Stress measurements from oriented core – a decade of results

Ernesto Villaescusa
WA School of Mines, Curtin University, CRC Mining, Australia

Christopher R. Windsor
WA School of Mines, Curtin University, CRC Mining, Australia

Luis Machuca
WA School of Mines, Curtin University, CRC Mining, Australia

Abstract
A technique that allows the estimation of stresses using oriented core that can be drilled at depth, and from
remote locations, has been developed and widely implemented over the last ten years at the Western
Australian School of Mines (WASM). The technique allows the determination of a representative and
detailed knowledge of the in situ stress field during the early stages of a project (such as mine feasibility
studies), even in areas where development access is not yet available (below current large open pits or
existing block caves). The technique is based on Acoustic Emission monitoring of microstructure
mobilization and over the last decade it has been used to estimate the in situ stresses for more than 80
mine sites located within 13 countries. In excess of 240 full stress tensor determinations have been carried
out to date. This paper briefly introduces the method and presents typical results for a future block caving
mine at a depth exceeding 1500m. Furthermore, the WASM database of results for the last decade is
presented and the results compared to other techniques that measure the complete stress tensor.

1 Introduction
The WASM AE stress measurement technique (Villaescusa et al, 2002), is based on Acoustic Emission
monitoring of microstructure mobilization under uniaxial loading along six independent orientations from
oriented sub-cores taken from oriented master core (Villaescusa et al, 2008). The methodology detects a
previously applied maximum stress by loading a rock specimen to a point where a substantial increase in
Acoustic Emission (AE) activity is experienced (See Figure 1). Provided the rock specimen has been
selected from an area previously in equilibrium with gravitational loading and tectonics (Windsor et al,
2006b; 2007), this is the maximum previous stress to which a particular rock mass has been subjected by
its environment.
The fundamental methodology has been developed over the last 20 years by several researchers with the
aim of providing a practical technique for estimating the in-situ stress measurements using oriented core
(Kurita and Fujii, 1979, Seto et al., 1989, Seto et al., 1992, Seto et al., 1996, Seto et al., 1999, Villaescusa
et al., 2003). Additional detailed laboratory investigations have been conducted on the technique at the
Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan (Villaescusa et al, 2010). Figure 2 shows
that typically, the AE hypocentres are located in the central part of the sample and indicate a shear mode
of failure along eventual failure planes. No evidence of damage was observed due to sample drilling (i.e.
if this were the case, then the majority of events would be randomly located near the specimen edge).
 NJ4-1A23 (25dB) - 512m deep
30

25

Cumulative AE Events
20 Previous maximum stress

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

Stress (MPa)

Figure 1: Typical AE cumulative events versus applied uniaxial stress

Figure 2: Typical AE hypocenters from stress measurements – foliation and eventual failure plane
are shown

In addition, comprehensive site investigations have been conducted at mine sites in Australia (Windsor,
2007, 2008 and Windsor et al, 2007), Chile (Windsor et al, 2006a, 2006b) and Peru (Windsor, 2009a) in
attempts to reconcile the stress measurement results with local conditions of rock strain, rock structure and
rock strength.

2 Example of results at great depth

Over the last decade or so, WASM has undertaken AE stress measurements ranging from stress
determination below and adjacent to existing underground mines and open pits. Stress measurements
using deep exploration core drilled to delineate new orebodies or extensions to known orebodies have also
been undertaken. Figure 3 shows the location of three WASM AE measurements for a future block caving
operation being planned under a current large open pit. A total of nine measurements ranging from 310m
to 1750m below surface were undertaken from three separate boreholes of different orientations. Figure 4
shows the main principal stress orientations, while Figure 5 shows the magnitudes with depth for this
future block caving site. Furthermore, the stress measurement results from this site are given in terms of
the vertical stress, the main principal stresses and the average horizontal to vertical stress ratio as shown in
Figures 6 and 7 respectively.
 0m

1166m

1790m

Figure 3: Location of WASM AE stress measurements at depth below an existing pit

Figure 4: Principal stress orientations - WASM AE

 Proposed in situ stress profiles for Chuquicamata Mine
90
σ = 0.0443 × Depth + 4.0
Sigma-1
1
80
σ = 0.0357 × Depth
Sigma-2
2

70
Sigma-3
σ = 0.0271 × Depth
Stress magnitude (MPa)
3

60 Sv

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Vertical depth from surface (m)

Figure 5: Principal stress magnitudes - WASM AE

K = Average Horizontal to Vertical Stress Ratio

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

500

1000
Depth below surface, z (m)

1500

2000
+ 0.3

2500
100
z
K=

3000

Figure 6: Average horizontal to vertical stress ratio - WASM AE

3 Comparison with other techniques
Here, we record the scalar characteristics (ie stress magnitudes alone) from ca. 240 WASM AE rock stress
tensor determinations obtained from different geological, geodynamic regimes from different continents
and compare these to those compiled in an Earth Rock Stress Tensor Database (ERSTD) (Windsor,
2009b). The data comprises results from techniques that attempt to measure, without a priori assumption,
the complete rock stress tensor (eg. it does not include results obtained from the Hydraulic Fracturing
Technique). The data are presented as reported, without prejudice or censorship.
The distributions of the vertical stress, the principal normal stresses and the maximum shear stress with
depth in the upper 3km of Earth’s crust from the WASM AE data set and from the ERSTD are shown in
Figures 7, 8 and 9 respectively. Figure 7 indicates that both data sets are distributed about a theoretical
linear relationship for vertical stress given by σv = z γr where z is the overburden depth and γr is the unit
weight of rock which is set here at 27 kN/m3. The WASM AE data appear to fit better with this relation
than the ERSTD.
The distribution of principal normal stresses (σ1, σ2 and σ3) with depth given in Figure 8 shows a low
frequency of tensor measurement below 1.5km, with scatter increasing with depth. It indicates slight non-
linearity of the WASM AE data set and greater non-linearity of the ERSTD. Note that the ERSTD is
influenced at depth by a greater frequency of deeper and lower stress magnitudes measured around South
African mine sites. Figure 9 shows the distribution of the maximum shear stress from WASM AE and
from the ERSTD. Both data sets show non-linearity and considerable scatter with depth which is thought
to be linked to the variability in the shear strength of Earth’s crust and its ability to sustain shear stresses
(Windsor, 2009).

  Vertical Stress (MPa)

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
0

ERSTD (2010)

500 WASM AE (2011)

1000
Depth (m)

1500

2000

2500

Theoretical Vertical Stress

(Unit Weight 27 kN/m3)

3000

Figure 7: Distribution of maximum shear stress with depth, measured by WASM AE and from the
ERSTD
  
Principal Normal Stresses σ1,σ2 ,σ3 (MPa)
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0

S1 ERSTD (2010)
S2 ERSTD (2010)
S3 ERSTD (2010)
S1 WASM AE (2011)

500 S2 WASM AE (2011)

S3 WASM AE (2011)

1000
Depth (m)

1500

2000

2500

3000

Figure 8: Distributions of principal normal stresses with depth, measured by WASM AE and from
the ERSTD
  
Maximum Shear Stress τmax (MPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0

ERSTD (2010)

500 WASM AE (2011)

1000
Depth (m)

1500

2000

2500

3000

Figure 9: Distribution of maximum shear stress with depth, measured by WASM AE and all from
the ERSTD

4 Conclusions
The WA School of Mines has developed and implemented a low cost methodology (WASM AE) to
determine the full stress tensor with no requirement for underground access. The scalar characteristics (ie
stress magnitudes alone) from ca. 240 WASM AE rock stress tensor determinations have been compared
with those from an Earth Rock Stress Tensor Database (ERSTD). The research has found that, when
considering the depth-stress relations for vertical stress, maximum shear stress and the ratios of principal
normal stresses to the mean normal stress, the WASM AE data appear to be a subset of the larger ERSTD
data set. Over the last decade, this method of stress measurement has been found very useful for planning
future extensions to existing mines and also during the design of new underground mines at depth.

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