a Fld In Motion “The density of an clement of a ud in motion is defined in the same way asa fuid a ext Te concepts of pressure, temperature and other prop- ‘esas known in thermodyearics ae assumed to apply equally well 0 8 fui in motion. Its further assumed thatthe equation of ate obtained for a fuld in thermodynamic equilbrium are equally valid for uds in motion. The reasonableness of these assumptions tests om the fet that for many flow problems thy ead to results that are in stsactory agree: sent with observations. tronetion 5 Friction or Viscosity. Its a matter of experience that even smoothly shaped bosies* moving wth 2 constant velocty through an otherwise dtutbed fuid encounter a resitance to their motion, Similarly, & {id Bowing through a pipe ofers resistance. These observations suggest {ht for Bud in motion tangential stresses in addition to normal stresses fe ol Boe ae ee) Tera cnaty TT ewe earth Loo a a) “neem e141 Thermal onde of water and ‘ocar om any elemental plane prsrng through a pat inthe fd. The “pearance of there tangenal stresses ony when the uid iin motion ‘bnstitutes the phenomenon of inter freon oe eeosty in 2 Aud Such stresses give rise 104 resistance to nonuniform motion of Hud. + Feces ty of vlan magia te diction aoa hn a pate ‘vig nts le‘ Ideal Fd Aerodyamicn Nonuniform motion refers tothe situation in which the veloiy difers from point to point in the Bud. In general, viscosity gies rise not only to resistive tangential stresses bot aaa to resistive normal sreees, Such normal and tangential stresses are called frictional or sisoussireses, They appear only when the Bid {is in nonuniform motion and disappear when the nonuniformitis dit- appeat. They do not occur at all when the fi ein sai equilibrium. For fad in motion itis assumed thatthe viscous strestes occur over and above the normal stresses associated with pressure. For a wide range of flow situations observations ell us that, because of| the phenomenon of viscosy, there can be no relative velocity at all between # moving Suid and a sold body a ther surface of contact, Coeficint of Viscosity. Consider the following experiment. A ‘uid contained between two parallel pats of indefinite exten that are placed ata small distance h (Ge Fig, 1.2). One of the plates i a rest Mowe pte f ai a ey as le he other in moving wth a const vlc U parle 0 isl xc of coiy the Bid ils te in maton, eos a ihe ‘moving pats beng andhat th aon ple bing ner Reine {Engst weet ocr thea athe plates Experiment shows that over ide range of conditions he tangent tes racing ont ofthe pers properioal tothe rene oy utec he aed Snvenly proportional tthe istece Thee we have read aay where js factor of proportionality thai independent of U and h and depends only on the nature of the Bud. The factor a measure of the + Such an expen ipehap nt cay elit it asfords he sip tape fer cur puro A resi txperment tages f the Se unr Cosson ‘Str of te mn os fi nn in the ows pce red yo ‘ene ney oo whch eas tc spn an hoe tay Introdetion 7 scot ofthe flid andi called the coffcen of shea sco or simply the coffer! of esos. ‘Equation (12) states tha the viscous stress is proportional othe wverage spatial rate of change ofthe velocity in the fd over the distance. New ‘considera sila stution in which the fad is moving in parallel plane layers with the came direction everywhere, Let y denote distance ftom 2 ‘iked point measured perpendicular to the layers and lew denote the velocity of a fid layer at a distance y. With w ata funtion of y, the ‘uid #8 said to be in simple shearing motion. There is a shearing ot fangeatal sree between adjacent layers of the did. Tn light of the Interpretation of (12), wa asert thatthe shear stress +a ay point of the fui forthe motion under consideration i given by A eG as) where a before, the coefcien of viscosity forthe Bui in question. Tn generalizing (1.3) fora fd ina more goeral motion, itis assumed that in a wide range of flow conditions the viscous stresses are linearly felted to the rates of strain i the Bid. These rates of stain ae given by Cartan combination ofthe spatial derivatives of the velocity components In these relations there appear two factors of proportionality, both of which are refered t0 a8 coeficients of viscosity. One of thin isthe hear vitconity eoeficient yw already discussed, and te others expesible in terms ofp andthe bulk modus (also known asthe coefficient of bulk fsony) ofthe uid. In many investigations of fui low i is aasmed thatthe balk-vscositycoeicient zero, For motion ia which the Auld say be regarded as incompressible it turns out that because there are no ‘olame changes the viscous stresses d0 not contin any terms involving the Bulk viscouty coefiient. Thos in many fid‘ow problems only one viscosity coefficient oceurs, and this is 4. Fluids characterized by a Telton of the form (13) ae called Newonion fu ‘The coefficient of viscosity, which henceforth shall mean only the shear vscority , as diferent valves for diferent Side and for x particular sid in general, «function of both temperature and pressure. In the context of macroscopic considerations, viscosity, just like thermal eon ‘octvty, has to be known from experimental observations Within & sven range of temperatures and presores the dependence of on tem perature s markedly otiesble, whereas that on pressures hardy sen For gases isan increasing function of temperature for quid is a Feo __visous force R gh gaviy fore “The ft two conditions are satisfied whenever the lengthseale and the speed are such that both Vand a are much greater than Vi. Sins gi about 98 meters, the speeds Vand e shouldbe greater than say 3.2/7 eters “The condition tht > vis one ofthe conditions for necting, compeeabiy effets duet gravy, the oter being that ea. 1.9. Nature ofthe Problem when Comprenibity Eiflets are elite ‘We have sen that when the Mach number is much ee than wy, Fr sand Roate grater than unity, and tha when there is no beat transl Compresibiity effects are negligible. Under such circumstances the problem of « Body moving witha constant speed through a fuid mey be ‘garded as that ofa body moving through an incompressible oid. The ‘mala objective ofthe problem, then, is tha of determining the force on the body. The functional dependence ofthe force is represented as flows 3.FHR) re» eb Fit Aarodymamice ‘When the motion canbe regarded a ncompretbe it is posible (as we shall se lle) to separate the eft of gravity rom the dynamical problem ‘Of the motion of the id. Gravity elt ay be accounted ir by coo- fidering the comesponding state station. Ths beng the ca, the Froude ‘umber may be dropped from consideration, andthe problem reduces 10 that of determining te following fontiona relation forthe ore: F eB) 2H) ‘Our concern i with flows at high Reyoods umber, thats, forR. 2 10% For sich fows ad for setain types of body that are of practical interest, for certain orientation ofthese bodies, the effets of vicotity are ‘generaly confined oa ery thin ayer surrounding the body. Inthe major [art of the ow the vacous effects ae negligible. Tn sch situation iis potsbe to analyze certain important aspects ofthe problem by assuming, that the viscosity i aro or equivalely thatthe Hui i fretieness or Ince. ‘The Reyolds number then doesnot ener the problem andthe functional dependence forthe force is snply FRED, 25) Fe cn pen edb rca es / Reming bets Soran a ee snake ne ee copes tre ae eaten Se ae a re eS Sear a aa genre ee er ee oer ah seca a magma at Sire Sy ESA pn oe eer Seta eect oe rae ies areata be ie Yanan a ne rae oes ee To gern or par aay tet teat be eee eae aoa eee ee ye eo es ae as tv oe ne se path en eon ee hides ong xt vay hog ionomabdateatetee ‘observed froma fame fixed with respect 1 the Body. Ia fat, equiva- leat to hat du o steady ow pasts body tats Kept stationay, andthe ‘velocity far ahead ofthe body is qual othe negative ofthe velocity of the Body inthe inal problem (oe Fig. 18). By steady fow we mena that a1 Suny fom pata fad ay. the velocity a every point isconsanin time. tn the following we refer to ‘ur problem at that of seady flow pas a stationary body. In steady flow steamlines and pate dexcried by fui element are the same. Tr deseribing the vation of fow pateras with Reynolds number we concern oureives wah situations in which compressibility eft are eligible or this is our main concern. Later we describe some qualitative Feature ofthe eects of Mach number on the Mow pattern a high Reynolds Flow Past Bilf Bods. We consider two-dimensional fo¥ past 2 cial ender (Fig. 19). By thia-we menn that the fow pattern is Pie19 Flow pata cure ential all planes normal othe auto he eylinde. Such a ow may be realized approximately over the central pon ofa longeylinde. Plates Tand 4 show the flow patterns for various Reyoolis umber. (In these examples, R= Udy where the diameter ofthe cylinder)ow puts sear inal Regn rte afer Homan 830. Ceeteay ot ed Une re Pte 30 Golde 9). ” 3 Z i 5 g i i 2 sPy ea Fd Aerodyamie For very small Reynolds aumbers (for R less than about 4 the steam nes near the surface are cowely parallel to it. The flow patter is almost symmetial about the dameers ofthe elinder pale and normal to the undisturbed steam. As Rinceases, the streamlines tthe fear ofthe ‘inde widen out more and more to form & closed rei beind it. Ths tegion is known at aepartion region or separation Dubble. ti followed by # layer known asa wake (2c so Plate 4). The separation bubble is separated from the main flow by spac of separation lines rgiating om some poit on each side ofthe rar of the cinder. The points are referred tora separation pols. The Bolin the separation bubble consis of t4o regions ia which the Suid isin circlatory motion, and each ofthese regions ieknown asa vortex. Thus the seperation bubble consist ofa vortex pai. ‘ASR increases, the separation bubble becomes moreand more elongated inthe direction ofthe mainstream. This happens unl acertainvaluof (abou 0) is reached and instability sti. tthe range below this, the separation point moves forward from the rea a Rinereass. TAs rises above ths erical vale, instabilities set in and the vortices become asyrunetial shortly after the Binning ofthe motion, leave the ‘pliner, and move downsream (ce Plates 4and 8). Vorics form, grow. thd lene the elinerpeiodeally. As they move downstream the) form {regular pattern consisting of Joube row of alternating vortices known 8: Karman vortex sret (se Plate 3). A dsinct vortex sitet, as shown in Plate 5. oocre for Reyaolds numbers betneen 0 aad about 200.” For larger Reynolds numbers the procetee become more and more iregular snd complicated as increases, "The variation with R shown by the‘fow pattern around a circular colinder ie chraceiti alto of two-dimensional steady fw past liners (of some other shapes. Bodies that show soch flow characteristics are Known as buf fod. We may describe bff body a8 one for which separation of the fw tr the surfce takes place wel ahead of the rear purtleadingtoalarge wake, Itshould be noted that wheter or nota body [bl depends not only on the tape ofthe body but alto oa its orien tion. This illustrated by Pate 6, which shows the ow past an elite blind. When the elders oriented wth ts major ais normal tothe Stream it behaves ike a Buf body. When the cylinder i oriented with is ‘major exis pale to the stream, i behaves unlike a Mu body “The variation with Reynolds number of the fw patterns aud three. imeesional buf bodies, each asa sphere, iin sme ways sn arto that fround two-dimensional bodes. There are, however, certain fifereces, ‘ut there islet information on teee-iensionl Bu bode low Past Streamlined Bodic, stcamlined body may be described sone for which separation of flow. fi oecurs, does 50 nea he rea of the Introdacton ” te in wee = hae th pee inea Fd Aerodypamice Introduction a body and'the consequent wake is Yery artow. An example, shown in Plate 6s the elite einer ith its major axis in the diecion ofthe rear, Expetiments eval that to achieve a steamined ody the body ‘must be wel rounded and slender and elongated inthe dietion of motion {nd thatthe surface of the body should come to a point or an edge atthe {car with a getle curvature, A slender body of revolution is another Crample of 4 streamlined body. So also is 8 cylinder of the “aro” Shape mich ivemployed for iting wings. Atvery low Reynolds umbers the Bow pattern de fo steady two-dimensional flow pasta streamlined ‘jlinder, sch a the slender eliptical cylinder shown in Plate 6 is no ‘Eierent from that fr flow past a ut body Tene SS <=. Fg 10 Ai nomena Significant difereaces, however, are observed a high Reynolds numbers for which the flow pattern depends onthe orientation ofthe body with ‘espect to the main team, We conser the case of flow past an aol (Ger Plate 7). The oretation ofthe aif with reepect to mainstream is Known asthe angle of attack, denoted by «tis measured between the vcction ofthe undstured mainstream ard a celernce live, knows 35 the chord, drawe from the leading edge othe traling edge (se Fg 1.10). ‘At small valves of «the streamlines nar the body foow the ato surface lovely right othe tening edge (sea of Pate 7). Theresa very arrow wake. 'As the angle «increases, changes i the low pattern occu, primany con the upper surface ofthe aio. Separation begins atthe feat a the Upper side and moves forward a = increases. Correspondingly. a wake is feverated which grows Se increases. At a cetain value of the flow Separates earth leading edge, ving rise to large wate, jst a inthe flow pasta blu body (ee of Plate). In pratal applications we are interested i stations a sl "The fw pater foe ite wigs large ina direction normal to tht ofthe main steam isin many ways similar, a leas over a major portion ofthe tring to that for an airfl. Complications develop for short wings.4“ ead Aerodynamics Iaotucton 8 For steady flow pata slender body of revolution with is axis in the ietion ofthe mui stream we fad that separation gocurs cose 10 the fear and thatthe wake is very thin ‘Our concern would be wih steady flow at high Reynolds numbers past iroils and large Bate wings at small angles of attack and past bodies of| revolution with their axes parallel to the stream. Furthermore, me a¢ intrested only in speeds for which the compressibility effets are neglibe ‘To have some appreciation of the effets of compresibilty we given the next ection a bref desription f the eect of Mach number onthe flow pater, a high Reynolds numbers around an aitfol and a body of LL Variation f Flow Paters ith Mach Nomber ‘We may cosider steady flow at high Reynolds number pasta aia 1a gentle angle of atack. late 8 shows the variation ofthe flow pattzn wih incesing Mach number M= Ulan, where U i the spee of the Undsturbed steam far head of he airfoil anda isthe speedo ound in theunditrie stream. The photographs of fow wee canes by what tale the shadowgraph method, which responds ta vantons of density {Sve tothe second spatial derivative) in the fw Bel.* "These photograpte show tat the flow pattern changes conkeably 3, the Mach number is ineeased. The Bow Beis for M below a certain Stlue are completely diferent from thos or M abot hat valve. Above this value, whch may bereferred to a8 he critica! Mack number, he Row patterns are characterized by the appearance of earrow rons throveh Shieh considerable spatial variations of density cecur. Such fepons are Inown as shoots” Aewe proceed inthe drction ofthe main steam the ensty increases, almost abruply, through the shocks. As M increases {tom the tical value but il remains ess than unity, shock rs appear fn ihe forward pat ofthe sil and move back wih increasing strength towards the traling edge. ’As exces ty Ba i silclse ota detached shock wave appears infront ofthe lading edge andthe other shocks appearing on he surface Pte. Flow pt ons) as gem ml ost a ars ange ot ofthe sro occur a or near the aling ee, As M continues 0 inrese. SCL Now Wrsprson on psoas Eom of rd Uns fren theleadng ee sbock moves lose to that edge. Ifthe nose of he afi Pine i of Goce is sharp as is common for upesonic airfoil,” the leading edge shock is ached to that ege when M exceeds ceri ale greater han unity. ‘On the basis ofthe fow patter eahibied at various Mach numbers is usual to divide the whole ange of posible mach number into several atts, cach part being associated witha diferent type offlow. The ang of * Se ced feo for xxii fh od er eth 1 Fora eed dpon of rp fsck coal cd refereesa eabtind Asodysmiss ace Inodscton » ate shadowgrapi tvs Mich numberof pole in gh. Couey THondd ney Pes. Pest nao Mourn Detgpnenti F ram Tigh Sed Pont Mawar ar, 3.« eabFaid Arodymaice IM extending from zero upto the critical Mach number is known asthe _sbsonicrange. Inthisrange the ow is characterized bythe absence of any Shocks, It exhibits all the features of ieompressible ow, although (radual density variation take place as M increases, In this range the {ocal Mach number (he rato ofthe loeal speed to local speed af sound) i Sabsonicat every point of the ow field. At subsonic Mach numbers ompresible ow past a slender aifoit may be related to an equivalent incompressible fow problem. “ “The range of M extending from the vital value to some value above tunity but close to unity i wally refered to a the anon range. Tn this ange the flow fel is characterized bythe appearance of shocks on the surface Of the Body, and detached leading edge shock when M is ‘lose to unity, Insuch rang the rather complied fow eld consist of ‘arly locally) subsonic an partly Qoclly) supersonic repions “The range n which Miz reat than the value for whic there are only leading edge and trailing edge shocks with no others on the aro surface (Gncept perhaps neat the trang edge) it Known asthe supersonic range {artis range the flow almost everywhere ix supersonic A smal locally Subsonic ow region may, however, exist ea the eading edge, prtclarly if the aitfoi has round nose. The range of Mach numbers exceeding & Certain supersonic Mach number (which depends on te station at hand) [sefered to asthe Aypersot ange. ‘Steady flow past » body of revolution exhibit: similar ‘fates at Aierent Mach pumbers. Pate 9 shows shadowgra2h pctres ofa pro= {tile ree fight. 1.12, Etets of Viecolty at Hgh Reynolds Namber: The Boundary Layer Wie now return to the consideration of the problem of steady ow at high Reynolds amber pas xed rigid streamlined body. Although we. ire primarily concerned with flows with negligible compressibility efls, the following considerations are equally appieabe ia the essentials when Such effete ae present. When compresaility elects exis, acount must be taten of eneey exchanges and temperature dierencs. In tansonic ted supersonic lows complications develop fom the appearance of shocks Boundary Layer Concept. tn 1904 Prantl introduced a fereaching iden, now known asthe boundary leer concep, and showed the way 12 Treat satsfactonly the flow past a sueamined body at high Reynolds rmbers(Prandt, 1904). He showed that at high Reynolds numbers the ects of wcoy are confined to 0 eery hin layer close the body and a thin wate extending fom the Body. When a uid fows pasta ined body, Iavroducion a tecause ofthe ect of viscosity, no mater how smal, the layer of uid mediately adjacent tothe surface ish rest. Away ffom the wall he {uid itn motion with a certain velocity. This means that as the solid frac is approached foi layers are retarded. The retardation aries out ‘tthe action ofthe viscous frees. Depending onthe viscosity ofthe fd, he retarding eect may etend only to short itances orto large distances ftom the buy. It is obterved that for Huis with small viscosity, such a8 Sater and ar trict speaking, ia ows at large Reynolds mumbee) the ‘Rurdatoneflecs ae confined onl toa very thin epon cote othe body. Ta such region the veloc rises rapidly from Zero atthe walt ts salue in the min steam. In that ropon the spatial rate of change of Whacky ielocty gradient) ina dietion normal othe body is args, and Tomequcnly the viscous forces would not be negligible even ifthe vis: ont were small Ousie that epon the veloc gradients are small and {he vscous lores there would be nelle. The thin region cose to the ‘ody in which the vsconty eft ae confined is called the retardation Inger or, more popularly, the boundry layer. Outside the boundary layer the Hid maybe regarded toa high degree of accuracy as an ivise ud Boch theory and experiment have supported the correctness of Prandts boundary layer conept ‘Some Charactrnics of a Laminar Boundary Layer. ‘The flow inside boundary layer maybe laminar or turbulent or partly laminar and party frbulent. We now consider the characteris ofa laminar boundary layer. "ror the sake of clarity we consider steady two-dimensional flow pasta reduce the coordinates z andy as shown. yer, we exec he fling: {fst thend of the lending edge the uid approuches the velocity U, the Meaty ofthe undstarbed steam, at all dstances normal tothe pate; Seany section + Iying on the plate the velocity will be zero at the plate, Po U Sat’ ne to the value Ua short distance, say y= 6, from the Fiat." This situation is lsrated in Fig 1.11 in which the distribution Tr he velocity component parallel the plate, wth distance y fom the plates shown, ‘The sale for yi greatly exaggerate. We call the boundary layer thickness. Tt varies along the plate, being zero at he leading edge thus fare) 26) Wenow wish oestimate (2). Wedo thin the basis ofthe consideration {hi within the boundary layer the viscous forces are of the same order of magnitude as the inertial forces estimating these forces fora fd ‘Gement inthe boundary yer we ave to bea in mind the fact that withina ea Fait Aerodyamics the layer the changes inthe y-direction oecut in & much smaller distance than inthe advection, so that the flow situation in the Boundary Iyer st any section = does not depend sensibly on what happens behind that fection But mostly on what happens ahead. This means that within the oundary layer the characterise length fr changes inthe -dieton i he Urtance © sel ofthe section under consideration from the lang edge of the plate. The characteristic eng for change i the sdrecion 1s the ‘oundar-Laerthlkness 82) a he section under consideration iia = : ‘Pa 141 Schone epson ofthe oundiry le ot pate [Now consider an element situated at the section z. Using considerations similar to those given in Section 1S and noting that xis the characterise length for changes in the 2-direction, we find thatthe =-component of the inertial free acting gn the element er unt volume is proportional to (Ue. Similany, we find thatthe 2-component ofthe viscous force on the ‘lement per unit volume is proportional to rl ot equivalently to wU/®, ‘where sis the shear street on the pte a the section 2; "4 = nl). Since the viscous and inertial fores Ar ofthe same magnitude, we hve BE og wet a) A Using this relation and introducing a Reynolds number R, defined by Ry Urs, we obtain a2 (12) as Introduction a ‘We note that the boundary layer grows a the square root of the ditance ‘rom the leading ee, The boundary layer thickness i proportional to the square oot ofthe kinematic viscosity» Thus the thickness 8 decreases with», with B= Oar yO, Since 42)/z is proportional to V1/Ry thes Wer ent “Thus, if R, becomes very large, As becomes very smal, and the ow over ‘the pate with every thin boundary layer becomes nearly that of uid without viscosity, However, ao matter ow salle i, there always ‘the boundary layer with » daisive effect onthe fow at the plate ‘Consider now the behavior of the vtcous stress at he plate. We cbeerve that fpU varies a/R; thas the stress becomes smaller sR, becomes larger. Eveo at large values of there is «finite, although small, viscous sree on the pate, The sess vis proportional to V> and ‘Smaller. the smaller the Kinematic vicouty of the Maid. However, 00 mater how smal i, there i Bite Wscous stress and consequently & ‘acous dragon the plate. "We now consider the variation ofthe velocity and pressure within the ‘boundary layer, Let and v denote the 2 and y-components of the ‘elocity. In the boundary ayer, a aay = wis function of, with = 0 Mya Oandu = Uaty ~ 8. Theoretically, xapproaches Uasymptotically “nd therefore the defnion of 3 cannot be made precise. We may, how- ‘rer, define ba the distance within which w reaches a certain pereatage of U, aay for instance 99 pe cent of U. Nowy since 8 vais wih must also sy with 2; thos w = a). Sine ri equal to n(uldy) atthe plate tnd ry decreases with, the slope du@y atthe plate decrenes with =. ‘Using this result an the fact that increses with 2, we may represent the ‘aviation of w schematically se Fig, 1.12)- Wenote thatata ven distance From the plate w dcreaae with the distance from the leading edge. ‘Since wis. function». + andy hee wil bea e hat wll also be a fune- tion ofsy. This inthe ollowing manner, Consider the rectangular tbo shown in Fig 1c the thickest ofthe box is unity inthe direction ‘normal othe y-pane. Two sides of the box ae normal othe =-directon ftdstuated at an ffletesimal distance de. The othe two sides are normal 40 the y-direction, one of them Beng the surface ofthe pate and the other located at y= y. Fuld flows into and out of the box through its sides. However, thee is no accumulation of mats i the box. We therefore require the rate of flow of mat into the box to balance the rate of flow of Inass out ofthe bor. Fluid owe into the box through the face (i. notmal to direction) situated at = and flows out through the acea oe ‘e112, Schematic epresiion of he entycbon tte bundy Ieyrover st pte ye ea eeeeareaan fave ec i foto to arate aio afte sara Saco uo in hot ts ag reer reeenn bert soe re ag earns Se eee teee Tin nic ancer aera, sectee ove es Decreyee mie a Ly yaa consent es sindey ‘oe 2 —«—§_ ie 143 hurting he med for be macy in te Boudry. Introduction “ rate of outflow of mats through the yface at yi equal to ov (a) de -Equatng this ate of outfow tothe et inflow through the aes, we have ands ue, 9) — ale + ds dy ‘We may st, neletng higher order terms, wat de) = uaa) + We then have cane [Bay Not ta uf nea tthe pte ¢ ss A eee ofthe Boudry layer y= the compo fae nt ite Bras xassya [Be woo nh sft ion we my sie a (2, ~ 2M) Pare ‘We thus conelude that the o-elocity is smal, the ratio o/U beng ofthe same order of magnitude as de ‘We next consider the variation of pressure across the boundary layer “The pressure fore in the yitecon,2p[dy per unit volume, on 8. Aud ‘ement inthe boundary ner tof he same order of magnitude as that of {he inertial force, pe pr unit volume, on the element in that direction.” We therefore have Bape pd 3% fm~ opm (32) “The magnitade ofthe pressure change Gp across the boundary layer is therefore given by 33) ‘We conciud that inthe Eoundary layer patil variation of pressure inthe“ esl Fait Arodynanics s-irection andthe atl change in pessre aross the ayer ae negligibly fall At we shall ee ater, this conclusion has far-reaching implications. "Te solution fr the problem of stead compressible flow in laminar boundary layer longa fat pat, asormulated by rand, was obtained by Blasio in 1908 His oltion shows that 8 (deine asthe valu of y when 1 within 0.8 per cent of U) sven by Ong 34 “The local skin friction coeicient given by = 1) 0084 yeu” VR, ‘Te ition of tyes Bound persia a ifecst tans en pte Ta engl ation eh Sst hay te reaehed by ange core, Sich tcune sone SfltdnbsiorSinFp Lie wht plated pan the parm = yUjrz, Als shown in the figure are experimental results obtained Ty Nate (st lt nen he ear a the exprinet re cant eteame «Ths agement ae fod foe al sn Fee Sie aces APE The expel ot ae ty ipann ona Don (93,195) 6y Set neste Shotts evo ate in snd eur f1aninar bound aye lon a pn ste, Siia eu ao ad forte boven bye Hong j2aS che ircoamconcion me, eee tee Search srce's ever ap compared eh bona etn tod hth itor af ison cov ta ‘ister sry gs User ch oon at pat ea TyNctpicsttncheom ofbondny ie slongs sed wt a Meda obey erdeang ies of crt et castt pieby ues uae ee pen sre rn cu dee ran nrc, Tears pen 97928 Be 0 "Pr tow pa a carved sures he ves component paral te sales ego be tou yr nt comune ee Senet Sa Gas pct aoe ance © Silty te pees sg Pte boecary yer iav a tnon fs: We irc ite es etalon tn U,= Ufa) = ke, 0) po= pie) = He, 43) 36) Iotrodueion ° ‘The subscript sigs thatthe quantity refers to the ede of te boundary layer, Tarbalent Boundary Layer. Observations show that at high Reynolds jpumbers the ow in «boundary lye doesnot rman lamina allalong the surface of& solid body bat ually becomes turbulent at some distance 17a: 116 Vly dion a he mins Doda ae ont ple, Enperienalr for Narr (90 ftom the leading eg. The transition from lamina o turbulent motion crignates from the instability (in some form or other) of the laminar ‘oun and dependton various factors.” The risition takes place over ‘region and not aa point. The value ofthe Reyeolds umber Rat which transition to turbulent flow bepnsisknown athe eital Reynolds mumiber ‘denoted by Ry wu Under normal cicumstancet Ray fr the Boundary “Forse el on i ject (vc i nt aly dato, fora, Koabe td Seber 959« ea Fad Aerodyeanics of ee eee ‘i185 Loe kn ition on 2p Dit mesuramens by Lpion a Daina 95 1930 ner along nt plates inte rane fast 00108, Tis means hat forthe problems tha wil concer sate the boundary layers ikl 10 rent ne mt par of he oy. ere thatat maton rus pronounced miing of he ids the seaslngefect anaconda tater n the rection “inal S'n sure trolentrntow tat iran motion. Ih ctv tet tke plc erent 2 fever Nowe the rem ec i " Leta soy mineanarna tant dre sng yd fe ene Sunday ayer stil speable {he boundry inyer ss rb vace the frbulen sation hos fo aerate a a ig 116-Bewciny Iyr ees orlow over curved we Iourdection i ‘ie out asthe solid surface is approached, there always layer of Bid ‘eat othe surface that is laminate. To yue a layer, whicht known at the laminar slayer, the velocity rss rapidly from ero atthe wall o 8 ‘xan value In the sublayer the velosty gradient norma othe wall ‘severe than it would be ifthe boundary ljer were wholly laminar. This bing the cate, the local shear tes a the slid surface i much greater ‘han it would be ifthe boundary ayer were fina, This is usted in Fig. 1.15 in which messured friction coeffceats fora turbulent boundary layer along & plate are also shown. "The velocty distribution acrow gees rte en a v e137 Conparion of mina rb oun yer rot ‘urbuleat boundary lay i shown schematically in Fig 117, ia which the Blasi distribution for laminar layer is also included for comparison ‘The mechanism of te fow 3 turbulent boundary layer i complicated and diferent fom that ofthe flow in «laminar boundary layer. Come: ‘quenly, the order of magnitude estimates given forthe lamina ayer do Mot apply directly fo the trbuent layer. There is stil o detailed theory for the flow ina turbulent boundary layer. ‘There ae, however, semi ‘empiri solutions forthe turbulent boundary-layer thickaess and loca {ction coefficients that ar usefil. Ics found that for Reynolds numbers in the range 10 to 10 the boundary-layer thickness andthe log shear stress r show the fllowing dependence on the Reynolds number Ry ‘Recall that inthe Teinar cas and feo vay as Ret Seperation. An important caracteitic of the boundary Iyer i that under certain circumstances it leads toa reverse Gow ove some region lose othe wall tha isthe solid unface. By reverse ow we mean fw in- etait Aerodynamics «direction oppotite to that of the mainstream outside the layer, When fever flow sppears, it wusly leads to separation ofthe boundary layer od consequety of the mainstream fom the body. It preduces& flow pater that is completely diferent fora the patter that would exist if {here were no separation. lustrations of separated flows have already been gen. Weal nt enter hee nto a description ofthe time develop- ‘ent ofthe revere flow and the consequent separation; for such a de- Seription reference may be made to Pranl (1935 or Prandtl and Tietjens (1934) oF SeBlicing (195). ‘In ig 18 we tow scbematcally the steady fow pattern inthe vicinity of separation after separation is completed, Also included in the figure low na epcon arc distributions of w the velocity component paral tothe wall, with {te distance normal to the wall, the ycale being exaggerated.” The figue shows thatthe sreamline branching from B divides the fow ‘Coming fom the eft ad right. Such a streamline is known asthe diding “ireanfine ores mentionéd before asthe separation streamline. The point ‘Bis the separation point, We se that ofthe separation point uly = 0 [Atthe wall ahead of the separation, 2u/2y is postive; downsteam ofthe ‘separation itis negative. Mo the separated region, close tothe wal, the ow i in the reverse ireion, tnd consequerly the presure there must increase ia the ‘rection of the ouside main stream. Thus, to produc the sate of afits Shown in Fig. 11 intaly the flow nthe boundary layer coe tothe wal {a tubjectid to an increasing pressure inthe forward diction. Now. ecording tothe boundary layer concept, when the boundary layer snot “cpurated fom the wal, the pessre atthe walls approximately equal to ‘ahh pressure atthe edge of the ayer. We therefore concloe that the Pee of revere flow a he wall and the subsequent separation ofthe sin Sow sould have resulted from an inereasing pressure inthe forward ‘iection, tat fom a situation in which the gradient dp, is postive, Such a gradient i refered to, for obvious reasons, a an adterse pressure (radon! "We nay ts date tat separation ofthe boundary layer rests rom an aderse pese grade. | ss The separation pint, Bn Fig LI, notte poit of minimum rt er i p= 0h num pe ete Pint bead of B. The gate the adverse pre pain te hore ‘the distance 4B. ca a Lora Tn the proce ofan adverse pres grin amine yer my aihermepanto etScometuet pe Win Ty “TTT iz m FE LIP Muse tn wake bebe turbulent Boundary layer, eof te intense mitng deo uesece, Sete able to eit epraon than lamina lpr : “Benin conus So ot yd domi ration, In paren, thessomption ta fe psa gaint el si de hel nog Ao op Cations ao ar forthe ow inh extend spuraed epon al ‘unsteady and turbulent. saieanmelins a Waker. Consider steady flow, at high Reynolds number, pat a sity a pte of te a age of ea ind the tl the pte, the boundary layer alg the two Sides ofthe pate leave the pate and coaeace nt oe repiontehind the ste. Soch region's Kaown as awake region where vacous fet are Sill dominant With tcening distance downsteats the mth of the “eines wie mea ety dee simile wake appears inthe case of steady ow at bigh "A igh Reynolds err pas a statonaysteamlined body ata antl angle of ach2 dea Fa Aerodynamics (See picture a of Pate), Its found that the fiw in the wake is usualy farbutent eventhough it might have otgiaated from laminar boundary layer along the body. For sreamlied bodies at gente ange of attack in high Reynolds number flows, the wakes are still thin compared to the ‘harateriic distance along the instream direction "Thin wakse appear only fa two instances; either the boundary Iyer isnot separated from th body or. if separated, remuning very close to the fear end ofthe body. When th boundary layer separates, as it does for ‘ult bodies and sueamlined bodies at “adverse” angles of attack, a fxtended ora thick wake involving vortices and turbelece appears is the ffow (See Pats 4, 5,6 and 7). Thin-wake flows, a8 contrasted with {hiskovake Rows, are not ony pracilly important but azo ar amenable Ao approsioate calculations, We sein the next ection how this may br ‘done. 143 Cousequences of the Boundary-Layer Concept ‘Consider steady high Reynolds number fow past a stationary stream ined body whichis at gentle angle of attack (Fg. 1.20). On the bass of eects tt 1 ct 174-120 Pow puta sreamlond ody a high Reyos mater the boundary layer concept and the characteris ofthe Sow within such ayer, we ay summarie the main features ofthe How a lows: ‘The veou eles ae conned tothe boundary layer andthe wake bebo te nip, te fw ete he boundary ayer he vot fae nei ine bowen yer the veel component paral othe wall is ra from ne athe wl to he maint ye Ue) the ee fhe ye “Toe welt compost oral toe wal very eal tropa te ee. ‘Ate eget yet at yaa” “Toe chugs oper ses the ayer egy prea seals etre appotiaty the proms Hh eg ofthe onda ye: 0) = pl = phe) “We my tt he outer flow “pre” hs presare onthe sunday ne. Tetrion ie we, nied Ce e121 tne fom copending tg 1.2, Inve ee towel cane dere pos ratheatical rays int two repos) Ane opom cog {be boundary ayer ow log tc bay and ibe wake Selig etd Ghat Sree og tthe man eT ow a Snr the imped per Pe wth ely) at he ee Be) (Pp 2 and 129) Te consoing he slo fhe nc te tedioheucln vic hn so ptt rm he etre of he tow. The leona Sais the socalled mop condiion = Ope Oat eval “Teun a he now int go thoy bye andthe wate. Inconsructig the salon for tone fo he fd cra hgh ape of can otto Ta log Sold may th Bouitycoeion v= Ui) and t= Nida sol iy ag ty Ue) and = pf) tte“ es Fit Asodynanice ‘We note that prior neither the edge ofthe boundary Iyer, nor Us), nor p(a) are known, However, onthe basis ofthe characteristics of the ‘oundaryayer lm, the two problems outlined above may be solved ‘spproximately as fliows: Fit we sole the problem ofthe over fow. To do so we asurme that the net boundary ofthe outer ow cotnent with the uface ofthe body and ‘rface behind he boy, sacha sutace being obtained by lg te tikes of the pate go tomo while raining te ef ofthe wake onthe man Sow. ‘The prtiem tes tat of the sendy flow of an inva id pas te GD ‘ous wih the eft ft wake propery taken ito account. The boundary ‘ondion thn i thatthe ow be fangetal tthe wal the aca ip on- ‘Sin. Some appropriate condition should aoe sation the wake urfce. avg aermine! the outer fom, we stack *e problem ofthe inner fw. ‘We sane that the conditions ate edge ofthe inser fw, namely Ui) and (PAsh ace approximately equal othe corresponding vals a the wall od the Take svat gen bythe vid soltion forthe outer prblen. “The procedure may be repeated ifs desired. Under normal cicum- stances one evaluation of the outer snd lane solutions is saisfactory. “The invseld solution gives the presturedstibuton ovr the body and the force and moment resting fom the pressure dstbution. The Solution forthe inner problem gives the boundary-layer thickness, the Weak and most importantly the fritinal force, the s-aledskiriction Ure, on the body. ‘Naturally, the inviscid solution cannot furnish any rs forthe viscous dra ‘Our concer inthis book ts wih the analysis ofthe outer problem. We Ihave seen that thi i he fet sep in analysing high Reyolds mumber low ‘past asreanlned body, «problem of considerable practical meres. ‘Prandits boundary layer concept i landmark inthe science of fuid mechanics. Te role in fuid mechanics can be summed up as follows. “Te concept furiahes method for relsig the motlon of viscous Hi par 2 ‘ody wih he coesponing maton ofa aoavacous Aid past hat ody. It hows thet for Bow a igh Reynolds numbers pas streamined bodies, cosy ‘Barna intoene te posure eld The fw pater around wc odes, the flaunt presse forest oder an teeore, be computed Pr dois ofsntufoction onthe basi of svi fui flow. TF shows tha {Bel eps inary the matin of» viscous Bu PESIEE the corerpendng invcidroton part the body. In formating te JRE protien proper scsunt mart be taken of the eect ofthe wake on te sere in ths way the boundary ayer concept Bas brought ou he i rant role layed ty nv her snd hes ent credence tthe exensine Eotruchs teary hytodyounsce spd aerodynamics. The concep lado Stews Ml teary Known a the "boundar layer theory” vai or flows at Introduction fa ip, ra ein wpm, aces tease Sa ee eae ot shagisran hasan oor coe Caetete iee ceaiee eect eeleeta neta co ee Sete. teary would indicate be pore loationo separton. inal ete he intron fhe ovary cone, ag pa syredyoamics and sere we Sturagy erin jee event ri ao ae ve scien eels ono ppt a a Season vin esd On estat aa aotourt np pet ‘Stile neh wa he ne of in we Sie ava anim vas pee ones Heit Ince an nied theory. With the spparace ofthe Boundanyaje See Ta li ey ye pe ‘mctynmin at fpr, he tor hoot pas ome 1a tat Pat Tey tah tok we acs wih ii flow wher compes tcc ry ge, Pl a a may Spa phd ng hi te meeps ae ‘known as an ideal fluid. eee bey i fica fu Hower on ai of ow osc my st at ay ‘Eckaing sano on anally baal perth by pring oe dere hat ean ‘arp oy er om cal, na bi ane Wo te prac Sad mabe nderhing te grea eas oh Sele caps muy seta cop cae Meany pol othe Snopes oie tings ad Boies of revolution, eer eeeeeChapter 2 Elements of Vector Algebra and Calculus 1a the anays f id motion, a i the assis of many plc ‘prenomens, we ar contend wih quate, tat may be casted cording (6 the informs needed to spec them completely. Quant fs sah tan, deny, end temperate ned (er wc of wits) Speceaton of tr mips aly. that, © singe number fall {Gar i nesasary to spaly ach of them. Soch qunties are called Sealer pts or spl tla A quai such as force o velocity teguc he spectation of mage and econ, that of © (teed mapnode, ann ofthis type are called eeton gues. ‘Vestor qn tnt shy cera ules uch a the pralloga lw edison are defied at eect. AS we shall eer, otal vector Kanes ae vector Quantes tat reqe speaieaton of more ‘Rromevon than needed\for vectors abo cer in psa! problem For emp to dere # quantity such ws sess We ned to give & force (ie dete magne) 20d sce (ie the erento ot Sieedon ofthe ara) on which te fore act Such quai art iow ts tenors “There are varios Kinds of tensor, and, geeraly Speaing vector aod scalar are degenerate eso. ‘Opereions of algebra and cles, soch as are Known for salar quests, a ako developed for vectors and tears. Alger, aplcd {Sivcton, i tnowa a wet lea, wile clan apd o eons SS known a vector eae oF vecor analysts Sis, me have tensor Ste and tenor eas. fn anlyig pyial phenomenon, west up ctereltions between tne varows quate ha character the traomencn Dy eng Lams ‘Kone Goth atthe lave of Newton, be law of ener conservation). ‘To wrte a entre! lm, ne intodues coordinate system fa chosen fran af erence and express the various psa! snes ivlved {Stscans of wensaremete mace wil repo fo that spate. When we chore sucha procedure, the expresion forthe law conta tems {hot ae dependent on he chown Sorat sytem and consuety “ ‘leet of Vector Algbrn and Calis a sppears diflerenly in diferent systems. But the lame of nature are ofthe ati choice of «coordinate ryem. Therefore we may sek to expres the natural laws ina form not reat to par- ticular coordinate ryan. A way of doing this is provided by vector or tenvor analysis, Vector notation exhbis quantities sch as dsplacenets, ‘loci, ores, seerations, moment, and angular velocities in their ‘atural color, that i, as quantities that poses directions besides magni- {des When vector notation is wed, # coordinate system need ot be introduced. Thus wie of vector nottin in formulating plyial tews leaves them in inariant form (Le, a a form independent of coordinate description). Studying a poysieal phenomenon by meant of equations ‘writen in invariant form often eas to a deeper understanding of the Phenomenoe, Besides, the use of vector notation brings considerable impli into the analysis of problems. i is our desire to develop the equations of fuid motion and obtain many ofthe basic reruls of our stein form not related to any par- ticular coordinate system. To ths end we shall eapoy vector notation, ‘tor algebra, and vector aaalyis. We cal therefor, bepa our studies by acqutiatng ourselves in this chapter with the elements of vector algebra and calculus. Vector methods are adoquate to treat the aspects ‘of fld motion presented inthis book. Hence we shall not concern ‘ourselves with easor algebra or calulus.* The concepts of vector analysis ‘re closely associated wit the concepts of Buid mechanics. 21 Repreeataton of « Vector IP and Q are any two points in pac, the diet sighting segnent row Pt Q leas the postion of point Q with respect othe Dot P. Soc a dace line segment calle a ponton sector. I he imple example of s wetor quantity. Graphcaly we reproent the postion vector from P to Q by eight arrow rnnig fom P to Q {shown in Fig. 24. The length ofthe Sow pes the agate of the ditance e from Pto Owl the sense of the acrow {ndiaterthedrectontrom to 0. Fallow: ing the example ofthe postion vector we repent ay eto quantity (eg. veloc, fore) by an erow poiting ithe same ‘recon atthe vector, The length ofthe» {row i snds proportional to he magD pg. 2 : te ofthe quasi. ceil acemeet + a cig te ean 0 «vious i sna eco el* Hea Fait Aeodynamics A stable convention adopted to denote a vector quantity. a printed work itis wsually symbolized by « boldface letter. For example, the Fete rimay be used for the potion vector, the eter V forthe velocity sector and s0 on, In wring itis customary to place an arrow ora bar ‘ver the letter that denotes a vetor quantity. Thus fora postion vector ste vwrie fora vlonty vector P, and 0 03. If we wish o show that 2 UTrected line segment from a point P toa point Q represents a certain ‘sector quantity, we sometimes se the notation FG to deote the veto. “The magnitude of a vertor A is denoted by Alor simply by the leter 4 ‘Two vectors A and B are equa! ifthe mugatude of A is equal 1 the -magnitode of Band it the direction of A isthe sme asthe direction of B. ‘Tusa vector isnot changed its moved parallel to itself. This means that eoerally the positon ofa vector in spe may be chosen arbitra Inceriain epplictions, however (nthe calculation ofthe moment of & fovea) the actual point of loeation of a vector may be important. A tector when astocted witha particular pont is known as a localized tor bound vector; otherwise it is known as free vector. Wen two or more vectors ae pralel tothe same ln, they are sid tobe collar, When two or more vectors are naralel to the sme plane, they ae atid o be coplaner. 22 Addition and Subtraction Les Pande wo pointsin pce and et OP and J ete pete iti vectors froma reference point O (Fg. 22). PQ denotes the {kor tom Plo Q From © the pia Q may be reached slong the e ¢ g.22 Addo of postion wen, cir 68 ot aternnely, slong te vete OF 10 * and then alg ‘econ FO to @. We defn tat OO isthe sum fhe etna OP ad FO. Dscordingly we write that 70 = OP + PO Elements of Vector Algebra and Cates ” “This notion of adition is realy applicable to vecor quantities otber than postion vetors. ITA and B are any two vectors, we can represeat therm by arto drawn sich thatthe intl point of B coincides with the terminal point ofA (Fig, 24). Then the vector sum A+ Bis gen by the vecior C, which extends from the ial pot of A to the terminal Fe 23. Adio of mo vo. point of. tn the same manner A may be added to Band the sum B+ A ‘biained ae shown in Fig. 238. Putting together Figs. 230 and 230 (ich are equal tangles). we obtain a parallelogram as shown in Fig 1c, The vectors A and B drawn fom 4 common origin form te sides ofthe prallogram. The diagonal C drawn from the common origin epceents the som A + Bor B+ A, Thus we sy that vectors ae added fsceoring tothe “parallelogram len” of addition. Repeated application (ofthe paralclogram law determines the sum of any aumber of wear. Sioce Af B= B+ A, vectors may beaded in any order whatsoever. ‘We, therefore say vector addition i commute,o Teal Pd Aerodynamics 24 Sobran ro vo. their dition. _Sebracton of vectors in carved out on the same is “To form the veto difereace A — B we write AWBRAd(-B ‘and reduce the operation of subtraction to one of addition (Fg. 24. ‘The negative vecor —B has the same magnitude as B but points in a irection opposite to that of 23 Defiton of « Vector ‘We now define a vector aro guanty that possesses oth « magnitude and edreton and obeys the parallelogram low of addition. Obeying this aw is importnt, for there are quntis that have both magaicode and Gietion but do not add scoring tothe parallelogram law. A fsite fotaton ofa rgd body, although posessing magnitude and direction, not b vectors for such eotatlons do not obey the parallelogram law. (On the other band, aa inGnitesinal totaon of rigid body i 8 veto. ‘The reader should verify thee statements, 24 Maltgeatiea by « Number 1a vecoe Ais multiplied by number m, we obtain another vector the magnitude of which sm times the magnitude of A, andthe direction fof which the same a that of A. IAL = Al mt ma laments of Vetr Algebra and Cais a 2S Unk Vector ‘A vector of unit length (eof wit magnitude) i called wi vector. Considering any vector A frm the pruct 4a 4 ‘The rest i simply a vit vector inthe dietion of A. Deooting this unit vector By eg, we write ant er Andee “That i, any vstr may be represented asthe product of ts magnitude and ‘Ani vector i wa Lo designate a diction. 26. Zero Vector [A vector of zero magnitue is calle a zero cector. IVa no dbite ection atocaed With i 227. Sealar Protect of Two Vectors Besides addition, stration, and multiplication by a aumbertwo farther algebraic operations, known asthe Salar product and the tector product, can be delined for vector {Quantities To introduce the eal Product, we reall the concept of Work, When afore Facts on a mast Point, and if under ation the mass {xperiener an infitesimal dipace- tment swe define the work done by the force as equal to the orthogonal projection of the fore along the dre: on of the displacement times the mag: Fig. 28. Cony of work. nitude of the splacement (Fig 23). TF 8 is the ange between Fand , we expres the work done by where Fand + denote, respectively the magitudes of and. The work done, We 2 salar quantity that bvnnes by a certain kind of producte ead Aarodyoamics copertion between two vectors, namely Fand s. Such an operation may be given « name and defined for any two vectors. Since the result ofthe product isa weaar, itt called the salar product of two vectors. 2 is ifned asthe scalar quantiy qua 0 tne product ofthe magnitudes ofthe (retort times the cosine ofthe vngle bepween thelr rections. ICA and B ire any two vectors, their scalay product denoted by AB and read ‘A A.dotB. Thus we write A ALB co8 0 a ABem8 en where 0 4 the angle between the vectors. The scalar product i abo Known asthe dot product or us the iner prot By ting the notation of the salar product the work done by a force F uring an infitesial dgpacement # may be represented by, Ware ‘A few simple results follow immeditaly fm the dition (21) of the salar product. ‘Since A: B= BA, the salar products commutative, Ifthe vectors A dnd B are perpendicular to each oter, tei salar product in zre, ince 8 = o/2 and con Om 0, Convery, if AB = ‘allows that either the vectors are soutually perpendicular or atleast one of them is 20. Two veciors A and B are parallel to each other, their selar product scone pty he poet of ie maps 48 finge 8 = O and cot 0 = I. "The salar product of vetor by ie is equal tothe square ofits rmagnitde. Thus we have Akela dt “The produt A Ais sometimes dso by A "ee crhogna rojcton of vor A’ any deco ei gv y she protuet Ave 2 Vector Prodat of Two Vectors “To inuadse tis product we oie te concept of he moment oa nee wah Yo Gent the moment abou «pin O of 1 eF ack athe pant P (hig 26). To dori thesoment com: do et asada aieon hat, we mas el) * Bey we Lt hero denote the mont M. By Eaton se ie moment eu fhe posto he agate ao tse ihren dane om te reece pit oe ne / 26 cones nome to of action of the foot (Le, the leer arm). Denoting these quantities, respectively, by M, F, and 7 we have Man Ir denotes the vector OP and 6 the angle messured from r to F such that 0.5 8 | ements of Voto Algebra and Clee ms ITinsted of Cartesans we choote «sytem of enthogona,crilinear courte, me would rive at these concition. In his ease, how cae inno he enor deseibing the spatial variation of AC) are SeTuteiyne paral derivatives ofthe components OFA with espet 19 ‘tances Long the coordiete sxx. They ow inctde edional tems ert doco the fac thatthe dretons of the reference unit eos ‘ange wih change of positon ots we choose some orthogonal, carvilner coordinates 4.4 quand expr AO) 38 A) = dant Aes + Ate ‘woere 6, ts tthe reference imi wetors asocited with the pont + Ter astalatetn components of Ath respect to hesjteme tnt See a eete nd the at vectors are functions of postion The di Tcl pcement in A over «dete distance d= dis then given by am (adi + (don + Ae) + (ie) + Added + Adee) 8) were det re the changes inthe components over the tance, Tni'de care the correrponding changes in the unit vectors. ‘Now as before, we can write Ages + (ddan + dey carer Alert (de grad Ades + (gad Ades 2.8) Aner ebuaing de, , (6eSeton 248) itis possible to ite ‘Ade + Ade) + Ad) = deeds + eet aes 2.61 whee te Xa te veto involving Ay, dv. Ay and components of Ze FSM ec and dey Very tht for elindneal and spherical the vector eg te ein (6 and 26 nd noting teste Wy = pnd AH Wes mad dye ea Wom gad At es ‘equation (2.5) may be rewritten a5 Am (ee Woe + (A Wes + (ds Wary 281) on dividing by de, a8 tA ate wae, +(e Woe + CO Was ee &106 dea Fad Atcodyamie oe ie tee a onde eee ipa bern a eccocfaneremeat atte ee ee cee aceon cca te ora any a ee a serie ed aj yaa oe ee i aes es Sy Se ie ee at werent nla yy Sok So ote creat eae ee eames nonce pace oat ee err ra iv A= Wat Want Mae “The other two combinations are second-order tensors. One of them is iven by the ray Wy Win Wan Win + Mad [Wat Wie Wy at hoe Wat Wis Wort Wn Wan “This tensors usally known asthe an ofA. As seen, {bout the diagonal formed by the elements Way Way. ad Way “The other second-order tensor i given bythe aay ‘lements of Vector Alper and Calls w “Tis tensor i usually Known a the 7otatio of A. AS sen, it is antic fymmetneal about the diagonal formed by the elements that are zero ‘The stain of A, being symmeti, actually contains si independent cements “Te rotation ofA, beng antisymmetric cially contains three Independent elements. In other words, the rotation of A 8 actully spec fed byaet of three mambers This set of three mumbers, as may be veri= fed, obeys the same rules at et specifying a vectoe. This means the olution of A although its a second-order antisymmetric tensor, oan be represented bya vector. Denoting auch a vector by B, its components in the directions ofthe reference unit vectors ee. ear given by the er of A denoted By cul A. “rhe physical sgncance of the names divergence, rotation, and cut! wil become apparent later on when we shall define vergence andeur ofa {eetor by means of certain integral operations. For the significance ofthe ‘ame stain, reference may be Made to Section 9. "The reader say verly that in Cartesans the following results are obtsne: and ta eae by Rotation of Ais simply ¥ cul A.1 ea Fai Aerodynamics 226 De, the Vector Ditereatal Operator ‘Consider the expesion (2.54 for he gradient of in any orthogonal, corvinear, nordinate system: a magma rales adt “his expeson ay be rewrite a mite (ndandend)e “This means to obtain the gradient of $ we operate on by the operator called del, We 0%) 2 wots as” hPa “The expresion fr din Carini Teas ved aideid in elidel coordinates, 82 2yetdaed vad tat ered and in spherical coordinates 1, 8, git eae Vang tel et ennai ‘The Operators Vand’ x. Since deli & vector operator, the oper ators U- and V x may be introduced and applied on any vector fed tA) i any vector Bel, the selar product U"-Aand the vector product Vie A ae formed as follows: a a(atsa2sa2 6 valu tnd tnd) in tanceaty aon grad ADK “This may be rewrite (noting that | K are fixed directions at ah = (ds ads) + (> BeadKAyD + (de prada) = gra + AS + A) = (de pada aa A a “This means the operator da-V when applied 10 a vector function A) (lls, jut as whep applied to @ sale fanvon 4) the diferent change Ind over the dretied distance ds. Solty, i ean be see that am showing thatthe operator €~ V applied ts ACP) yields the deriva lemens of Vector Algeen and Callas a withcerpett ditancefnthe detione. In applying as-(276)and (2.77) T>cooriae stems other thn Caress we should ake noe ofthe fh that the eens wnt ctor change wth change of ponon. “Teilty of he operate Wi abe fc at seen ret V frmaly asa secor ond opty Sige and coc In dings, however we shoul bea in nd tht ‘Vis an operator and not an actual econ Thetfore inthe formal Application of vetor rie (oi pesesay Yo presere the order br {Hh de! appear with pe ihe oer factor ivolve. For asta, tren thogh A: Bo BrA, te operation VA is not equal to the operator Av. 227 Integration of « Vector Fueton of Sealar Ifa vector Ais a function of a scalar variable F, we ean form the socalled indefinite integral Java am in the same manner asi done in salar integration (., integration of a scalar function of a salar variable). The result of the integration (2.78) is another vector fetion ofthe salar # abd it determined to within an tuddiveceastant whieh in general, ia vector. We thus write fava =BO+C Ie follows that a Bano Ifthe variable ¢ changes continuously from a particular value 4 to another peticla value fy the integral [tava se sept en 2.28 Line Integrals: Ctesaton Consider a scala function of position ¢ = 4) and the Bld scribed by i Tn such a eld et representa space curve drawn from a point a to another pot b. We assign a direction tothe curve a that of travel slong the ctv from ato b, Let denote the postion fom rome orga of plat Pon the curve and dan clemeat of length along the curve fromwm ‘eal: Atroyoamics the in 7 Ge Fig 23. Ie ui vector gn te cas the fn Pe te dn Te nega frow cx eet, fame taken lng ae ical th eer of lng ep ‘heave S i nepal or Mg 232 Loe inte ‘Contier now a vector taneion of poston Air. If isaspace curve as tefore, we can form the line integra fants ov fans am stage carve eon een dpi oe ig 232, Te nap sly in negra log of he component ofA tangential tothe ane” Icas swe nt fie, i the ange Dew, a A he Snort 6.9) may be wren as Pie se src als I Stiles Ce era kegel onde Seg ane chan ies ‘lemens of Vector Algebra and Cacus ms ofthe integral (2.9) depends oaly on the endpoints and becomes ia- ‘monly eter to as interna force Since they et arass a surface that i Imagined to teparate the Hi, they are also called swface forces. The Complete specification of thes forces is based on the concept of stress, ‘hich we shall take up presently (ee Section 32). Tn addition othe surface forces th Mud may. in general, be subjected to forces that act throughout the Body ofthe Hud as such. The simplest trample of such a fore is the force due to gravity, that i, the s-aled Sreight ofthe Mud, Fores ofthis type are elle Body forces. They are Proportional to the volume of mass of the fd considered. Thu the body ores can be specified a 30 much per unit volume or per unit mass ‘ofthe fl, tha i284 mens. In general, the Body force may ary fom point to point ofthe Mui, and at any point it may have diferent ‘values at ifleent instances of time, Thus the body force is & vector faction of position and tine 112. Canept of Str and the Speciation of Stes at # Pint Toe const of tes and the metho of speciation, 8 describe below are apse to any continuous deformable medium wheter tbe Shon ora aid et ws conus a plane sre $ drawn through sme point Fin « fu The fd maybe cer nmaon o atest We den by whe oral to the suice and conider the foes exerted aro 5 by the Porton of he ud whch Kes on the se of These internal fro re Rotingennt dotted sonny aco 5. We repent thes oes IS que foce Facing athe pot P and # momen M about Seas roogh Pig. 3.10) we pagel sink the aren of he Shc ote pat P.bth ad M wl tend oro, Hower, fort ‘anthlogly sll arte equiva fre Fay be tamed te pro Penal tT a oe ow ay ee {Eades deel arth aes shrinks to pin, Uan be shown hat {ferme moment toh sea anise ah res goes oe. Ths inane he action of tetera fore inthe mediate vy of rt ‘Perot srtace mse nual toa) can be seid y thei he io fre ore tain by oe prs areata post Ts Caled he aes te poet Pacis plane mis vector and ht Girton fn genera cfleren fom (Mtoe Dentng sh a rest teoor by a, we deve symbole F tim E an mes, ee10 eat Fai Aerod namics where 5, i Involve wo directions—t stress sell. Now i 8 is Across dS by the Mid that ison the sie of ond “The stress at a point P across an elemental surface can be specified tithe by # ste vector @, oF, equivalently, by its three components G © plane area normal tm, The definition of 2 stress vector ofthe normal to the surface and that ofthe elamental aren normal tom th force exerted i (Fig 210) a 3 Repent in ui. refered to a system of three unit vectors. Denoting the unt vectors by &, es and the respective components of 8, BY eau Sn. Gay. WE Write . outs + Ota + Oats = (Pas Ot Fe) co “The meaning of the double subscript Is apparent. The fst subsrpt denotes the plane arose which the stress component acs, whereas the tecond subscript denotes the direction of the component. “The decomposition ofa tes vector is usualy done with respect to an orthogonal sve of wit vector. Generally the unit vectors selected are the asocated with the (orthogonal coordinate system employed (Fig. $322), Another way of choosing the unit vectors if select one of them in the direction of the normal mand the other two in wo mutually et pendicular directions lying inthe srface a Denoting the ater dieetions Eyevand e, we write 0, = ont + ont + Outs cy “The component ous is known a8 the normal stress at Pom the m surface (hig 320). ls postive Section jy that of » 18 then known as @ Sst in Fld _ Fi 32 Deonpaition of wes er, ‘ein oot re, Te component ua ae kone ental sree at Pon them srt, They re shearing sess, Th dtntion (1) ofa ates er ems ot pep {ores aa point P across onyx certain plane For the compl spect Seaton ofthe inal fres A ve should know these eta P serosal the panes, inflitein number that can be eae hug ies eal sen, by considering the equllboum fan intel teteedron sch ag shown in Fig. 3.3, hf he tess eon aos oe indpendn planes pasing Wop a pon fen, tees eco ees any rhe plane psting thug hp dermied. Ws alos ha the sae ofthe internal fore, ao Known asthe ste of sess ato point completely specie by giving ase of thre ss tector” Egu, Beniy we ean give the component of thee sts vectors Thon ne Snot the sess vectors P acon the planes ey qt ani Me 33 Equi ofa terete,Mea Fuld Aerodynamics de ex eyare a et of unit vectors a P the stress components canbe given fa the form aerate emt Fut Fut 64 For purposes of alent convent 0 tke the wit vectors, ey ae ‘those defined by the (orthogonal) coordinate system used and the a 34 Sato re a pit plans sy a8 the corresponding coordinate planes ey With {his notation the stress components (3.4) become “This aay of nine numbers is know as stress tensor. It specifies com ‘Net the sate of stesso simply theses at a point. The diagonal {erm oy, ete represent the normal stese, while the nondiagonl terms nse epresent tangential or shear steses (Fig. 34) "The equim of the moments oa an infinitesimal cube shows that ‘ano 09 “That is, the srs tensor i symmetrical about its diagonal. This means to ‘cil completely the sae Of sresr at a pot we actualy need sx stress ‘components Seat in Fad 3 For the compete specification of the sate of ste in the repion of interes ofa fd ve must give at each pont the stress tensor. The enor wal gnezally be diferent at diferent point, and at any peint it may vary from instant to instant. This means that the state of ses within it specifed by a tensor function of position and time, that, by a tensor fel ‘33 Sires in a Fld at Ret: Hydrostatic Prestre “The sues tensor fora fd takes on a particularly simple form when the Aid is at rest It ira fact of experience that tangential sess do ot fenit mo id at rest This means the sie ectr at ony point of the (faid ai ret i wholy normal 1 any surface clement passing rough that Doin (se Eq. 3.3). Symbolially we wie tht eee on In such case the stress tensor takes the form oy ‘| on For such a sate of sires we can draw a fundamental conclusion Considering the equilibium of an infiitesimal tetrahedron we ean show {hat hen the sree sector a a point i wblly normal mall directions, its ‘mapniude i the same forall elementl planes pasing trough the pot. © Ta such a case all hat is required to spe the stress at a pomt is simply 2 single number. Denoting tht number by @ we write anon 69) forall directions of Te is postive, o, represents a tensile ses But from experience we find that notre resis occur inthe intro. of 2 fui? The an. ‘would be mere apprepiate to rpreent 2. as acompresion, This we do by replacing the number «by a negrie nomen say —p. Then the tress ma fd at reat is represent 8) espe 619) ‘phere14 Fit Aerodynamics forall directions of. "The corresponding stress tensor i given by —p 0 0 op 0 en 0 0 -»/ “The salar p is called the presse or, more precisely the hydrostatic® presnrea the point considered. Equation (3.10) or Q.1?)eam be taken as {he definition of «fui Note that psa positve number “The sate of ree within the whole region of «fi at rest is specified by giving the pressure as function of potion and time, that i, by a seal fel, denoted by p = At "The hydrostatic pressure is generally related to the density and tem pemture ofthe Bud For instance, we know that in gues that obey Ghnie and Boyes laws the presnue, the density p, and the temperature Tare connected by the ration p = pRT, where R is constant for the (ps conned 34 Strom ins Fld la Motion ‘When a id is in motion the phenomenon of vieosity or of internal ‘tition manifests ill and at any pont i the Aud both tangetial and formal stresses occur” Ia this ease we deal with the complete stress enor and express it as made vp of two parts—one that represents vicous ‘ovina stresses ony, and Ue ater that represents comprestveteses jualin all ietions, that a pressure and thus not related to fiction. ‘This presue, also denoted by pis similar but nt identical to the hydro- ‘tate pressure, The viscous sesey, which occur Both as tangential and normal components, ae usually denoted by ry, ray ete. Thu the sate of first a any point ina moving Bid is given tn the form 0 0 =p) \nu rm tal “The viscous tees ate aramed tobe proportional othe rates of sant ‘crcuring atthe point considered. The proportionality constants, known Sr visoaty coeteient,Sepend on the nate ofthe Mud. For any given uid the viscous stesece are small when the rates of sain ae small and + yd” piles» ui, {stars of naps rt gen ty ceri cortisone ati (ora te snp ot loys at prs Secon 3. ‘Se in Fit as they disappear when the rates of strain disappear, thus leaving the stress tensor af that ofa uniform pressure in all directions. Similarly ifthe ‘velocity ofthe uid is aro everywhere, the viscous stress become 270, tnd we realise again uniform presue ats point Becae ofthese inter” Pretation, the spliting of the stress tensor in moving Mid ito Oe ‘nifoem presurep and the viscous stresses convenient, "According to these ideas, the sae of sues within the whole region of ovo fd express the cambiton ofall an aemor Th developing the theories of fid motion we asume generally that ‘thermodynamic consderatiors, which arestriclyappiable fo equilibrium situations, ae valid for moving fds and use them. In such case we must alk about a thermodynamic pressure that it rlated to the density and femperatre ata point inthe fd. Tt is then assumed that the thermo- dynamic pressure isthe same asthe pressure p oocring in the sess tensor. The justification fortes assumptions that the theories based on them Seem io ive results that are in good agreement with experiment, 5 State of Strela & Nowscous Fad in Motion ‘A large part ofthe theory of uid motion, as pointed out in Chapter 1, is developed onthe assumption thatthe fide reones or nonsscut Tn sucha case the coeficints of viscosity, and consequently the viscous stesses, ar sett er0 and ne takes the te of sear as that of aiform pressare. The timate jstiaton for such an assumption les again nthe Companion ofits comieuenees with experiment “The sty of uid motion treated inthis book, a8 previously sated ip based on the assumption of «nonviteous Si ‘M6 Premare Diribacion in Fla at Rest For the static equilibrium af fui, the sum of al the forces ating on any prt of the fd shoud be aro. To apply this law we consider a any point tan infinitesimal region ofthe id ad write that the resuliaat of the body forces a revutant ofthe surface force acting ‘on the region + the =o ox) Lat dr denote the volume ofthe region considered and 85 the surface tnclosing st f= fn) represents the estebution ofthe body forces pot {ni uss of he fi, the Body Tare aetingom the clement ds cael ae es) here p= pe} the demsity ofthe uid. The density may vay fi Dotto pot oft Mud86 ea Fld Atrodyamicn “To determine the resultant ofthe surface forces let us rst consider an infitsinal area mS on the surface 8S (Fig. 3.5). Since the state of fires ma fd at vet given by a pressure p = pte surface force fetingon the fu Wthin BS across te surface element w dS is pas “The resltant ofthe surface forces is then obtained simply by adding ‘retorally the peste fort acting on all the elemental areas of the Surface AS, Tt thus equal fo fines ow I ets meron sree esac ne eet rg 216, ff nss=—mentr hn tt ee fe po oe gon Pictzacta ate ery stepur aww wh een ad 010, snd.) Heme oe tvgalp=0 or, expressing it per unt volume, Aa endp=0 Sime in a Fld ro [Equnalenly we may write this equation as pad = of ay “Ths equation is thos the analytical form of the condition for static qulliom ofa fui. Therefore ix the bass for saaysing the sates of Incompresible and compresible Muids The coatent of Ea. (3.17) is Sipneant I states that ate eg ofa fad spose ony if the dy force (pf per unit same canbe expresed asthe ran of scalar favcion, Tis fps that pf shoud be rotational. I the density ofthe fide uniform throvghou space, we have lt) = Equation (3.17) assures us thatthe esultant ofthe frees acting on any part ofa uid at ret ir ero, For the fi tobe a est tbe condition that {he esltant of the moment acting on afd element should also be zo “That hs condition automaticaly salted maybe veried by the reader 37 Concluding Remas ‘To passon fom the satis tothe dynamics of fd, we may consider certain portion ofthe uid and apply toi the econd lw of Newton. Tho swe write that the rate of change of momentum of the region of Auld ‘Considered = the retant of the body flores acting on the region + the resullant of the presture frees acting a surface + the feslant of the VScous Fores acting at is sale aay For the complete analytical formulation ofthis law we must frst desice buut a methud for deeibng the motion ofthe Mid, whether we wh 3 tak about the fate of each individual element of the Rnd or aBOu the ‘whole Rui a such. This we shall do inthe nex chapter. gation (3.1) involves the density. the pressure, andthe velooky as unknowns if we asume thatthe body forces are given and that the Viscous sess are rated tothe denvativs of the slosty Im this ‘pparent hut udeitowa equations bave tobe formulated” Ths we do 8 Chapter 5Chapter 4 Description of Fluid Motion ‘We shall now begin to set up analytically the problem of fluid mo- tion. The fui, a¢ remarked before, i regarded. as matter distributed Continuously. At various points of the distribution, we may choose {atnitesimally small regions of oid and regard them as posessing i> diviaity. We may tus refer o them as fd clement or fld particles ‘To describe uid mation, two methods are possible. One possiblity 10 rere the fate of each individual Mui particle, that 1s 19 adopt & [poi pont of ew. The ater possibility is to forge abou the ndivid- Fratty ofthe various Maid elements und concern ouseies only with the ate of motion ia the pace filed bythe Bud, that st adopt a so-called [eld polt of cow. The partie deserption is known as the Lagrangian ‘method (fier Lagrange, 1736-1813, while the Fld description i known {She Eulerian method (flr Euler, 170]-1983).* In this chapter we shall discus these two methods and alto consider aditonal concepts related :0 the description of fuid motion. 41 Lagrangian Method In this method we ask about what happens tothe individual Maid cement inthe course of time, what are their path, thet velocities, ‘nutes, o any other properties sasoiaed with them. ‘Thus inthis ese fhe fd motion s described by desrbing the fate ofeach individual fluid particle, Such a procedure follows the practice usually adopted inthe foechanics of mast particles Where one seeks the trajectories of the individual particles, ‘Sine inthis meshod wear concerned with each partie, me mes, $10 speak, label the vanous elements (Le, aame them) in onde 0 distinguish Seiveen them,” We do this by assigning a some instant of ve, three alae parades say & , cy 0 each element. A convenient shige of those parameter for inane, m to give the postion coordi, es of an 18 scription of Fd Motion 9 clement with respect to any chosen coordinate stem. Since the Aid ‘ements are continuously distributed, the values ha he parameters 2, ‘wil arse forthe various elements ae continuous. Now, the motion of the uid an be described by giving a fonction of tine, any quantity Q that i associated wth each clement ab, e- Consiering the whole uid. Q ‘becomes a function of time andthe particle parameters a, 3, Thus we tin 2 = Oe,b.6.0) ay For instance, the position «of the various elements a pressed bythe functional form Heded) «a I x y= ae the Cartesian components ofr, the salar form of (42) is oe Emxe.b60) ym le. b,c) Pane ben “Thusin Lagrangian description, the pate parameters a,b, and time 1 ate the independent varias. ‘The unknown variables are the positon ‘oondinats (or, equivalently the velocity oF acceleration components) of Sn element and other quantities suchas the dena, ging He sate. To ‘etesmine the unknowns we Set up 4 necessary umber of equtions ‘betwoon them by applying to each Rud particle natural laws, such a= Newton's second la of motion, and conservation of mass. We shal ot er into the derivation ofthese equations, which are usually known as the Lagrangian equation of fad motion. For these equations reference ‘may be mace to Lamb (1982), or Sommerfeld (1950) ‘Although the Lagrangian desenpon appears 1 be am ‘up problems of uid motion, generally itis ot as convenient and meaning {as the Eulerian deseption, which we shal olow exclusively in our studies here The Lagrangian method gives mote information than one heeds. for often ope snot interested in the ate of ach fd pate ‘There are, howeer, spec instanes, such a5 certain one-dimensional (iavolving une space coordinate) problems, where the Lagrangian pint of ‘cw frat 42 evan Method In this method we fous our attention o9 the various points ofthe space tile’ by the Homing Rud and whats happening at each ofthese pint 35 time goes on. Whats happening i, ofcourse, o Be given in terms of {quent suchas veloc dest and peesure which re of nterest nthe ‘hoon of the Bond. Ths inthe Eulerian point of view. we ge te1 dea Fad Aerodyaamie ‘ales that a fid quantity @ assumes at various points of the space at Ailent instances of time. In other words, Q 8 deseribed a5 2 function of Dostimand ime. Ife denotes the postion ofa space point with respect chosen coordinate sytem and denotes the time, we write O= OK. a Recling the notion of 8 field we observe that ia Eulerian description fd motion spo by various sealae and vctr elds. Thus we talk bow lots fed, ateeratnon ld, demiy Bet, 20d so on. Ta sich “Eeeripton. tbe ett ofthe ud pasties hak cocapy the various pints im space at tarivs times i relevant, At any stant each pont Of the egen may be ssouated wath x Auld element for which the velit, ‘ent, et, may be taken ts thove occurring atthe point a the instant comiere, Inthe Eulerian description, the independent vacates are the poston couinstes (componente off) of 8 point in space and time 1. The ‘ependentvarubles are the fields af velocity, density, ee. To solve for these Rls we setup a necessary system of equations by again using ls Jack a4 Newton's second law of tion and conervation of mass. The Sesvation ofthese Eulerian equations wil occupy us inthe next chap. 43 Connection betmeen the Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions “To relate these two descriptions we ned to know the Meniy ofthe Ahi clement tat occupies a certain positon in space at a given ie. In Ghee words. me need the relations between pints ia Space and the pele parameter. ‘We consider fist the transition from the Lagrangian ¢0 the Eulerian eseiption. Let vomme quantity 0 be given in terms of the Lagrangian Nels a, 66,4. We thea ave @= Ole, be) “To pass to the Eulerian description we mus express a oorintes, sty = of 4 point in epace. In the Lagrangian metod, "heya given by elation ef the form f= fle.bed ya fseben “69 = fse.be0) Tee may be solved to obtain 2. cin teens af amd & We sal ther nave 4 uo a= ate eseition of Fd Motion wt ‘With (4.6), £9. (4.4) may be expresie in tems ofthe Eulerian variables 2 = Ole = ale nnd made ee doem gle. ¥e8 DN C2) “The transition from the Eulerian tothe Lagrangan description isnot so simple, In terms of Eulerian variables we have O= Oe9.89) as “To pas tothe Lagrangian description me must express x,y, ates of the particle parameters o , e-Ths we do as follows. Lt the velocity ‘components atthe pot 9, atime & be given (in toga of Eulerian ‘desciption) by eas a Flea) «) wee Fhe 189) In terms ofthe Lagrangian d-aipton we shall have eS yy ae a a where z 9, # Fe Fonetions of the variables 2 ¢ 1. Equations (49) and Go) both deseribe the velocity components of 3 ud element, Com- ining them we obtain (410) a Berens We rye ye ay Berle nen » & 5 Barna “These ate ist ore! ferential equations forthe position coordinates of Tr lement as described by the Lagrangan method. Interstion of thee quations leads to slutons ofthe form Fe flee sete) Y= fleet ee) a Fa fd tote!) shee, broth constants ot interation,ate chosen asthenia ales eee Man intial stant fy Me may st she parle parameters ro equal to ty osu eapetvey and reve Eq (412) 8 fo.bo0.0) yadda he an i086.)a eeu Fd Aerodyoamics Equation (4.13) enables us to express (4.8) in terms of the Lagrangicn variables. Thus we obtain O = Ole = fle, 6.9.9 = files be. 2 = fe, 20st) (418) 44 Steady and Unstendy Motions If at various point ofthe flow fed all quantities (ich as velocity, density, pressure) associated with the fluid flow remain unchanged with time, the motion i sad tobe steady: otherwise itis called urseody. Thus im steady motion time drops out of the independent variables, and the ‘rious fel quanites simply become functions ofthe space coordinates, 45 Path Line “The curve decribed in space by & moving uid element i known as its Lrajecory or path ine, Sacha ie i obtained by pving the poston of 29 ‘lement a4 funton of time. 46 Streamlines ‘We can describ another set of curves inthe spce fled by 2 Bowing fig At a cera instant of time, mark out the direction of velocity at ‘each point of space. Then daw a family of curves such that etch curve i Tangent at each point tothe velocity dreton at that pont. Sach curves, 4s mentioned before, ate called sreamlines They ate noting but the “fel ine ofthe vector fla of velocity (ee 220, "To express analytically the equations for the sreamlnes we proceed as follows. Considering a cetain instant of time, at any point et ds be an element ofthe sizeumline passing through the point and let V denote the Selocty vector at that point af that instant (Fig. 41). Then, in vew ofthe definition ofa streamline, we state thatthe dzecuon of ds 6 the fame a that of V, that is (is paral to V ais, Since the ros product of two pall vectors is 2r0, me express (4.18) by writing axvao a6) which then is the diferent equation for a streamline. Equation (4.16) ‘ane readily specialized to any coordinate deserption. Choosing Car tesian, for insane, let the components of ds be denoted by de, dy, and those of V by ut, w. Thea (416) becomes (det hay kd) xt eth =o (47a) {en these aah isnt Pal gs 930, Description of Fit Motion ra Carrying out the cross product, we obtain bak dey tel m Wordly ~ 0) + Kade — wads) + Alo de ~ ue) wow 417) “This vector equation i quivalet to thee scalar equations way od =O (ano, ude —wde=0 re ede —udy m0 (ate) PAL. Deion oe steaming hich can further be putin the symmetric form ed a Note that, ware functions of, 2; and Equation (4.17) or (4.1 the Cartesian form of the differential equations for « sweamline. We ‘consider the integration of such equations in Seton 49. “Thus at each saat of time we can construct picture ofthe stream ies, Ifthe motion is unsteady, the streamline picture il change from instaot to instant, IT the motion i steady, the picture remains the same forall times Pris cate path Hines and steams are deniea. A piste ‘Of the sreamlnes helpe te tose, a8 were the ow Red and therefore plays an important part in the analysis and understanding of fuid How problemswt Teal Fi Aerodyramics, Experimentally, various methods are available by which we can make ‘uid slow vibe and obtain photographs of the steamins, We cannot ner into a discussion ofthese tochniques here * Examples of exper ‘mentally obtained streamline pctres have already been given In oUF "dies here we shall compare Such pictues with those oblained ana {ally This would help ust evaluate our theoretical ideas in the ight experimental fae. 47 Seream Suraces and Stream Tubes at any instant of time we draw an abirry line inthe ud eegion and draw the streamlines posing though the lin, a surface is formed. Such [suraceiclled a stealie sae or simply a seam suface (Fg 2) ig. 42 Seam sce Ie considera closed curve and deaw all the steamnes passing throveh ita tube called a seam rub i formed (ig. 43). In esteady motion, the shape of a steam surface drawn tough an arbitrarily chosen curve ld the shape of steam tbe drawn through «chosen closed curve wll ‘hange wth tine. am steady motion team surfaces and sea Cubes once rwn remain uachange [No fad can cre avrcam sae o the walls of stream sabe, fr the walls and the steam sirface are always parallel to the Mud velocity FA Seam ube, + Casal for tance Pant an Hole 952 or Pad and Tees 198. escription of Fid Motion iss verynhere. For steady flow, stream tube behaves like one with iis ouadans inside whieh Bid flows. I follows that in steady Row, an [npermeable soliduid boundary, ross which there cannot be any Row ‘of Pad, would be a sream surface. 48 Referee Frame and Steamiioe Patera Wisto be noted that a streamline pattern would appear diferenty frm diferent ference ftames. ‘This iustrated a Pats 12 and 13 for flow ‘ound an aif thats moving through an otherwise undisturbed Mud ‘The treamlne pattern shown in (12) obtained in a eerence frame xed ‘ith respec tothe airfoil while the pattern shown in (13) obtained nx Teteence frame fed with respect tothe undisturbed fluid faraway fom the aif 49: Stream Functions ‘We now consider the integration of the Eg. (4.16) for @ steamtine avo Although V = V( 2), the integration of (8.16) involes ony the space “ables. As soc, in what follows, we shall not exhibit expily the Uependence on time. Bear in mind, however, thatthe results oftained bole at every instant of time "Fist contr the Cartesian frm of (416) s given by (4.17, ey) de ~ ey 2) yO wa, 2) dy ~ ea. 3) dt = 0 a9 w(e.y2) de — ey, 2)de = 0 “These at et of ferential equtios fo the variables, 2. As may be readily verted (419) actualy asetof two independent equations. We fray therefore, represent (19) by two equations ofthe form fe, 22) de + Blas. 2) dy + ols 42) de = 0 24.2) de + Blas) dv + os 2) dt = 0 Equations ofthis type are known as Pfffin diferent equations Foe the theory of sorh equation, reference may be made to any suitable book, for instance that by Margenau and Murphy (1956) or by Sed (1957), “Fhe solution ofeach equation (4.20) may berepresened by anequation ofthe form «am feva=e ren} whore ¢ isa constant. Asis well known, Eq. (421) describes a one teeter family of surfaces, We thus conelade that the solaion of8 et Fhit Aerodynamics (420) or equivalently of the diferent equation forthe streamline is ‘een by a independent font wen=e when) =e a wete ead care constants. Such a concision could hae beta reached Imma rom he observation thas nen pace, sich aa teaming, maybe described atthe ute of intenecton of tw sre. “he functions yy and ys should nately be related t the velocity n= Fie 4A Seam unsion and wean, components, w. We nowestblih he relation. For generality and ‘Sontenience We Row sich fo vector repeetemtation. We wie vev nan@=a «aay nena es Now. long the sreamline the vey vector V les in both the surfaces y= ccand yp= cy Fig 48). This being the cate, slong th sealing Vismormalto both rad y and gray the rant eng poral ne norris other respective surface. Symboealy we have V-grd ys =0 Vegnd y= 0 Ris shows hat Vs arma he pln Frmed ye vs gay and grad yn other word Vi paral tothe rvs product pod ye gad, Henewewite reser, MON = gad gad yy ay sehete ti alr fction of poston, Description of Fit Motion ws “The function (is arbitrary cept that it should satisfy certain onion that fllows diet fom Eq. (624). As may be verified itis Sector Sent that if) and fe) ate two Salar Functions of postin ten div grad fx grad fp = 0 1 therefore, follows that) should be such that it satisfies the condition div av) =0 4425) “To sum up, ve state tht the solution of the equation axv=0 fora streamline given by two funtion no =e worm oy where ¢ and cy are constant, These fonctions and the velicity ae felted by a andys x erty, where str fection of poston that sass the condition div pv =0 “The fnetons yy and ys ate knowa a stream fncton:* If the fonetion fe is known, then the vector field Ve) may be replaced by two scalar Fels y() and yl ining posible mathematical advantage, Tn genera 2 funston pt satsiyng the condition (425) without at the same time Imposing, physilly untenable conditions on the velocity eld, is not realy sbiaied. Under certain circumstances, however, Independent Consideration relating to the Hid motion lead to relations of the form divfov =0 where fis a certain salar function of postion. In such cases we identify Je) wth fe) and replace Ve) by w(e) and we) by use of Eq. (428). ‘Fxampies of such situations ar= the motion ofan incompressible Aid and the neady motion ofa compressible Mid. AS we shall se ate, fran incompressible id We shall have divv =0 then we cams way + Nota we hae speed showing exp he pends 0 ine