640 Chapler Six ‘piece of wood 1 ft long). The number of board feet for a given member is obvi ‘ously directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the mem her Anumber of factors besides minimum ermss-sectional area can alfect the final choice of a member size, First, there are detailing considerations in which member size must be chosen that fits in the structure and accommodates other members and theirconnections. Second, 2 member size may be selected that is ‘uniform with the sizeof members used elsewhere inthe structure. This may be convenient from a structural detailing point of view, and it also can simplify material ordering and construction, Thi), the availability of lumber sizes and grades must also be considered. However, these other factors ean be considered ‘only with knowledge about s specific job, and the general practice in this hook: isto select the heam with the least cross-sectional area, ‘The designsummary given above is easentially an outline of the-process that may be used im a hand solution. Computer solutions can be used to automate ‘the process, Generally, computer designs will be more direct in thatthe equired section properties for bending, shear, and deflection (that is, 8, A, and J) will be computed directly with less work done by trial and exoy, However, even with ‘computer solutions, wood design often involves iteration to some extent in order ‘to obtain a final design, ‘The designer isencouraged to start using the computer by developing simple spreadchcetor equation -solvingsoftware templates for beam design calculations. Aha dedicated computer program is used, the designer should ensure that suf- ficient output. and documentation are available for verifying the results by hand. @8 Bearing at Supports Bearing perpendicular to the geain of wood occurs st beam supports or where loads from other members frame into the beam, See Example 6,16, The actual ‘bearing stveas is ealeulated by dividing the load or reaction by the eontaet area ‘between the members or between the member and the connection bearing plate ‘The setual stress must be leas than the adjusted bearing design value. Pp fone SFL ‘The adjusted compressive design value perpendicular to grain is obtained by multiplying the reference design value by a series of adjustment factors, For ASD: =F. (Cu GMENC) For LRFD: ranl@ed(ANCUMEMEMEDBeam Design 6.41 where F),, = adjusted ASD compressive (bearing) value perpendicular to grain = reference compressive (bearing) design value perpendicular to grain F’,., = adjusted LRFD compressive (bearing) value perpendicular to grain &,,, = nominal compressive (bearing) design value perpendicular to grain (LRFD) = Fi. Kp format conversion factor for bearing (see Example 4.9}—LRFD only = 1.875/b, = 2.08 esistance factor for compression (See. 4.22) = 0.9—LRFD only ‘ime effect factor (see Sec. 4.16}—LRFD only wet service factor (Sec. 4.14) 1.0 for dry-service conditions, as in most covered structures. Dry-service conditions are defined as MC = 19 percent for sawn lumber MC < 16 percent for glulam emperature factor (Sec. 4.20) .0 for normal temperature conditions C, = incising factor (Sec. 4.21) 1.0 for sawn lumber, (Note: The incising factor is not applicable to glulam or Timbers.) bearing area factor (defined below) .0 is conservative for all cases F, Kr For sawn lumber, a single value of F,, is listed for individual stress grades in the NDS Supplement. For glulams, a number of different reference values of F, are listed. For a glulam bending combination stressed about the x axis, the value of F.,, depends on whether the bearing occurs on the compression laminations or on the higher-quality tension laminations. For the common case of a beam with a positive moment, the compression laminations are on the top side of the member, and the tension laminations are on the bottom. The bearing area factor Ci, is used to account for an effective increase in bear- ing length. The bearing length [,, (in.) is defined as the dimension of the contact area measured parallel to the grain. The bearing area factor C, may be used to account for additional wood fibers beyond the actual bearing length J, that develop normal resisting force components. Under the conditions shown in Fig. 6.165, a value of C, greater than 1.0 is obtained by adding “/sin. to the actual bearing length. Note that C, is always greater than or equal to 1.0. It is, therefore, conser- vative to disregard the bearing area factor (.e., use a default value of unity). Values of C, may be read from NDS Table 3.10.4, or they may be calculated as illustrated in Example 6.16. Compression perpendicular to grain is generally not considered to be a matter of life safety. Instead, it relates to the amount of deformation that is acceptable in a structure. Currently published values of bearing perpendicular to grain6.42 Chapter Six F,, are average values which are based on a deformation limit of 0.04 in. when tested in accordance with ASTM D 143 (Ref. 6.6). This deformation limit has been found to provide adequate service in typical wood-frame construction. A significant difference between ASD and LRFD is noted for bearing. In LRFD, the time effect factor A(Sec. 4.16) is used to adjust the bearing design value based on the load combination being considered. However, in ASD the load duration factor Cp (Sec. 4.15) is not applied to compression perpendicular to grain design values. The justification for not applying Cp in ASD is the recog- nition that F., is a deformation based limit state or mode of failure. In LRFD, since this is a capacity-level design check, \ is applied. In addition, reference values of F., are generally lower for glulam than for sawn lumber of the same deformation limit. (For a discussion of these differences see Ref. 6.5.) EXAMPLE 6.16 Bearing Perpendicular to Grain - PL cocumsas STEEL CONNECTION: BRACKET BEARS TO GRAIN ON BEAM BEAM SUPPORT Figure 6.16a Compression perpendicular to grain. For ASD the bearing stress calculation is P = Fu where /, = actual (computed) bearing stress perpendicular to grain P= applied load or reaction (force P; or P, in Fig. 6.16a) A = contact area ¥| = adjusted ASD bearing value perpendicular to grainBeam Design 6.43 For LRFD the bearing check is Py Phin = Fay where P, = applied factored load or reaction P',, = adjusted LRFD bearing resistance perpendicular to grain F,, = adjusted LRFD bearing value perpendicular to grain en Adjustment Based on Bearing Length When the bearing length I, (Fig. 6.164) is less than 6 in, and when the distance from the end of the beam to the contact area is more than 3 in., the adjusted bearing design value may be increased (multiplied) by the bearing area factor C, Essentially, C, increases the effective bearing length by % in. This accounts for the addi- tional wood fibers that resist the applied load after the beam becomes slightly indented. GREATER’ THAN 3” Figure 6.165 Required conditions to use C, greater than 1.0, Bearing area factor: _ y+. 0.875 G hy In design applications where deformation may be eritical, a reduced value of F., may be considered. The following expressions are recommended when a deformation limit of 0.02 in. (one-half of the limit associated with the “reference value”) is desired: Faooy = 0.73 F6.44 Chapter Six where F,,9 92 = reduced compressive design value perpendicular to grain at deformation limit of 0.02 in. F., = reference compressive design value perpendicular to grain (deformation limit of 0.04 in.) The other adjustments described previously for F., also apply to F..o,o2- The bearing stress discussed thus far has been perpendicular to the grain in the wood member. A second type of bearing stress is known as the bearing stress parallel to grain (NDS Sec. 3.10.1). It applies to the bearing that occurs on the end of a member, and it is not to be confused with the compressive stress par- allel to the grain that occurs away from the end (e.g., column stress in See. 7.4). The bearing stress parallel to the grain assumes that the member is adequately braced and that buckling does not occur. The actual bearing stress parallel to the grain is not to exceed the adjusted design value For ASD: For LRFD: Py = Pin = (Rn A) where f, = actual (computed) bearing stress parallel to grain P= load parallel to grain on end of wood member (ASD) ‘actored load parallel to grain on end of wood member (LRFD) A= net bearing area FF" = adjusted ASD compressive (bearing) design value parallel to grain on end of wood member including all adjustments exeept column stability = FLCaCuCHC HMC) F, = reference compressive (bearing) design value parallel to grain p*. = adjusted LRFD compressive (bearing) resistance parallel to grain on end of wood member including all adjustments excep! column stability F*. = adjusted LRFD compressive (bearing) value parallel to grain on end of wood member including all adjustments except column stability = Fb) (CCC AC) Fin = FF: Kp Kp = format conversion factor for compression (see Example 4.9)—LRFD only 2.16/b, = 2.40 compression resistance factor = 0.90—LRFD only load duration factor (Sec. 4.15)—ASD only A = time effect factor (See. 4.16)—LRFD onlyBeam Design 6.45 = wet-service factor (Sec. 4.14) = 1.0 for dry-service conditions, as in most covered structures. Dry-service conditions are defined as MC = 19 percent for sawn lumber MC < 16 percent for glulam temperature factor (Sec. 4.20) 1.0 for normal temperature conditions Cr = size factor (Sec. 4.17). Obtain values from Adjustment Factors section of NDS Supplement Tables 4A, 4B, and 4F for Dimension lumber and in Table 4D for Timbers. incising factor (Sec. 4.21) 0.8 for incised Dimension lumber = 1.0 for Dimension lumber not incised, whether the member is treated or untreated (Note: The incising factor is not applicable to glulam or Timbers.) C Bearing parallel to grain applies to two wood members bearing end to end as well as end bearing on other surfaces. Member ends are assumed to be accurately cut square. When f, exeeeds 0.757%, bearing is to be on a steel plate or other appropriate rigid bearing surface. When required for end-to-end bearing of two wood members, the rigid insert shall be at least a 20-gage metal plate with a snug fit between abutting ends. A comparison of the reference bearing design values parallel to grain F. and perpendicular to grain F., shows that the values differ substantially, To make this comparison, refer to NDS Supplement Tables 4A to 4D and 4F. It is also possible for bearing in wood members to occur at some angle other than 0 to 90 degrees with respect to the direction of the grain. In this case, an adjusted bearing design value somewhere between F! and F', is determined from the Hankinson formula (NDS Sec. 3.10.3). See Example 6.17. EXAMPLE 6.17 Bearing at.an Angle to Grain Bearing at some angle to grain (Fig. 6.17) other than 0 to 90 degrees: For ASD: az =F, For LRFD: P, = Py, = FiyA where /, = actual (unfactored) bearing stress at angle to grain 6 P= applied load or reaction6.46 Chapter Six P, = factored applied load or reaction A =contact area F, = adjusted ASD bearing value at angle to grain 0 F,, = adjusted LRFD bearing value at angle to grain P,,= adjusted LRFD resistance at angle to grain @ Hankinson Formula The adjusted value at an angle to grain @ is given by the Hankinson formula (NDS Eq. 3.10-1) . EPs Fo Saat, ot For ASD: Fisin?0 + Fl cos?0 — Fin Fean Her DEED: Fin = ein? + F',,c0876 where F< adjusted ASD bearing value parallel to grain excluding column stability factor Fi, = adjusted ASD bearing value perpendicular to grain F-,, = adjusted LRED bearing value parallel to grain excluding column stability factor Fi, = adjusted LRFD bearing value perpendicular to grain BEARING STRESS iN RAFTER © fy HEADER BEAM OR RAFTER CONNECTION Figure6.17 Bearing stress in two wood members. Bearing in rafter is at an angle to grain 6. Bearing in the supporting beam or header is perpendicular to grain. This formula can probably best be solved mathematically, but the graphical solution in NDS Appendix J, Solution of Hankinson Formula, may be useful in visualizing the effects of angle of load to grain.Beam Design 6.47 Nor: The connection in Fig. 6.17 is given to illustrate bearing at an angle 0. For the condition shown, bearing may be governed by compression perpendicular to the grain f.. in the beam supporting the rafter, rather than by fy in the rafter. If f,, in the beam is excessive, a bearing plate between the rafter and the beam can be used to reduce the bearing stress in the beam. The bearing stress in the rafter would not be relieved by use of a bearing plate. As indicated in Example 6.17, adjustments are applied individually to F.and F,, before F or Fj, is computed using the Hankinson formula. Anumber of examples are now given to illustrate the design procedures for beams. A variety of sawn lumber and glulam beams are considered with differ- ent support conditions and types of loading. 6.9 Design Problem: Sawn Beam In this beam example and those that follow, the span lengths for bending and shear are, for simplicity, taken to be the same length. However, the designer may choose to determine the design moment based on the clear span plus one- half the required bearing length at each end (Sec. 6.2) and the design shear at a distance d from the support (Sec. 6.5). These different span length con- siderations are described in Example 6.13 (Sec. 6.5) for a simply supported beam. In Example 6.18, a typical sawn lumber beam is designed for a roof that is essentially flat. Minimum slope is provided to prevent ponding. An initial trial beam size is determined from bending stress calculations. The extensive list of possible adjustment factors for bending design values is reduced to seven for the case of a visually graded sawn lumber beam with bending about the strong axis using ASD procedures (see Example 6.10 in Sec. 6.4). The beam in this problem is used in dry service conditions and at normal tem- peratures, and Cy and C, both default to unity. In addition, the roof sheathing provides continuous lateral support to the compression side of the beam. Consequently, there is no reduction in moment capacity due to lateral stability, and C;, is unity, The beam is not incised for pressure treatment since it is pro- tected from exposure to moisture in service. Accordingly, C; also defaults to unity. Therefore, the potential number of adjustment factors for bending is reduced to three in this typical problem. The bending is affected by the load dura- tion factor Cp (ASD) or the time effect factor 4 (LRFD), the size factor for Dimension lumber C;, and the repetitive-member factor C,. After selection of a trial size, shear and deflection are checked. The shear stress is not critical, but the second deflection check indicates that deflection under (D + L,) is slightly over the recommended allowable deflection limit. The decision of whether to accept this deflection is a matter of judgment. In this case it was decided to accept the deflection, and the trial size was retained for the final design.