Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212

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Late Quaternary palaeoecology, palynology and palaeolimnology

of a tropical lowland swamp: Rawa Danau, West-Java, Indonesia
Sander van der Kaars a,*, Dan Penny a, John Tibby a,b, Jennie Fluin a,b, Rien A.C. Dam c,1,
Papay Suparan d
a
School of Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia
b
Environmental Change Research Centre, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, UK
c
Netherlands Institute of Applied Geoscience TNO-National Geological Survey, P.O. Box 80015, 3508 TA Utrecht, The Netherlands
d
Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung 40122, Indonesia
Received 30 September 1999; received in revised form 6 July 2000; accepted for publication 25 September 2000

Abstract
Sedimentological, limnological and palynological analyses of a sediment core from a lowland site in West-Java, Indonesia,
provide a detailed palaeoenvironmental record for the Late Glacial and the Holocene. The record suggests open vegetation
under inferred drier climatic conditions for the Late Glacial. However, there is no unequivocal evidence for cooler conditions at
this time. The onset of the Holocene coincides with a change to more humid climatic conditions, with the development of a fern-
rich closed forest vegetation type. Dramatic changes in diatom community composition provide a striking record of habitat
change associated with lake shallowing, but this process appears to be a result of basin in-lling rather than variations in
precipitation/evaporation balance associated with climatic uctuations. Evidence for human impact on the vegetation devel-
opment is restricted to the last few hundred years. q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Pollen; Diatoms; Palaeolimnology; Tropics; Climate change; Lake-levels

1. Introduction compared with today, without clear evidence for

Until recently, the reconstruction of Late Quatern-
ary environmental change in the Indonesian region
has been based on the analysis of high altitude sites,
and on foraminiferal and oxygen isotope data from
marine sediment cores. Palaeoenvironmental records
from the high altitude sites are generally interpreted as
indicating lower temperatures for the last glacial
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 161-3-9905-5257; fax: 1 61-3-
9905-2948.
E-mail address: sander.vanderkaars@arts.monash.edu.au
(S. van der Kaars).
1
Present address: Faculty Earth Sciences, Utrecht University,
P.O. Box 80021, 3508 TA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
0031-0182/01/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0031-018 2(01)00245-0
drier conditions (Stuijts, 1993; Newsome and Flenley,
1988; Maloney, 1979; Maloney and McCormac,
1996), while foraminiferal and oxygen isotope data
from marine sediment cores are usually interpreted
as indicating similar or only slightly lower glacial
temperatures than present (Thunell et al., 1994). Indi-
cations for both cooler and drier glacial conditions
have been reported from marine palynological
records in the region (Van der Kaars, 1991). However,
there are very few terrestrial lowland records avail-
able and the palaeoenvironmental development of the
Indonesian lowlands remains poorly understood.
In this study we present a record of Late Quaternary
palaeoecological and palaeoclimatic change from
 186

Fig. 1. Location of Rawa Danau in relation to Indonesia and West-Java. Shading indicates the approximate extend of exposed Sunda Shelf during the height of glacial periods.
S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212 187

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic cross-section through the Rawa Danau area (after Rimbaman, 1994).
188 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
Rawa Danau, West-Java, Indonesia. This is one of the
few lowland sites in the region and may potentially
address the `temperature paradox' apparent in the
comparison of marine and high altitude terrestrial
records, and may also clarify the precipitation history
of the lowland environments. Located close to the
southern edge of the Sunda Shelf, the site is also
expected to be sensitive to any changes in precipita-
tion brought by the northwest monsoon when the
Sunda Shelf was exposed at (glacial) times of lowered
sea level.
2. Environmental setting
The Rawa Danau swamp is located in the caldera of
the Danau volcanic complex, on the north-western tip
of West-Java (Fig. 1), at an elevation of around 100 m
above sea level (asl). The surrounding caldera rim is at
an altitude about 140 m asl, adjacent high volcanic
terrain is mostly between 400 and 700 m asl, but
Mt. Karang, some 15 km to the south-east, reaches
1778 m asl. The Danau swamp area is drained by
the Cidanau (or `Ci Danau') River that originates on
the northern lower slopes of Karang volcano, and the
caldera forms a large part (70 km 2) of its catchment.
The drainage level is xed by the presence of an
andesitic lava ow in the narrow outlet in the western
part of the caldera. Early this century the river outlet
level was articially lowered by ca. 1 m to improve
drainage of agricultural land in the caldera (Endert,
1932).
The Danau volcanic complex is of PlioPleistocene
age and formed in a number of eruptive phases, cul-
minating in the eruption of the voluminous Banten
pumice tuffs (also known as `Bantam' tuffs) and
formation of the large caldera (Van Bemmelen,
1949; Santosa, 1991; Rusmana et al., 1991). Andesitic
lava and volcaniclastics form the steep northern-
eastern rim of the caldera (Fig. 1). To the south
occur volcanic footslopes and alluvial fans of younger
volcanic cones (notably the active Mt. Karang). It
appears that all other volcanic centres are presently
dormant, but reliable information on possible Holo-
cene eruptions in the Danau complex is not available.
Within the caldera and swamp area proper, some
active hot springs occur, notably in the vicinity of
Mt. Djamungkal (or Mt. Jumungkal), where the
swamp is said to be of immeasurable depth by the
local population. The geomorphology of the inner
caldera is indicative of the youngest sedimentation,
with nearly all sediment derived from the southern
volcanic slopes and deposited in alluvial fans and
uvial systems in the caldera. The eastern and
northern caldera rim is largely inert, with the excep-
tion of some localised talus cones at the base of the
escarpment. Organic lacustrine and swamp deposits
and ne-grained uvial sediment occur through the
northern half of the inner caldera.
A survey of the swamp deposits by the Indonesian
Geological Survey (Rimbaman, 1994) shows that
deeper basin deposits (.6 m depth) consist of ne-
grained lake deposits (organic silty clay and silty
gyttja with shells), with minor intercalations of peat
and uvial sands (Fig. 2). The organic lacustrine
deposits show a very homogeneous facies laterally
and with depth, with very soft, extremely unconsoli-
dated clayey gyttjas. Peat deposits prevail in the
central swamp area (in the vicinity of the present
dry-season lake, east of Mt. Djamungkal) with
sequences of up to 45 m thickness just below the
surface. Peaty facies with sandy intercalations occur
also in the margins of the basin. A thin veneer of
recent sandy clay oodplain deposits occurs at the
surface. Thin volcanic ash layers, which show up
due to pale colours and anomalous sandy textures,
are evident throughout the sedimentary prole. The
character of swamp and lacustrine deposits changes
gradually towards the south, where facies are less
organic and ne- to medium-grained clastic sediments
prevail. These deposits also show more pronounced
ripening.
Climate in the Indonesian region is dominated by
the monsoonal circulation, the migration of the ITCZ,
as well as the land-sea distribution in the Malay
Archipelago (see Verstappen, 1975; Whitten et al.,
1996). During the southern summer, the northern
monsoon gathers large amounts of moisture while
crossing the sea from the Asian high-pressure belt
on its way to the ITCZ, which reaches northern
Australia in January. At the ITCZ the moisture
laden air rises, resulting in heavy rains in Indonesia
(and northern Australia). During the southern winter,
the southeast monsoon originates from the Southern
Hemisphere high pressure belt and is relatively dry
and cool, but gathers moisture as it crosses the
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
Table 1
Monthly rainfall data recorded at Anyer, approximately 5 km to the northeast of the Danau complex, and Padarincang, on the southern slopes of
the caldera itself (Berlage, 1949)
Jan Feb Mar Apr
Anyer (coast, 3 m asl) 361 278 244 181
Padarincang (Rawa 527 396 381 330
Danau, 98 m asl)
Indonesian waters on its way to the ITCZ, which in
July reaches mainland Southeast Asia. The present
climatic conditions in the area are typical for the
Southeast Asian equatorial lowlands, but some local
trends are noteworthy. Generally, average annual
rainfall increases strongly with altitude (i.e. 1500
2000 mm in the northern coastal lowlands to 2500
3500 mm in the mountains). Rainfall distribution on
the western tip of Java shows a strong southnorth
gradient from more than 3000 mm to less than
1500 mm annually. In the northern coastal zone, the
dry season may last up to 6 months (Schmidt and
Ferguson, 1951). Monthly rainfall data recorded at
Anyer (approximately 5 km to the northeast of
Rawa Danau) and Padarincang (on the southern slopes
of the caldera itself) are presented in Table 1.
3. Vegetation
The Rawa Danau area contains the largest and most
signicant area of freshwater swamp forest on Java
(Endert, 1932; Whitten et al., 1996). Although these
forests are at present highly disturbed, they are of
enormous conservation value as the last representa-
tives of a community type that once covered as much
as 72,000 km 2 of Java (Scott, 1989, cited in Whitten et
al., 1996; p. 487). The main vegetation types are
mixed swamp forest, Ficus retusa swamp forest,
open herbaceous swamp and dryland, largely decidu-
ous, hill forest (Endert, 1932; Melisch et al., 1993;
Whitten et al., 1996). Endert (1932) provides a
detailed overview of the vegetation in the Danau
swamp area. As this work is published in Dutch, and
to our knowledge has not been reproduced in English,
it is reviewed here in some detail, particularly given
its relevance to the palaeoecological interpretation.
The vegetation in the southern part of the Rawa
Danau area has been cleared for rice elds and
189
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total
135 90 79 70 53 107 175 328 2101
245 156 119 110 126 221 319 496 3426
villages. In the southeast the freshwater swamp forest
still remains. Along rivers tall Poaceae, some Cyper-
aceae (usually more inland) and Polygonum pulchrum
(syn. Polygonum tomentosum; Polygonaceae) are
common. The freshwater swamp forest is dominated
by Ficus retusa (Moraceae) while Elaeocarpus littor-
alis (Elaeocarpaceae), Horseldia irya (Myristica-
ceae) and Mangifera gedebe (Anacardiaceae) are
common. In more open areas the characteristic knee
roots of Elaeocarpus littoralis are covered by the
climbing fern Stenochlaena palustris (Blechnaceae).
Also present are Barringtonia racemosa (Lecythida-
ceae), Ficus truncata, Eugenia polyantha (Myrtaceae)
and Sarcocephalus cordatus (Rubiaceae). Shrubs
include Ilex cymosa (Aquifoliaceae), Scolopia rinan-
thera (Flacourtiaceae), Ficus hispida and Glochidion
cyrtostylum (Euphorbiaceae). Epiphytes include
Trichosporum radicans (Tiliaceae) and two bird's
nest ferns Asplenium nidus (Aspleniaceae) and Poly-
podium punctatum (Polypodiaceae). The herb layer is
characterised by tall Cyperaceae, Lasia spinosa
(Araceae) and Helminthostachys zeylanica (Ophio-
glossaceae). In more open places the climber Colum-
ella trifolia (syn. Vitis trifolia; Vitidaceae) is
common. Along streams, relatively tall Gluta renghas
(Anacardiaceae) trees are common, with smooth
stems and few epiphytes. Lagerstroemia speciosa
(Lythraceae) is also present. Where the vegetation is
disturbed by human impact and/or re, the original
forest is usually replaced by grasses and sedges with
the occasional shrub or tree.
A mosaic of secondary and deciduous high forest
vegetation dominates the hilly northwestern slopes of
the caldera. The upper strata of these forests are char-
acterised by Pterocymbium javanicum (Sterculia-
ceae), Pterospermum javanicum (Sterculiaceae),
Pangium edule (Flacourtiaceae), Ficus variegata,
Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae), Artocarpus elastica
(Moraceae), Anthocephalus cadamba (Rubiaceae),
190 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
Fig. 3. Lithology of Rawa Danau core RD-3.
Gossampinus sp. (syn. Bombax sp.; Bombacaceae),
Spondias pinnata (Anacardiaceae), Dysoxylum sp.
(Meliaceae), Dracontomelon mangiferum (Anacardia-
ceae), Pometia pinnata (Sapindaceae), Erythrina sp.
(Leguminosae) and Sandoricum koetjape (Melia-
ceae). Small trees and shrubs include Mallotus
blumeanus (Euphorbiaceae), Laportea sp. (Urtica-
ceae), Villebrunea rubescens (Urticaceae), Kleinhovia
hospita (Sterculiaceae), Antidesma bunius (Stilagina-
ceae), Semecarpus heterophylla (Anacardiaceae),
Cinnamomum sp. (Lauraceae), Myristicaceae, Caral-
lia lucida (Rhizophoraceae), Saurauia sp. (Actinida-
ceae), Picrasma javanica (Simaroubiceae) and
Strombosia javanica (Olacaceae). A dense under-
growth of Zalacca edulis (Arecaceae), Araceae, and
tall Zingiberaceae is common.
The swamp vegetation in the north is partly
replaced by rice elds, where Pistia stratiotes
(Araceae) and Phragmites karka (Poaceae) are
common at the edges of the remaining freshwater
swamp forest. The swamp forest in this part of the
caldera differs from that in the south-east. The soil
is wetter and aerial roots are much more abundant.
Trees are generally higher, and Elaeocarpus littoralis
and to a lesser extent Horseldia irya are dominant. In
contrast, Ficus retusa is almost absent. The under-
growth consists of palms (Calamus spp. and Licuala
sp.), a tall Cyperaceae, Alocasia bantamensis
(Araceae), and Lasia spinosa. Epiphytes are abundant,
particularly Asplenium nidus and Polypodium puncta-
tum, with Stenochlaena palustris, Flagellaria indica
(Flagellariaceae) and a small Lygodium (Schizaea-
ceae) also common.
The broad transition zone between swamp forest
and oating vegetation consists of a 11.5 m high
vegetation comprised mostly of Scleria multifoliolata
(Cyperaceae), Dryopteris callosa (Aspidiaceae) and
some Stenochlaena palustris. This gives way to vege-
tation dominated by Poaceae, which in turn changes
gradually from a rooted to a oating habit towards the
lake. Other taxa within this oating and rooted vege-
tation include Alocasia bantamensis, Polygonum
barbatum, P. dichotoma and Colocasia esculenta
(Araceae). Scattered throughout this oating grass
vegetation are isolated trees and shrubs, or small
groups of trees and shrubs, usually on slightly
higher ground. These taxa include Alstonia spathu-
lata, Eugenia polyantha, Phyllanthus reticulatus
(Euphorbiaceae) and Glochidion cyrtostylum, accom-
panied by the climbers Stenochlaena palustris,
Flagellaria indica, Columella trifolia (Vitis trifolia)
and some Calamus. The lake itself is partly covered
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212 191

Table 2
Radiocarbon ages were calibrated to the bidecadal tree-ring/marine coral calibration curve using CALIB v. 3.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993).
Ages are calibrated in both years B.P. and B.C., and expressed at one sigma (68.3% condence), and two sigma (95.4% condence) ranges.
Where multiple intersections of the calibration curve occur, the largest relative area of the probability distribution in each case was chosen to
represent the most probable age range (where this occurs, the proportion of the total range is presented in brackets and italicised). The median
age of the two sigma calibrated range is given in bold type

Lab. No. Depth (cm) Uncalibrated age Calibrated age B.P. Calibrated age B.C./A.D.

Wk-5229 270280 350 ^ 80 1s: 468 (391) 314 1s: AD 1482 (1559) 1636
2s: 526 (400) 275 (0.97) 2s: AD 1424 (1550) 1675 (0.97)
Wk-5230 380390 1810 ^ 60 1s: 1813 (1752) 1691 (0.81) 1s: AD 137 (198) 259 (0.81)
2s:1839 (1704) 1571 (0.97) 2s: AD 111 (245) 379 (0.97)
Wk-5231 490500 3890 ^ 160 1s: 4459 (4272) 4084 (0.86) 1s: BC 2509 (2322) 2134 (0.86)
2s:4655 (4268) 3881 (0.94) 2s: BC 2705 (2318) 1931 (0.94)
Wk-5232 860870 5450 ^ 150 1s: 6405 (6280) 6036 1s: BC 4455 (4331) 4086
2s:6532 (6280) 5915 2s: BC 4582 (4331) 3965
Wk-5233 14001410 11460 ^ 160 1s: 13571 (13373) 13199 1s: BC 4455 (4331) 4086
2s:13788 (13373) 13035 2s: BC 11838 (11424) 11085
Wk-5234 16401650 13200 ^ 240 1s: 16096 (15743) 15353 1s: BC 14146 (13794) 13403
2s:16425 (15743) 14922 1s: BC 14475 (13794) 12972

by free-oating aquatic plants such as Pistia stra-
tiotes, Eichhornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae) and
Susum malayanum var. aquatica (syn. Hanguana
malayanum var. aquatica; Hanguanaceae).
Observations made during the 1996 eld season
suggest that the local vegetation has been substan-
tially modied since Endert (1932) made his surveys
in the Rawa Danau caldera. In particular, Elaeocarpus
littoralis, described by Endert as a dominant com-
ponent of the fresh-water swamp forest, has been
replaced largely by Ficus retusa.
4. Materials and methods
Sediment cores were collected from the site using a
hand-operated gouge auger. The main core (RD-3)
was extracted from the approximate centre of the
caldera, some 2 km to the south-west of the modern
lake (Figs. 1 and 2). This site was chosen for coring as
the survey of swamp deposits indicated the greatest
thickness of lacustrine deposits occurred in this part of
the caldera. The core was described and sub-samples
were taken in the eld and transported to the labora-
tory for analysis.
Core RD-3 is 17 m in length (Fig. 3). Five distinct
sedimentary units are evident. Unit 1 (17001610 cm
depth) is a black organic clay. Unit 2 (1610480 cm
depth) is a ne-grained green lacustrine clay (Munsell
colour 10-7.5 Y 4/2) with abundant shells. Unit 3
(480290 cm depth) is a woody peat unit. Unit 4
(29050 cm depth) is black organic clay inter-bedded
with woody peat deposits. Finally, Unit 5 (500 cm
depth) is a crumbly brownish-grey (2.5 Y 4/2 to 10
YR 4/2) clay deposit, resulting from (sub)recent over-
bank sedimentation during wet season oods, and
including the modern soil. Root penetration is evident
through the upper 3 m of the core. Layers of volcanic
ash are evident at 300 cm, 530 cm, 772 cm and pos-
sibly 1250 cm depth.
Six conventional radiocarbon dates on bulk sedi-
ment are available for the RD-3 sequence (Table 2).
Dates were calibrated to calendar years using the
program CALIB v.3.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993).
Unless otherwise stated, ages discussed below will
be expressed as the median age of the two sigma
calibrated age range, taken to be the most probable
age of the sample. The age/depth relationship (Fig. 4)
indicates a coherent sequence of increasing age with
depth, and relatively stable sedimentation rates
through the sequence, with exception of the upper
2.5 m.
Samples (1 cm 3) for diatom analysis (64) were
taken at 20 cm intervals. Samples were digested in
10% hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and 10% hydrochloric
acid (HCl). The remaining material was diluted by a
measured amount of distilled water and mounted with
Naphrax. Counts were undertaken on Olympus BH-2
192 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212

Fig. 4. Age-depth relation for Rawa Danau core RD-3.

Fig. 5. Areola density measurements for the main forms, variants and species of Aulacoseira recorded in the Rawa Danau record. All
measurements were made on a Zeiss Axioskop with DIC at 1000 magnication (Plan-Apochromat 100 /1.40 oil DIC objective).
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212 pp. 193197

Fig. 6. Diatom diagram for Rawa Danau core RD-3, showing taxa that account for at least 15% of the diatom variation.
pp. 198202

Fig. 8. Pollen diagram for Rawa Danau core RD-3, showing relative frequency curves for individual taxa, shading indicates 5 exaggeration, a
summary diagram, charcoal/pollen ratio, non-siliceous algae estimates and abundance of Ceratophyllum leaf-spines.
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
and Zeiss Axioskop microscopes with Differential
Interference Contrast. Diatom taxonomy followed
Krammer and Lange-Bertalot (1986, 1988, 1991),
and all taxa were identied to at least species level.
Aulacoseira granulata valves were identied to either
recognised subspecies (i.e. Aulacoseira granulata var.
angustissima), or to a morphotype based on the
density of areolae on the valve girdle. Two forms of
A. granulata are distinguished in this manner (Gomez
et al., 1995; Krammer and Lange-Bertalot, 1991;
Hustedt, 1930, 1938/39; Muller, 1903). The least
coarse form recorded in the Rawa Danau material
(A. granulata g or `gamma form') has a mean areolae
density of 11.1/10 mm, whereas the coarse form (A.
granulata or `alpha form') has a mean areolae density
of 6.27/10 mm. The mean and range of the areolae
density of the four most common forms, variants
and species of Aulacoseira recorded in this study are
presented in Fig. 5. This procedure was undertaken as
variations in valve ornamentation between morpho-
types of Aulacoseira are related to environmental
conditions (Gomez et al., 1995; Kilham et al., 1986;
Stoermer et al., 1985). A minimum of 300 diatoms
were counted per sample. Results are expressed as
relative abundances of the total diatom community
(excluding aerophilous taxa). Only taxa that occur
above 15% in at least one sample are included in
Fig. 6, although the habitat summary diagram (Fig.
7) includes values for all taxa.
Samples for pollen and charcoal analysis (42) were
selected at 40 cm depth intervals. From every selected
sub-sample 2 cm 3 of sediment was processed.
Samples were initially treated with hot 10% Na-
pyrophosphate (Na4P2O7) and sieved over a 160 and
an 8 mm mesh. The material retained in the 8 mm
mesh was then treated with 10% hydrochloric acid
(HCl) prior to acetolysis (9 parts (CH3CO)2O:1 part
H2SO4, 10 min). Organic material was isolated from
the remaining inorganic fraction using heavy liquid
separation with sodium polytungstate (Na6[H2W12O40]
H2O; s.g. 2.0, 20 min at 2000 rpm). The organic frac-
tion was then treated with 40% hydrouoric acid (HF)
to remove any remaining silica. Samples were then
dehydrated with ethanol (C2H5OH). Slides were
mounted with glycerol (CH2OHCHOHCH2OH) and
sealed with parafn.
All slides were counted along evenly spaced trans-
ects using an Olympus BH-2 microscope at 600
203
magnication. The minimum pollen sum was
approximately 200 arboreal pollen grains. Pollen
taxa from the open swamp vegetation (mainly Cyper-
aceae and Poaceae) were calculated as a percentage of
the total arboreal and non-arboreal sum. The abun-
dance of Ceratophyllum leaf-spines is also expressed
as a percentage of this total arboreal and non-arboreal
pollen sum, whereas non-siliceous algae estimates are
based on a subjective `rare' `present', `common',
`abundant' classication. Charcoal particles .10 mm
in size were counted along three evenly spaced tran-
sects. Charcoal particle values per unit volume were
calculated using the dilution of a known number of
Lycopodium spores added to each sample prior to
chemical processing.
5. Palaeoecological results
5.1. Diatoms
A total of 184 diatom taxa were recorded. Strati-
graphically constrained classication (Grimm, 1987)
of the results identies eight sample groups which
are used to dene zone boundaries and provide a
framework for diagram description and interpretation
(Fig. 6).
5.1.1. Zone 1: 17001600 cm depth (ca. 16,300
15,000 years B.P.)
The diatom ora of this zone is dominated by the
euplanktonic taxa Aulacoseira granulata var. angu-
stissima and A. granulata g , and the tychoplanktonic
Fragilaria pinnata and F. construens. Aulacoseira
muzzanensis and Nitzschia paleacea occur commonly
also, while Aulacoseira aff. alpigena is abundant in
the 1675 cm sample. The diatom ora suggests the
occurrence of a fresh, alkaline, productive lake within
the caldera. The black organic clay (Unit 1) deposited
at this time is strongly suggestive of an anoxic deposi-
tional environment which in turn suggests poor circu-
lation and a photic zone, which does not penetrate to
the lake bottom. We interpret this as reecting a deep
water phase. However, the presence of non-planktonic
diatoms appears to contradict this interpretation,
being more indicative of a relatively shallow lake
environment.
204 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
5.1.2. Zone 2: 15201220 cm depth (ca. 14,500
10,900 years B.P.)
Sediment between 1620 cm (approximately
15,000 years B.P.) and 1520 cm (approximately
14,500 years B.P.), coincident with a sedimento-
logical change to green lacustrine clays, was not
recovered during coring. The planktonic diatom Aula-
coseira granulata is the dominant species above this
missing section, with Fragilaria spp., Nitzschia
amphibia, N. paleacea, N. subacicularis and Synedra
acus v. angustissima occurring as common minor
elements. We interpret this ora as indicating an
open water, relatively deep, possibly uctuating lake
at the core site. The dominance of the meso-eutrophic
species Aulacoseira granulata indicates relative
productivity within the lake.
5.1.3. Zone 3: 12201120 cm depth (ca. 10,900
9600 years B.P.)
This zone was identied largely on the strong repre-
sentation of Aulacoseira granulata var. angustissima,
which reaches a maximum of 70% of the total diatom
assemblage, replacing the g form as the dominant
planktonic diatom. A. granulata g maintains a mean
representation of approximately 20% throughout the
zone, with Fragilaria construens and F. pinnata both
reaching mean values less than 12% relative abun-
dance. Minor taxa include Nitzschia subacicularis
and Synedra acus var. angustissima.
5.1.4. Zone 4: 1120900 cm depth (ca. 9,600
6700 years B.P.)
A second major shift within the phytoplankton
occurs at approximately 9600 years B.P., with Aula-
coseira granulata var. angustissima replaced by Aula-
coseira granulata a and A. muzzanensis, reecting
a shift toward larger and more coarsely areolate
diatoms.
Aulacoseira aff. alpigena is well represented
between 995 and 955 cm (approximately 8000 and
7500 years B.P.), but is absent from other samples
in the zone. Fragilaria construens and F. pinnata
have maximum values of 15 and 14% respectively
at 995 cm, with mean values of , 5.5% in the zone.
Other taxa recorded include Nitzschia gracilis, N.
lacuum, N. paleacea, N. subacicularis, and Synedra
acus var. angustissima.
5.1.5. Zone 5: 900720 cm depth (ca. 6700
5400 years B.P.)
A marked increase in tychoplanktonic species
Fragilaria construens and Fragilaria pinnata, at the
expense of previously dominant euplanktonic species,
indicates substantial hydrological changes at the
core site from approximately 6700 years B.P. The
increased representation of tychoplanktonic taxa
that is, taxa that spend part of their life cycle on the
benthos suggests that changes in habitat, notably
lake shallowing, competitively advantaged Fragi-
laria. Importantly, the absence of obligate benthic
taxa within the diatom assemblage suggests that
photic depth may have remained too shallow to
support such taxa, with tychoplanktonic taxa thus
competitively advantaged.
The genus Aulacoseira, which had dominated the
record for over 9000 years, is substantially reduced at
this time, presumably as a result of increasing compe-
tition with tychoplanktonic species for light and nutri-
ents. The representation of A. granulata a form falls
to less than 10% of the assemblage, while A. muzza-
nensis is largely absent from the diatom assemblage.
A. granulata g form is the most strongly represented
species within the genus, reaching a maximum repre-
sentation of 82% at 895 cm, before falling to a mean
representation of approximately 23% through the rest
of the zone. Nitzschia subacicularis and Synedra
acus var. angustissima have variable representation
through the zone, both reaching maximum values of
18%.
5.1.6. Zone 6: 720390 cm depth (ca. 5400
2000 years B.P.)
Fragilaria construens and F. pinnata remain the
dominant species within zone 6, with a mean repre-
sentation of 29 and 21% of the total diatom sum,
respectively. The representation of Aulacoseira
within this zone is extremely variable. The most
common species, A. granulata g form, reaches 53%
of the total diatom assemblage at 625 cm (ca.
5000 years B.P.), but has a mean representation of
only 10% through the zone. The epiphytic diatoms
Achnanthes minutissima and Cocconeis placentula
increase in abundance between approximately
50004000 years B.P., the latter reaching in excess
of 30% of the diatom sum.
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212 205

Fig. 7. Summary diatom diagram for Rawa Danau core RD-3.

5.1.7. Zone 7: 390275 cm depth (ca. 2000
500 years B.P.)
Periphytic taxa dominate the diatom assemblage
between 375 and 335 cm depth (a mean value of
80%). They include Achnanthes levanderi, A. minu-
tissima, Cocconeis placentula, Epithemia adnata, and
Eunotia bilunaris. Diatoms with an aerophilous habit,
such as Navicula confervacea, increase to around 8%.
In contrast, both planktonic and tychoplanktonic taxa
are poorly represented in this zone (both with a mean
value of around 6%). We interpret the dominance of
attached diatoms (Fig. 7) as evidence for a further
decrease in lake depth, allowing the temporary expan-
sion of aquatic and littoral plants close to the core site.
206 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
Tychoplanktonic taxa increase markedly in the
upper two samples of this zone (315 and 285 cm
depth), concomitant with a decrease in the relative
abundance of periphytic and aerophilous species,
possibly reecting a return to deeper water conditions
from around 870 years B.P.
5.1.8. Zone 8: 12550 cm depth (ca. 18180 years
B.P.)
Diatom frustules did not preserve between 255 and
125 cm depth (ca. 370180 years B.P.). After this
period periphytic and aerophilous taxa dominate the
record, suggesting relatively shallow, possibly uctu-
ating lake levels at the core site.
No diatoms are preserved in the upper 50 cm
of the record. This is most likely due to the
lowering of the outow level early this century,
substantially reducing the size of the permanent
lake and thus initiating pedogenesis at the core
site. Conditions are likely to have become un-
suitable for both diatom growth and preservation
at this time.
5.2. Palynology
The pollen diagram (Fig. 8) has been divided into
four pollen zones, based on major changes in the rela-
tive abundance of taxa in the diagram.
5.2.1. Zone 4: 17001425 cm depth (ca. 16,300
14,500 years B.P.)
Zone 4 is initially characterised by high Poaceae
and charcoal particle values, and low Pteridophyta
values. Poaceae pollen decreases substantially
through the zone, falling from over 60% of the non-
arboreal pollen sum to less than 15%. Macaranga-
Mallotus and Moraceae-Urticaceae (probably
Athrocarpus) pollen dominate the arboreal pollen
sum, with Elaeocarpus, Celtis, Gironniera-Trema,
and Ficus strongly represented also. Non-siliceous
algae, particularly Coelastrum and Pediastrum, are
common at this time.
5.2.2. Zone 3: 14251210 cm depth (ca. 14,500
10,800 years B.P.)
The relative abundance of Poaceae stabilises in this
zone, while arboreal pollen types increase in both
taxon diversity and relative abundance. Elaeocarpus
and Moraceae-Urticaceae are the most strongly repre-
sented arboreal taxa, with CaralliaRhizophora,
Celtis, Dipterocarpaceae, Gironniera-Trema, and
Macaranga-Mallotus pollen well represented. Char-
coal particle values decline initially, with a return to
higher values in the upper samples. The non-siliceous
algae Botryococcus and Coelastrum are both abun-
dant in these sediments.
5.2.3. Zone 2: 1210460 cm depth (ca. 10,800
3400 years B.P.)
Macaranga-Mallotus pollen dominates the arbor-
eal pollen count throughout this zone, progressively
increasing to a maximum of 44% at 500 cm depth.
In contrast, Carallia-Rhizophora type declines
through the zone from a maximum relative abun-
dance at 1200 and 1160 cm depth (ca. 10,600 years
B.P.). Elaeocarpus pollen increases to 26% of the
arboreal pollen sum at 487 cm depth (ca. 4100 years
B.P.). Antidesma-Bacaurea type, Celtis, Diptero-
carpaceae, Ficus, Gironniera-Trema, Moraceae-
Urticaceae and Nauclea type are all consistently
represented within the arboreal pollen assemblage
throughout the zone. Poaceae and charcoal values
are low, while Pteridophyta values and non-siliceous
algae are abundant. Leaf-spines of the oating
aquatic plant Ceratophyllum (Hydrocharitaceae) are
common, particularly in the upper samples of this
zone, becoming most abundant at 607 cm depth (ca.
4900 years B.P.).
5.2.4. Zone 1: 46050 cm depth (ca. 340080 years
B.P.)
Elaeocarpus is strongly represented in this zone,
replacing Macaranga-Mallotus as the dominant
arboreal pollen type. Eugenia, Ilex and Ficus are
also common. From around 400 years B.P. the
arboreal pollen signal is greatly reduced, replaced
largely by Asteraceae Tubuliorae, Cyperaceae
and Poaceae. This is broadly synchronous with an
increase in charcoal values. Non-siliceous algae are
virtually absent from these sediments. From around
250300 years B.P., pollen of the cultivars Arenga
(sugar palm), and Cocos nucifera type (coconut)
become increasingly important, as do Selaginella
spores.
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
6. Discussion
6.1. Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction and climate
history
6.1.1. Late Glacial (ca. 16,30011,250 years B.P.)
The palynological data for the Late Glacial at Rawa
Danau indicate the presence of open herbaceous
swamp vegetation dominated by grasses, while the
character of the sediment deposited at this time
suggests a deep lake. The diatom communities indi-
cate a slightly alkaline and productive lake but, in
contrast with the sedimentological evidence, the
presence of periphytic and aerophilous diatom taxa
suggests shallower conditions. Pteridophyte were
not a major component of the vegetation, which indi-
cates relatively dry conditions. This interpretation is
supported by the charcoal record, which indicates that
res were relatively frequent.
The majority of the pollen deposited at the core site
is likely to have been derived from local swamp forest
communities and dryland forests within the caldera.
Indeed, there is little evidence of any long-distance
pollen rain. Exceptions to this are high altitude
elements such as Dacrycarpus, Distyllium, Podo-
carpus, and possibly Ulmus, although these taxa
never reach high values, and are largely restricted to
this late glacial period (before 11,250 years B.P.). The
swamp forest which occurred within the caldera
during the Late Glacial was probably restricted to
the margins of the lake proper, and was largely
composed of Moraceae-Urticaceae (mostly Arto-
carpus), Macaranga-Mallotus, Elaeocarpus (prob-
ably E. littoralis) and Ficus (probably F. retusa).
From around 15,00013,000 years B.P., grass
cover gradually reduced while Elaeocarpus forest
expanded. The sedimentological change to greenish,
highly organic clays, abundant mollusc fauna and
planktonic, meso to eutrophic diatom taxa indicate
that Rawa Danau was a productive, neutral to slightly
alkaline fresh-water lake from ca. 14,500 years B.P.
The total forest cover in the Rawa Danau caldera
increased strongly from around 15,000 years B.P.,
indicating a change to wetter climatic conditions.
Ferns become an important element of the vege-
tation from around 11,250 years B.P., also indicating
the development of a more humid environment.
Macaranga-Mallotus and Dipterocarpaceae seem to
207
have dominated the swamp forest communities, partly
replacing Moraceae-Urticaceae and Elaeocarpus,
while planktonic diatoms are at their most abundant.
The presence of Synedra acus var. angustissima
and Aulacoseira aff. alpigena in these late glacial
sediments is noteworthy. In tropical African lakes
Kilham et al. (1986) have shown that elongate taxa
from the Fragilariaceae, including the Synedra acus
group, are competitively advantaged at high Si:P
ratios relative to a number of other planktonic genera,
including Aulacoseira species. The relatively strong
occurrence of this species at Rawa Danau may there-
fore reect relatively high concentrations of dissolved
silica in the lake. Aulacoseira aff. alpigena (which in
Australian systems has similar nutrient requirements
to A. granulata, Tibby unpublished data) may be more
abundant as a result of competitive advantage offered
by smaller cell size and slower sinking rates. In this
context A. aff. alpigena's greater abundance may
reect factors such as longer periods of stratication.
6.1.2. Early Holocene (ca. 11,2506700 years B.P.)
The presence of Carallia-Rhizophora pollen in the
Rawa Danau record during the early Holocene could
be ascribed to the presence of Carallia in the swamp
forest vegetation (probably C. lucida; Endert, 1932).
However, the shape of the curve and its timing
suggests that it may actually reect the development
of mangrove vegetation in the Sunda Strait area,
through long-distance transport of Rhizophora pollen.
Many of the marine palynological studies in the region
show a similar pattern, with the maximum expansion
of Rhizophora around the transition from oxygen
isotope stage 2 to 1 (Van der Kaars, 1991, 1998;
Van der Kaars et al., 2000). The presence of Sonner-
atia within the pollen record at this time provides
some corroborative evidence for this interpretation.
Lake water chemistry during the early Holocene
appears largely unchanged from the late glacial
period; that is, fresh, slightly alkaline and most prob-
ably meso to eutrophic. The shift toward coarser
forms of Aulacoseira is difcult to interpret unequiv-
ocally with the data available. Kilham et al. (1986)
argue that shifts between small pored forms of Aula-
coseira granulata (e.g. g form) and coarse forms (e.g.
a form) are likely to result from increases in lake
nutrient status. Gomez et al. (1995) also indicate
that a form occurs in waters with higher nutrient
208 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
status. Their data indicate that, when contrasted to the
g form, a form occurs in waters with higher dissolved
Si concentrations. It seems, therefore, that the broad
shifts from Aulacoseira valves with high areolae
density to those which are more coarsely areolate in
the Rawa Danau record may reect lake shallowing,
sediment entrainment and a concomitant increase in
nutrient availability.
6.1.3. Middle Holocene (ca. 67003650 years B.P.)
Vegetation within the Rawa Danau caldera appears
to have been relatively stable through the middle
Holocene. Mixed swamp forest communities were
dominated by Macaranga-Mallotus, with Celtis,
Dipterocarpaceae, Elaeocarpus, Moraceae-Urticacaeae
(Ficus) and Trema as minor elements. The strong
representation of fern spores at this time, in concert
with low charcoal values, implies a relatively stable
humid climate. Interestingly, a sharp increase in
representation of the epiphytic diatom Cocconeis
placentula from ca. 5000 to 4500 years B.P. (625
545 cm depth) is associated with the maximum repre-
sentation of Ceratophyllum leaf-spines recorded in the
pollen samples. While the pollen of Ceratophyllum is
not produced in large numbers and does not preserve
readily (Warner, 1989), Birks (1973) has shown
Ceratophyllum macrofossil abundance is concomitant
with the plant's representation in lakes. Given that
macrofossils are generally not found in abundance at
a great distance from the source plant (Birks, 1973),
the abundance of Ceratophyllum leaf-spines, in
concert with the increased representation of epiphytic
diatoms implies the presence of oating and sub-
merged aquatic plants at the core site. The sudden
decline of Ceratophyllum and the epiphytic diatoms
Cocconeis placentula and Achnanthes minutissima at
ca. 4500 years B.P. is coeval with the deposition of
volcanic ash (530 cm depth). Gasse (1986) found C.
placentula growing abundantly on Ceratophyllum,
and there appears to be a similarly strong association
between this diatom and Ceratophyllum in the Rawa
Danau record. We interpret the reduction of Cerato-
phyllum to be a result of volcanic ash fall, perhaps
representative of a larger ecological impact, which
is not visible in the pollen record, and that the
dramatic reduction of epiphytic diatom taxa from
the record reects the destruction of this habitat.
Interestingly, the 530 cm depth ash layer corresponds
to the decline in Synedra acus var. angustissima, a
taxon apparently adapted to high Si:P ratios. Given
the high Si content of volcanic tephra (Eastwood et
al., 1998), this decline is intriguing. Abella (1988)
notes a similar phenomenon with the decline of Fragi-
laria crotonensis in response to a Mt. Mazama tephra
deposition on Lake Washington. Changes in lake-
water pH may be associated with tephra deposition
(Birks and Lotter, 1994), while short-term shading
of phytoplankton is another possible explanation for
elimination of Synedra acus var. angustissima.
The change in the diatom ora from euplanktonic to
tychoplanktonic species at ca. 6700 years B.P. reects
a critical ecological threshold within the diatom
community. Metcalfe (1988) notes that habitat char-
acteristics are important in determining species
composition in tropical freshwater systems, hence
the change from an Aulacoseira dominated commun-
ity to one dominated by Fragilaria may be a result of
competitive advantage provided by tychoplanktonic
life strategy. Bennion (1995) has shown that Fragi-
laria species, including those recorded in the Rawa
Danau sediments, may dominate as a result of the
penetration of the photic zone to the lake bottom
which they inhabit. However, these taxa also domin-
ate the plankton in highly turbid, shallow lakes with a
very low secchi depth (,50 cm) (Fluin, unpublished
data). In such shallow, turbid environments these taxa
may be advantaged by their chain forming habit,
which allows them to be suspended into the photic
zone, but also inhabit nutrient-enriched environments
in the lake bottom. Whether light penetrated to
the bottom sediments at Rawa Danau from ca.
6700 years B.P. or not, it appears that the transition
to Fragilaria construens and F. pinnata dominated
assemblages is related to competitive advantage
afforded by lake shallowing as a result of vertical
sediment accretion.
6.1.4. Late Holocene (ca. 365080 years B.P.)
The initiation of peat formation, the disappearance
of non-siliceous algae and the replacement of the
previously common Macaranga-Mallotus and Diptero-
carpaceae forest with Elaeocarpus forest, occurred
from ca. 3650 years B.P., in response to lake shallow-
ing. While the increased representation of periphytic
and aerophilous taxa in this part of the sequence may
reect further shallowing at the core site, there is no
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
evidence for oxidation or pedogenesis. Alternatively,
these taxa may be occurring above the water level on
the trunks and buttressed roots of swamp forest trees
occurring at the core site. The localised occurrence of
swamp forest vegetation is conrmed by the contem-
porary deposition of woody peat and abundant leaf
macrofossils. From ca. 1750 years B.P. Ilex became
an important element of the swamp vegetation, while
the appearance of aerophilous diatoms such as Navi-
cula confervacea and N. contenta, associated with
uctuating water levels (Vyverman, 1992) in the
record are indicative of further terrestrialisation of
the core site. During the last few hundred years, as a
result of a marked intensication of land use (burning
and crop cultivation), and the lowering of the outow
level, the vegetation in the Rawa Danau area became
much more open. Forest cover had been reduced and
herbs such as Asteraceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae and
the fern Selaginella became important elements in the
vegetation, as did Anacardiaceae, Arenga, and Cocos
nucifera. The remaining swamp forest vegetation
included Elaeocarpus, Glochidion, Ilex, Macaranga-
Mallotus, Stenomurus, and ferns (Cyathea and undif-
ferentiated psilamonolete spores), a community struc-
ture similar to the closed, fern-rich swamp forest
described by Endert (1932) in the north of the caldera.
6.2. Regional comparisons and local environmental
change
The pollen, diatom and sediment records presented
here present a largely coherent reconstruction of
palaeolimnological and palaeoclimatic conditions
from the lowlands of Indonesia from the Late Glacial
to the present. In particular, hydrological changes,
documented by changes in the diatom community,
have had a direct impact upon swamp forest vegeta-
tion in the Rawa Danau caldera, as clearly reected in
the pollen record.
The only published record from the Indonesian
lowlands that extends beyond the Holocene is the
Bandung Basin core, West Java (Van der Kaars and
Dam, 1995, 1997), which has provided a 135,000 year
palynological record. However, the Late Glacial and
Holocene are not well represented in the Bandung
Basin record, and meaningful comparisons with the
much younger Rawa Danau record cannot be made.
The present study indicates that, during the Late
209
Glacial period, the vegetation at Rawa Danau was
much more open, suggesting a relatively dry climate.
This contrasts strongly with contemporary records
from higher altitudes in Java. Stuijts (1993), for
example, records the dominance of ever-wet Dacry-
carpus forest in West-Java until 12,000 years B.P.
from a series of sites between 1015 and 2200 m asl,
inferring precipitation values comparable with
today's but temperatures at least 38C lower than
present. Temperatures are thought to have increased
between 12,000 and 10,000 years B.P., evidenced by
a rise in Engelhardia pollen and the subsequent
development of Fagaceous forests during the Holo-
cene (Stuijts, 1993). Similarly, palaeoclimate evi-
dence from central (Newsome and Flenley, 1988)
and northern Sumatra (Maloney, 1979; Maloney and
McCormac, 1996), suggests that temperatures during
the most recent glacial period were lower than present
(up to 5.28C lower; Newsome and Flenley, 1988) but,
at least in northern Sumatra, conditions may have
been as wet or possibly wetter than present.
By contrast, there is little unequivocal palynologi-
cal evidence of depressed temperatures at Rawa
Danau during the late glacial period. The presence
of high altitude elements prior to 11,250 years B.P.,
possibly derived from the nearby Mt. Karang area,
may be taken as evidence of the expansion of mid-
upper montane forest elements into lower altitudes
(reecting lower temperatures), but might equally be
explained by an increased inux of long-distance
pollen rain during periods when vegetation cover
was relatively open and/or when there was a large
area of open water within the caldera. In any case,
little can be deduced from the presence of these
montane elements at Rawa Danau given their poor
representation within the pollen spectra. The data
presented here are, then, more in keeping with climate
reconstructions based on marine cores which indicate
little variation from modern values in sea surface
temperatures during the most recent glacial maximum
(Thunell et al., 1994), than with terrestrial records of
climate change from high altitude sites which demon-
strate dramatic temperature change over this period.
Similarly, Kutzbach and Guetter (1986) predict little
change in temperature and only minor declines in
precipitation in the West Java region during the
glacial maximum based on synthetic climate model-
ling experiments. Although the RD-3 core does not
210 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212

incorporate the glacial maximum, our late-glacial data clearly taking place within the caldera and in the
does not conict with Kutzbach and Guetter's (1986) surrounding landscape.
temperature model.
The palaeoecological data presented here are equi- 6.3. Human/environment interaction
vocal with regard to climatic conditions during the
People clearly had a large impact on the vegetation
Holocene, as vegetation development appears to be
development in the Rawa Danau area during the last
largely controlled by local hydrological changes
few hundred years, as evidenced by increased burn-
within the caldera. However, palynological data,
ing, the appearance of food crops, the apparent open-
particularly the strong representation of fern spores,
ing of the vegetation with many grasses, sedges and
do suggest that climatic conditions were relatively
ferns, and presence of weeds. However, it is more
humid and apparently stable through the early and
difcult to identify the impact of people, as distinct
middle Holocene.
from climate change, in earlier parts of the record. The
While the pollen data provide some evidence of
vegetation in the Rawa Danau caldera during the Late
palaeoprecipitation change over time, there is little
Glacial period was relatively open, much like the
convincing evidence that biotic or physico-chemical
vegetation of the last few hundred years, although
changes in the lake itself have responded to, or been
with a signicantly different character; that is, domin-
forced by, changes in prevailing climate. Throughout
ated by grasses yet with very few of the ferns and
most of the 16,000 year record presented here, Rawa
sedges, that are presently a characteristic element of
Danau was a fresh, alkaline, meso-eutrophic water
the open vegetation in the caldera (Endert, 1932).
body. The overriding mechanism forcing change in
Burning levels were high during the Late Glacial,
the algal community within the lake is clearly water
but there is no evidence for food crops or the presence
depth and associated physico-chemical variations.
of weeds. Our record does not enable us to establish
Bradbury and Diterich-Rurup (1993) have shown
whether the open vegetation around the lake was
that shifts between planktonic taxa, such as the shift
caused by people through forest clearance and burn-
from Aulacoseira to Synedra in the Rawa Danau
ing, or whether people moved on to the lake shore area
record, may reect short-term climatic uctuations
after the vegetation had become more open. Although
(and their effect on nutrient availability), super-
resources around the lake may have been attractive to
imposed upon a diatom ora which is largely
people, they may only have moved there once ease of
unresponsive to longer term climatic changes. The
access had increased, such as when dense forest cover
role Si availability and limitation has played in the
had changed to open vegetation at the onset of the last
development of the diatom communities in this vol-
glacial period. For instance, charcoal and pollen
canically active region is uncertain. It is only with the
evidence from the Bandung basin record suggests
decline of Cocconeis placentula at ca. 4500 years B.P.
that people may have moved into the lake shore area
that any direct response by the diatom community to a
around 65,000 years B.P., but only after dense forest
recorded ash fall event can be observed.
cover had been replaced by a much more open vege-
While the diatom data provide a striking record of
tation at around 80,000 years B.P. (Kershaw et al.,
lake depth variation from the late glacial period, lake
1997; Van der Kaars and Dam, 1995).
depth decreases are not manifestly engendered by
climate change. It is our interpretation that the lake
level data presented here reect the sedimentological Acknowledgements
and ecological process of basin in-lling, or terrestrial-
isation, rather than direct response to variations in the This research was supported by a Monash Devel-
precipitation/evaporation balance associated with opment Fund grant and a Monash Logan Research
climate change since the Late Pleistocene. The geolo- Fellowship. We would like to thank Ursula Pietrzak
gical and geomorphological setting of the lake, which for assistance in the eld, and Peter Kershaw for criti-
has maintained deep lake conditions even during cally reviewing the manuscript. The comments of
periods of relative aridity, has apparently isolated John Flenley and Francoise Gasse enabled the manu-
the lake from the environmental changes that were script to be improved.
 S. van der Kaars et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 171 (2001) 185212
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