Block  Cave  Mine  2020  –  Case  study  on  a  continuously  operated  Mega  Mine  
 
 
 
Jens  Steinberg  (Speaker)  
Caterpillar  Global  Mining  
 
Markus  Frenzel  
Caterpillar  Global  Mining  
 
Dr.  Johannes  Krings  
Caterpillar  Global  Mining  
 

Abstract  
 
As   global   demand   for   raw   materials   continues   to   increase,   mining   companies   are   looking   for   ways  to  
increase  production  capacity.  As  visible  in  actual  green  field  projects  around  the  world,  the  trend  in  
block  caving  goes  to  production  rates  up  to  160,000  tonnes  per  day.  This  development  in  mine  design  
correlated  with  the  capacity  change  of  mine  output  figures  and  the  actual  market  situation  in  mind  
as   well,   this   paper   analyzes   the   limits   of   current   block   cave   mines   and   points   out   an   approach   for  
maximized   production   capacities   in   future   block   caving   mines.   Hereby,   the   paradigm   shift   from  
discontinuous   common   hard   rock   mining   to   continuous   operating,   high-­‐performance   block   caving  
operations  is  discussed.  
 
 
1  Introduction  
 
The   intention   of   this   paper   is   to   analyze   the   bottle   necks   in   the   different   processes   when   it   comes   to  
block  caving  mines  rated  at  160,000  tonnes  per  day  production  and  to  discuss  new  technical  concept  
aimed  at  overcoming  these  bottle  necks.    
First  step  of  this  investigation  was  to  define  a  mine  design  related  to  adequate  rock  properties  and  to  
set   a   proper   production   rate   for   the   case   study.   Following,   bottlenecks   –   generated   by   the   evaluated  
case  study  parameters  –  must  be  identified  and  eliminated  for  the  strived  mining  operation.  
 
 
2  Case  Study  
 
Mine  design  
For  this  study,  the  mine  design  was  set  for  a  panel  caving  operation  with  a  typical  draw  point  spacing  
of  15  x  15  m  and  a  characteristic  average  block  height  of  560  m.  The  ore  density  is  set  to  ρ=  2.7  t/m³.  
A  challenge  in  terms  of  increasing  the  extraction  rate  is  balancing  the  different  phases  of  the  mining  
sequence  (reaping,  spreading  and  development  of  new  areas)  in  order  to  achieve  a  constant  output  
of  production  and  to  avoid  stand  still  waiting  times.  

 
  

The   extraction   rate   of   the   initial   phase   (spreading)   of   the   caving   process   (τs)   is   restricted   to   low  
values   in   order   to   prevent   undesired   events   such   as   high   seismic   activities   or   sudden   air   blasts.  
Therefore  the  mean  extraction  rate  (τm)  can  only  be  raised  by  increasing  the  production  rate  in  the  
regular  phase  (reaping)  (τr),  formula  1  describes  this  relationship:  
 
                       τm  =  (n  *  τs  +  τr)  /  (n+1)                                                    (1)  
 
τm     =  mean  extraction  rate  
τs   =  extraction  rate  spreading  phase  
τr   =  extraction  rate  of  regular  caving  
n   =  number  of  blocks  in  initial  phase  
 
τm   is   calculated   under   consideration   of   the   extraction   rate   during   initial   caving   phase   (τs)   and   the  
extraction  rate  of  regular  caving  (τr)  as  a  function  of  number  of  blocks  in  initial  phase  (n).    
             
For   this   case   study   it   was   assumed,   that   the   spreading   rate   (τs)   is   limited   to   0.45  tpd/m²,   when  
applying  pre-­‐conditioning  methods.  According  to  the  paper  “Mechanized  continuous  drawing  system:  
A   technical   answer   to   increase   production   capacity   for   large   block   caving   mines”   presented   by   V.  
Encina   et   al   at   the   MassMin   2008,   the   optimum   ratio   of   no.   of   reaping   blocks   to   no.   of   spreading  
blocks  is  1:  3.    
 
 
1.60  
Mean  producFon  rate  [t/d  m²]  

1.50  
1.40  
1.30  
1.20  
1.10  
1.00  
0.90  
0.80  
0.70  
1   2   3   4   5   6  
No.  of  blocks  in  spreading  per  reaping  block  
 
Figure  1:  Interdependence  of  mean  production  rate  to  spreading  blocks  per  reaping  block  

 
 
As   figure   1   shows,   the   mean   production   rate   can   only   be   increased   marginally   when   more   than   3  
blocks   in   spreading   are   applied   per   block   in   reaping.   Accordingly   the   ration   1:3   is   used   in   this   case  
study  as  an  economical  optimum.    
 
The  correlations  described  above  indicate,  that  with  the  given  maximum  spreading  rate,  the  reaping  
rate   can   be   raised   to   a   maximum   of   4.05  tpd/m²   and   that   the   mean   production   rate   equals   to  
1,35  tpd/m²  consequently.  In  order  to  achieve  a  daily  production  rate  of  160,000  tonnes  per  day  at  

 
  

this   mean   extraction   rate,   a   foot   print   of   29,630   m²   per   one   of   four   blocks   is   required   (formula   1).  
With   the   assumed   draw   point   spacing   of   15  m   by   15  m,   which   leads   to   a   draw   point   plane   of   225  m²,  
132  draw  points  are  required  per  block.  At  a  block  height  of  500  m  and  a  rock  density  of  ρ=2.7  t/m³  
each  draw  point  has  a  tonnage  of  300  *  10³  t.  
 
The  two  main  questions  that  arise  from  this  case  are:  
? How  can  the  performance  of  the  haulage  system  be  increased  to  the  level  of  4.05  tpd/m²  for  
the  reaping  block?  
? How  can  the  speed  of  mine  development  as  well  as  the  speed  of  undercut  development  be  
increased  in  order  to  keep  up  with  the  increased  production  rate?    
 
Production  
The  intention  of  this  case  study  is  to  discuss  methods  being  suited  for  raising  the  production  rate  of  
future  block  caving  mines  to  160,000  tonnes  ore  per  day.  Compared  to  present  block  cave  mines,  this  
output   rate   shows   an   enormous   increase   of   the   reaping   rate   while   the   same   production   would  
require  an  extremely  large  footprint  when  conventional  mining  technologies  are  applied.    
 
Main   bottleneck   for   a   significant   increase   of   production   are   the   limits   of   the   haulage   system.  
Assuming   that   the   draw   point   extraction   is   done   by   LHDs,   the   maximum   extraction   rate   reaches   0.4  -­‐
 0.5  tpd/m².  With  this  performance  and  a  limitation  of  the  LHD  fleet  by  traffic  stream  and  the  deposit  
footprint,   this   discontinuously   working   haulage   system   is   inadequate   for   upcoming   mega   mines.  
Therefore,   new   concepts   for   block   caving   operations   were   developed   between   Codelco   and  
Caterpillar  and  will  be  presented  in  the  following  chapters.  
 
Moreover,   high   performances   in   the   production   likewise   lead   to   increased   efforts   for   development  
and   preparatory   works   at   production   level   and   in   the   undercut   level,   as   well.  These   required   rapid  
development   rates   demand   new   concepts   and   suitable   techniques,   too.   In   this   paper,   these  
challenges,  coming  along  with  future  high  performance  mines,  will  be  discussed  in  detail.  
 
2  Haulage  System  
 
In   conventional   LHD   block   caving   operations   less   than   10%   of   the   active   mining   area   is   used   for  
production  due  to  the  fact  that  the  LHD  can  extract  the  ore  only  from  one  draw  point  per  production  
drift  at  a  time.    
This  in  mind,  the  maximal  achievable  mean  extraction  rate  (τm)  is  considered  to  be  in  the  range  of  
0.4  to  0.5  tpd/m²  for  block  caving  operations,  working  with  a  discontinuous  LHD  haulage  system.    
To  achieve  a  significant  raise  in  production  either  the  active  area  of  the  panel  must  be  extended  or  
extraction  rate  has  to  be  multiplied.  
 
Concept  
A  very  significant  increase  of  the  draw  rate  can  be  achieved  by  converting  the  haulage  system  from  
batch   type   operation   to   continuous   haulage   (Continuous   Mining   Concept   of   Codelco).   The  
continuous   mining   system   consists   of   mobile   feeders,   referred   to   as   dozer   feeders,   which   are  
installed  in  each  draw  point,  see  figure  2.  The  dozer  feeder  is  pushed  into  the  draw  point  –  filled  with  
caved   ore   –   by   means   of   a   hydraulic   pushing   device.   The   dozer   pushes   the   caved   material   by   a   dozer  

 
  

plate   onto   a   chain   conveyor,   installed   in   the   production   drift.   The   chain   conveyor   transports   the  
material  to  a  primary  crusher,  followed  by  a  regular  belt  conveyor  (figure  3).  
 
       
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure  2:  Mobile  Feeder  
 
 
For   the   installation   of   the   system,   the   production   level   design   was   modified.   Service   drifts   provide  
access   for   the   installation   and   for   the   supply   of   the   dozer   feeder   units   from   one   site   of   the   draw  
point,   whereas   the   production   drift   with   the   chain   conveyor   is   located   on   the   opposite.   Both   the  
service   and   production   drifts   are   used   for   draw   points   to   either   side.   A   schematic   overview   of   the  
installed  system  is  given  in  figure  3.      

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure  3:  Continuous  haulage  system  at  production  level  
 
 
The  continuous  haulage  system  was  setup  for  the  following  configuration:    

 
  

Each   production   conveyor   is   rated   with   a   mean   load   capacity   of   700  tph,   fed   by   10   Dozer   Feeder  
units   with   an   average   extraction   rate   of   260  tph.   The   system   utilization   rate   is   calculated   to  
approximately   42%.   Even   if   feeding   units   have   downtimes   for   maintenance   reasons   or   caused   by  
hang-­‐ups,  the  daily  production  rate  is  covered  by  this  utilization  rate.  To  meet  the  daily  production  
target,  this  configuration  is  installed  14  times  within  the  panel.  So  all  140  draw  points  within  a  regular  
operation  phase  are  mined  out  with  the  continuous  haulage  system.    
 
The  additional  draw  points  in  the  preparation  field  are  calculated  with  n=3  to  420.  These  extraction  
points  will  be  extracted  per  conventional  LHDs  as  the  LHD  extraction  rate  nearly  matches  the  needed  
extraction   rate   (τs)   rate,   so   the   new   high   performance   system   must   not   necessarily   be   installed   at  
that  time.    
With   these   mining   sequences,   the   block   life   span   can   be   calculated   to   900  working   days   wherein   675  
days   of   initial   caving   phase   and   225   of   regular   extraction   are   contained.   The   panel   design   and  
schematic  panel  pattern  gives  figure  3.  
 

 
     
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  schematic  panel  pattern
 
 
  225 225 225 225 225 225 225 …

  225 225 225 225 225 225 …

225 225 225 225 225 …
 
225 225 225 225 …
 
Figure  4:  Panel  layout  plan  &  panel  pattern  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
  

Current  developments  and  innovations  

To  date,  removable  feeders  units  consist  of  two  main  units,  the  corpus  with  hydraulic  dozer  plate  and  
the  pushing  device  unit,  see  figure  1.  For  installation  of  dozer  feeders  into  draw  points,  temporarily  
the   units   are   assembled   at   surface   and   pushed   into   the   draw   points   as   a   whole.   For   mobility  
purposes   and   the   possibility   of   tightly   arranged   units   as   well,   the   alternative   of   an   autonomous  
working  pushing  device  is  under  development  to  increase  the  flexibility  of  the  dozer  feeder.  
Main   idea   behind   this   new   development   is   to   install   the   pushing   device   permanently   in   front   of   a  
modified  LHD,  crawler  track  chassis  with  rotation  tables,  redesigned  shield  trailers  or  any  equivalent  
underground  vehicle.    
 
Conclusion  
Next   to   the   fact   that   a   continuous   operating   system   leads   to   a   high-­‐performance   block   caving  
operation,  various  remarkable  side  effects  will  be  obtained.    
By  generating  a  continuous  haulage  stream  from  the  draw  points,  significant  cost  reductions  will  be  
affected   over   time   due   to   a   high   grade   of   automation   within   the   mining   process   and   as   result   of   a  
man  less  production  process  as  well.  These  positive  cost  effects  are  even  highly  interconnected  with  
high  grades  of  work  safety.  In  addition,  the  absent  LHD  diesel  fumes  and  heat  have  a  positive  effect  
in  an  environmental  view  and  due  to  the  reduced  ventilation  effort  although  in  a  economical  view.    
 
Outlook  
In  a  first  concept  test  with  4  dozer  feeder  units  at  Codelco  underground  mine  “Inca”  conducted  from  
April   2007   to   December   2008,   peak   extraction   rates   of   1.8   tpd/m²   were   realized.   Compared   to  
conventional  LHD  haulage  a  six  times  higher  performance  was  accomplished.  
After   a   reengineering   and   modification   phase,   in   early   2013   the   system   goes   for   first   industrial  
application   with   32   dozer   feeder   units   in   four   production   drifts   at   Codelco   underground   mine  
“Andina”.    
 
 
3  New  technologies  for  continuous  roadway  development  in  Production  and  Undercut  Level  
 
A   mining   process   chain   (preparation,   excavation,   haulage)   is   only   as   productive   as   its   weakest   link.    
To   play   out   the   high   production   performance   of   the   Dozer   Feeder   system   described   in   chapter   1   and  
2  new  challenges  arise  from  mine  preparation  works  view.    
Following  the  road  heading  advance  requirements  of  an  automated  dozer  feeder  mining  system  as  
calculated  below,  there’s  an  urgent  need  for  high  performance  road  heading  technology  suitable  for  
hard  rock  mining  applications  to  ensure  a  reliable  in-­‐time  preparation  of  both  production  level  and  
undercut.   Based   on   an   active   production   area   of   35,100   sqm.   and   with   the   presented   production  
figures  in  mind,  a  roadway  development  of  21m/d  is  required  (formula  2).    
 

The  roadway  heading  per  draw  point  is  calculated  to  35m  per  draw  point,  according  to  a  draw  point  
spacing  of  15m.  On  this  basis,  the  daily  advance  rate  for  the  entire  panel  development  is  calculated  
to:  
   

 
  

 
 
!"#∗!"#
Production  level:   = 21m/d  
!!"#
 
133 ∗ 35m ∑total 43 m/d  
Undercut    level:   = 21m/d  
225d
 
         7 ∗ 35m
Infrastructure:   =  1m/d  
225d
 
 
This   required   advance   rate   is   hardly   achievable   by   drill   and   blast   operations.   Against   the   background  
of   mining   related   technical   publications   from   the   last   years,   there   are   currently   different   approaches  
in  development  to  initially  replace  discontinuous  road  heading  operations  in  hard  rock  mining.  New  
hard   rock   cutting   technologies   try   to   provide   higher   advance   rates   due   to   continuous   operation,   a  
reduction  of  emissions  and  safer  working  conditions.  Process  steps  like  Cutting,  Loading  and  Hauling  
and  Roof  Supporting  take  place  uninterrupted  and  simultaneously  which  leads  to  higher  Performance  
and   lower   Cost.   So   these   systems   –   standard   in   soft   rock   mining   -­‐   would   substitute   the   major  
drawbacks  of  D&B  operations  by  one  continuous  working  system  with  its  benefits:    
 
-­‐ High   safety   due   to   replacement   of   both   explosives   (and   their   trade   and   storage)   as   well   as  
manual  operations  by  automation  
-­‐ Rising  heading  performance  at  lower  staff  cost,  capex  and  opex  
-­‐ Continuous  operation,  lack  of  ventilation  breaks  after  blasting  
-­‐ Selective  road  heading  true  to  the  roadway  profile  
-­‐ Equipment  TCO/utilization:  1  road  header  replaces  5-­‐6  D&B  vehicles  
-­‐ No  negative  blasting  effects  into  surrounding  rock  
 
With  an  assumed  performance  of  12  m/d  heading  speed  for  a  hard  rock  road  header  a  fleet  of  4-­‐6  
machines   could   provide   the   required   daily   advance.   Result   would   be   a   massive   reduction   of   active  
underground  operating  sections  at  higher  performance  compared  to  drill&blast  operations.  
Within   2012   and   2013   a   couple   of   prototypes   will   be   tested   by   mining   OEMs.   This   promising  
technology  leads  in  a  paradigm  shift  in  hard  rock  road  heading  to  enable  the  vision  of  Block  Caving  
2020.  
 
 
4  Development  of  Undercut  Level  by  a  hard  rock  longwall  system  
 
Along  with  the  road  heading  operations  to  prepare  the  production  level,  road  heading  works  must  be  
even   done   in   undercut   level   as   well.   At   current   Block   Caving   operations   the   undercut   level   is   opened  
up   by   a   close   meshed   network   of   roadways   and   cross   cuts.   A   huge   number   of   vehicles   and   staff   is  
needed  to  handle  this  massive  road  heading  activities,  side  effects  are  f.e.  drawbacks  like  thousands  
of  roof  bolts  that  have  to  be  installed  –  and  separated  from  the  muck  after  extraction.  
Function   of   the   undercut   is   to   initiate   the   caving   process   by   extracting   a   slice   of   material   between  
block   and   production   level.   This   task   is   comparable   to   mining   of   tabular   deposits   like   hard   coal  
seams.  So  –  following  the  great  success  of  longwall  systems  in  soft  rock  applications   –  the  main  idea  

 
  

is   to   undercut   the   block   with   a   longwall   system,   comparable   with   common   systems   used   in   coal  
seams   but   adapted   for   hard   rock   applications   with   all   the   benefits   of   cutting   technology  as   described  
in   chapter   3,   combined   with   the   advantages   of   a   manless,   fully   automated   longwall   system.   Very  
important   advantage   of   a   longwall   system   is,   that   the   undercut   is   always   completely   extracted   in  
contrast  to  conventional  undercutting,  where  pillars  may  remain  due  to  misfire  with  the  effect,  that  
thousands   of   tons   of   ore   maybe   lost.   This   also   avoids   the   danger   of   additional   rock   stress   on   the  
haulage  roadways  due  to  these  pressure  peaks  under  the  unwanted  pillars.  
Hydraulic  shield  support  and  conveyor  systems  are  well-­‐known  and  reliable  technology,  the  shearer  
loader  will  be  replaced  by  a  hard  rock  shearer,  cutting  bi-­‐directional  slices  out  of  the  front  wall.  
The  adaption  of  this  well-­‐known  equipment  in  combination  with  hard  rock  cutting  technology  opens  
up   the   scenario   to   eliminate   the   huge   road   heading   efforts   within   the   undercut   and   substitute   the  
road  heading  by  a  one-­‐pass  longwall  system  (figure  5).  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure   5:  Hard  rock  longwall  in  undercut  level  
 
The  longwall  –  195  m  long  –  is  installed  between  two  parallel  entry  roadways,  each  on  one  side  of  the  
block,  prepared  in  advance.  It  follows  these  roadways  in  mining  direction,  undercutting  the  deposit  
block  by  block  prior  to  the  extraction  phase.  
Behind  the  longwall,  the  hanging  wall  collapses  controlled  by  the  shield  support  to  initiate  the  caving  
process.  
After  the  longwall  has  passed  the  designated  position  of  the  draw  points,  a  raise  is  drilled  upwards  
from  the  production  level  to   the  caving  zone  using  a  boxhole  boring  machine.  The  draw  points  are  
then  fully  developed  by  blasting  out  the  funnels.  
During   the   first   phase   of   caving   (spreading)   the   ore   is   then   removed   by   LHDs,   which   are   later  
replaced  by  continuous  feeders  and  the  conveyor  system  as  described  above.  
On   basis   of   the   case   study   calculations,   a   longwall   face   advance   of   180  m   per   225  days   is   needed,  
which  is  a  realistic  hard  rock  longwall  performance.  
 
5  Résumé  and  Outlook  
 

 
  

As  discontinuous  mining  technologies  have  been  replaced  by  continuous  systems  in  soft  rock  
applications  within  the  last  decades,  there  are  currently  different  promising  developments  in  
progress  to  lead  in  a  paradigm  shift  in  hard  rock  mining  to  continuous  operations,  rising  performance  
and  safety  benefits.    
A  faster  access  to  the  deposits  and  higher  production  rates  ensure  a  faster  ROI,  effecting  in  higher  
NPV.  Highly  automated  continuous  mining  technologies  reduce  the  number  of  active  underground  
operating  areas  and  therefore  cost  for  staff,  ventilation,  air  conditioning,  infrastructure  and  
underground  bunker  capacities  amongst  others.  
Optimized  technology  allows  better  caving  controls  and  selective  mining.      
The  scenario  opened  up  within  this  study  substitutes  the  major  drawbacks  of  the  current  state-­‐of-­‐the  
art  Block  Caving  technologies  by  a  comprehensive  mining  solution  for  Block  Caving  2020:  Continuous  
operations  in  preparation  and  excavation  areas  at  highest  performance  on  a  great  safety  level.  
 
 
 
References  
Encina,  Baez,  Geister  &  Steinberg  (2008),  Mechanized  continuous  drawing  system:  A  technical  
answer  to  increase  production  capacity  for  large  block  caving  mines.  In  H.  Schunnesson  &  E.  
Nordlund  (Eds.),  5th  International  Conference  &  Exhibition  on  Mass  Mining  (pp.  553-­‐562),  Luleå,  
Sweden:  Division  on  Mining  and  Geotechnical  Engineering,  Luleå  University  of  Technology,  Luleå,  
Sweden.