11-3.

FILTER MEDIA CHARACTERISTICS

11-3-1. Grain Size
The grain size, or perhaps more correctly the grain size distribution, affects both the hydraulic performance of the filtration
process and the efficiency of particle removal.

The size distribution, or variation, of a sample of granular material is determined by passing the sample through a series of
standard sieves (screens). One standard series is the U.S. Standard Sieve Series. The U.S. Standard Sieve Series (Appendix B)
is based on a sieve opening of 1 mm. Sieves in the "fine series" stand successively in the ratio of (2)0.25 to one another, the
largest opening in this series being 5.66 mm and the smallest 0.037 mm. All material that passes through the smallest sieve
opening in the series is caught in a pan that acts as the terminus of the series (Fair and Geyer, 1954).

The grain size analysis begins by placing the sieve screens in ascending order with the largest opening on top and the
smallest opening on the bottom. A sand sample is placed on the top sieve, and the stack is shaken for a prescribed amount of
time. At the end of the shaking period, the mass of material retained on each sieve is determined. The cumulative mass is
recorded and converted into percentages by mass equal to or less than the size of separation of the overlying sieve. Then a
cumulative frequency distribution is plotted. For many natural granular materials, this curve approaches geometric normality.
Logarithmic-probability paper, therefore, results in an almost straight-line plot. This facilitates interpolation. The geometric
mean (Xg) and geometric standard deviation (S g) are useful parameters of central tendency and variation. Their magnitudes
may be determined from the plot. The parameters most commonly used, however, are the effective size, E, and the uniformity
coefficient, U. The effective size is the 10 percentile size, that is, the media grain diameter at which 10 percent of the media by
weight is smaller, d10. The uniformity coefficient is the ratio of the diameter of media at which 60 percent by weight is smaller
to the 10 percentile sizes, d60/d10. Use of the 10 percentile was suggested by Allen Hazen because he observed that
resistance to the passage of water offered by a bed of sand within which the grains are distributed homogeneously remains
almost the same, irrespective of size variation (up to a uniformity coefficient of about 5.0), provided that the 10 percentile
remains unchanged (Hazen, 1892). Use of the ratio of the 60 percentile to the 10 percentile as a measure of uniformity was
suggested by Hazen because this ratio covered the range in size of half the sand.[1] On the basis of logarithmic normality, the
probability integral establishes the following relations between the effective size, uniformity coefficient, geometric mean size,
and geometric standard deviation:

E = P10 = (Xg)(Sg)−1.28

(11-1)

U = P60/P10 = (Sg)1.535

(11-2)

Sand excavated from a natural deposit is called run-of-bank sand. Run-of-bank sand may be too coarse, too fine, or too
nonuniform for use in filters. Within economical limits, proper sizing and uniformity are obtained by screening out coarse
components and washing out fine components. In rapid sand filters, the removal of "fines" may be accomplished by stratifying
the bed through backwashing and then scraping off the layer that includes the unwanted sand. In the United States, filter sand
is purchased from commercial suppliers based on specifications provided by the engineer rather than processing the sand at
the point of use.

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11-3-2. Physical Properties
Standard requirements for filter media are described in ANSI/AWWA standard No. B100-01 (AWWA, 2001). This discussion is
to highlight some of the properties.

Hardness. Hardness of the filter material is important as it is an indicator of the resistance to abrasion and wear that occurs
during filter backwashing. Hardness is ranked on the Moh scale. Talc has a Moh hardness number of 1. Diamond has a Moh
hardness number of 10. Sand, garnet, and ilmenite[2] are hard enough to resist abrasion. Anthracite coal and granular
activated carbon (GAC) are friable and design specifications must specify the minimum acceptable hardness value. A
minimum Moh hardness of 2.7 is often specified for anthracite (MWH, 2005). GAC hardness is evaluated using ANSI/AWWA
standard B604-96 (AWWA, 1996).

Porosity. The porosity of the in-place media (not of the individual grains) affects the headloss and filtration efficiency of the
media. It is defined as

Vv VT − VM
ε= =
VT VT

(11-3)

where ε = porosity, dimensionless

V v = volume of voids, m3
V T = total volume of media bed, m3
V M = volume of media, m 3

Specific Gravity. The specific gravity of the media plays a role in both the arrangement of the filter media in multimedia
filters and in the backwash flow requirements that are required to fluidize the bed. The selection of the media used in the
design of dual- and tri-media filters is based on the specific gravity of the media.

Summary. Typical properties of filter media are summarized in Table 11-1. Smaller effective sizes than those shown result
in a product water that is lower in turbidity, but they also result in higher pressure losses in the filter and shorter operating
cycles between each cleaning.

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Table 11-1 Typical properties of filter media

Property Anthracite coal GAC Garnet Ilmenite Sand

Effective size, mm 0.45–0.55a 0.8–1.0 0.2–0.4 0.2–0.4 0.3–0.6

0.8–1.2 b

Uniformity coefficient ≤ 1.65 a 1.3–2.4 1.3–1.7 1.3–1.7 1.3–1.8

≤ 1.85 b

Hardness, Moh 2–3 very low 6.5–7.5 5–6 7

Porosity 0.50–0.60 0.50 0.45–58 N/A 0.40–0.47

Specific gravity 1.5–1.75 1.3–1.7 3.6–4.2 4.2–5.0 2.55–2.65

Sphericity 0.46–0.60 0.75 0.60 N/A 0.7–0.8

aWhen used alone.

bWhen used as a cap on a dual media filter.

Sources: Castro et al., 2005; Cleasby and Logsdon, 1999; GLUMRB, 2003; MWH, 2005.

Example 11-1 illustrates how the media is tested to meet effective size and uniformity coefficient requirements.

Example

Example 11-1.

A sand filter is to be designed for the Ottawa Island's new water treatment plant. A sieve analysis of the local island sand
is given below. Using the sand analysis, find the effective size, E, and uniformity coefficient, U.

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 U.S. Standard Sieve No. Analysis of stock sand (cumulative mass % passing)

140 0.2

100 0.9

70 4.0

50 9.9

40 21.8

30 39.4

20 59.8

16 74.4

12 91.5

8 96.8

6 99.0

Solution. Begin by plotting the data on log-probability paper as shown in Figure 11-3. From this plot, find the effective
size:

E = P10 = 0.30 mm

Figure 11-3 Grain size analysis of run-of-bank sand.

The uniformity coefficient is then

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 P60 0.85 mm
U= = = 2.8
P10 0.30 mm

Comments:

1. Obviously, this sand does not fall within the prescribed limits. Although this sand could be processed to meet the
specifications, in the United States, the sand would be rejected and the supplier would be required to provide a
replacement.

2. Probability paper is not required to determine E and U. The x-axis scale may be arithmetic or any other scale that allows
a smooth curve to be drawn through the data so the d10 and d60 sizes can be determined.

3. A spreadsheet plot with a curve fitting function is very useful in selecting the plotting axis and determination of the d10
and d60 sizes.

[1] It would be logical to speak of this ratio as a coefficient of nonuniformity because the coefficient increases as the magnitude of
nonuniformity increases.
[2] Garnet is a generic term referring to several minerals that are silicates of iron, aluminum, and calcium mixtures. Ilmenite is an iron-
titanium ore associated with hematite and magnetite, which are iron oxides.

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