Theory of Flow In Pipe CHAPTER 1 The most commonly employed method of transporting ‘ud from one point o another isto force the Mui to Now through piping system. Pipe of cielar section is most Fequonily used because tat shape offers not only grater sirgeturl strength, but also greater eros sectional ae per Uni of wal sutace than any’ other shape, Unless otherwise fated, the word “pipe” inthis book will aways rr to 8 Closed conduit of crculae section and constant intemal aameer (Only a fw speci problems in Mid mechanics. amine ow in pipe, for example -... can be entirely solved by tatlonal mathematical teas; all otber problems require ‘methods of solution which est t las par, on expet Ientally determined coefficients Many empiri formulae have been proposed forthe problem of flow in pipe, but these ae often extremely limited and canbe applied only ‘when the conditions of the problem closely approach the Conditions of the experiments from which the formulas were derive, Because of the grat vanity of Mids being handled in ‘modern industrial process, a single equation which can bbe used forthe flow of any Mud in pipe offers obvious ‘vantages. Such an equation isthe Darey* formula. The Darcy fmol ean be derived rationally by means of dimen sional mlysis; however, one vazablein the formula the fiction factor. - mist be detemined expecmenly This formula has» vide aplication in the feld of fui mechani andi ed extenstely throughout this paper. “The ate formu known te Wesbch foul oe Dt ‘Wc fra, te i iy onto Ro otCRANE Physical Properties of Fluids ‘The solution of any low problem require a knowledge of the physical properties of the Mu bang handed. Accurate values forthe properties affecting the ow of fide rarely, vcosty and mass dentty «have heen exab. lished by many authorities for all commonly used fue tnd many of these dat ate presenta in the various tablet nd charts in Appendix A Viscosity: Vicosty expresses the readiness with which a fluid flows when sis acted upon by an external force, ‘The coeticent of solute waco, simply the abso. lute Wscosty of 2 fll sa measbre of Ie restance fo Internal deformation or shear. Molise 3 highly cos ‘ld; water is comparatively mach lee wiscoue and the sosiy of ass quite smal compared to that of water. Although most fds ae progitabie i thelr vscony,in Sone, the sosity depeads upon the previous working of the fad: Print’ nk, wood pup ris, and extaup are examples of flldspesesing ich thxotropie properties of wos. Considerable confusion exits concerning the unit used to bepress vitostytherefore, proper ultemst be employed whenever substituting values of wscosty into formu Dynamic of Absolute Vicoity: The coberent SI unit of 4000), is loa fune ton ofthe character af the pipe wall ‘A region known as the “ertcal zone" occurs between [Reynolds sumber of approximately 2000 and 4000. Ta {this regon, the flow may be elther laminar or turbulent depending vpon several factors; these include changes in section of ditecton of flow and obsiructions, sch a2 valves, inthe vpsteam piping, The frietion factor in this repion i indeterminate and hat ower lite based on Inminar low and upper limits based on turbulent Dow [At Reynolds sumbers above approximately 4000, flow conditions again bacome more stable and defi fiston factors can be erabihed, Tis is important because it enables the engineer o determine the fow characteristics of any fll lowing ina pipe providing the wseosty and alt at owing conditions are known. For this aso, Equation 1 ie recommended in preference to some of the commen known enpiel equations forthe ow of water, ol and ofhar gud, as wel as forthe Row of ‘Someta lds when rerritions previous mentioned se cher, IF the fw i lminar (Re < 2000), the fetion factor may be determined from the equation “ oR st on Deo ee 1 this quantsy f subetuted into Equation 1-4, the resi op in newton per square mele ich Poise’ fo lamina How When the How is turbulent (> 4000), the fiction factor Aepends not only upon the Reynolds number but also Upon the relative roughness, cfd. the rouphnes ofthe Die walls (©), as compared to the diameter ofthe pipe (a), For very’ sooth pipes soch ss drawn brass tubing nd gas, the friction fctr decreases more rapidly wi tnoretsng Reynolés number than Tor pge wi compare tively rough wal Sine the character of the internal surface of commercial Pipe ir pricically indopendeot of the diameter, the Fowphies of the walt ha a greater eect onthe fiction tor in the small ses. Contequenl, pipe of smal Gliameter wil approach the very rough condition and, in era, wll have higher friction fectors has le pipe of fhe utente ‘The most useful nd widely accepted data of faction factors for se ooth the Darcy formula have besa pre- tented by L, F. Moody and are reproduced on pis 1423 to A2S. Profesoe Moofy improved upon the wel fstablahedPigot end Kemler™™ friction factor diagram, Incorporstiog more recent investigations and developments ‘of many outstanding stati, The fiction factor J plotted on page A24 onthe basis Of relative roughnes obtained from the chart on page ‘$23 and the Reynolds umber. Tho value offs deter mined by horizontal projection from the intersection of the «jd cure under consideration with the calculated [Reynolds mumber to th lft hand veri sale ofthe chart on page A24. Since most calculations invoheCRANE CHAPTER 1 — THEORY OF FLOW INPIPE Darey’s Formula General Equation for Flow of Fluids — continued commercial see or wrought ion pipe the carton page ‘825 8 furnished fora more direct solution Ie suld Rept in mind tha these Fgres apply to clean new pipe. fect of age and use on pipe fiction: Friction lots in pipe I senate to canes in dimeter and roughness of Pipe. Fora gien eae of ow and fixed fiction facto, {he peste dropper metre of pipe varies inversely with the Sts power of th diameter. Therefore a 2% reduction of dliameter causes 1% increase in pressure op; 2 5% reduction of diameter incicaes poste ctop 29%, la many secs, the interior of pipe Becomes encrusted vith sealed, cuberules or ober foreign mater; hus, i 5 often prudent to make allowance for expected diameter hanes. ‘Authorities? point out that oughness may be expected to increte with use (Aue to cortoxon of icrustaton) at fate determined by the pipe material and nature of the fed Inpen", in icusing the effect of aging, tes 2 ‘inch galvanized steel pipe which had fs foughaess doubled adit fieton fctr Inceted 20% afer tee yous oF moderate ue Principles of Comprestible Flow in Pipe ‘An accurate determination ofthe pesure drop of a.com: pressible uid lowing through a pipe rogues a know: Tedge of the rltonsip between prenire and specie volume; this isnot easly determined in each particular problem. The usual extemes considered ate adabatle How (P°VY = constant) and Sothemmal- dow (PVs constant), ‘Adiabatic flow is weually assumed short, perfectly insulated pipe, Tht would be consent nce no Frat transfered toot fom the pipe, exept fr the fact that the minute amount of heat pnerated by fiction s aed to the Now. Ieothermal Now or flow at contant temperate i often sisuned, pally for convenience bat more alten Seeaie itis closer to faci piping pracice. The most outstanding case of isothermal flow occurs im natural ga pipe kins Dodge and Thompson show that gas fow in insulated pipe is slosly. approximated hy ‘otheral flow for ‘easoaubly Meh resus. ‘Since the relationship berweenpresuye and volume may follow some other lationship (V2 = constant called polytiopie flow, specific information in each indvial 80 I alost an imposibily ‘The density of gases and vapour changes considerably with changer pase; therefore if the pressure drop between P. and Pin Figure 1-6 fs great te density and Velocity wil ehangeappreiably. When delig with compressible Mids, ch i, steam, Hey, the following resections shold be observed lt ‘ppying the Davey formu: 1 the ealeusted presure dcop (P, — 2) 8 us han out 10% ofthe inst pretmure f, remonasle scour fy wil bo obtained ifthe specie volume use in he formuls te based upon ether the upteam or down stretm conditions, whichever ae known, 2 the calculated prestace drop (P, — Ps greater than sbout 105, but les than about 405 of inlet presure P,. the Darey equation may be wsed with Featoneble tesracy by using specifi volume based upon the average of vpsteam and dowastcam cor- Aone; otherwi, the mathod given on page 19 may eu. 3. For renter presure drops such as ate ten encoun tered in long pipeline, the methods given on the next, vo pes ond be used. (eomtmuad on the net ese)CRANE Principles of Compressible Flow in Pipe — continued Complete isothermal equation: The flow of ase in long pipe tines closly approximates Ssothennal conditions. ‘The pressure drop in such Ines is often lage relative to the inlet pressre, and volition of thie problem falls ou side the limitations of the Darcy equation. An accurate Aeterminaton of the flow characteristics falling within this eatogory can be made by using the eomplnte uo: ‘thermal equiion aunon 16 a ea = 9" % + en ‘The fouls is developed on the baus of the sum: 2. No mean woke done ot yt stom 5, Steady No o dacbre orchnge with 4. Tap ne a ado sn sn Simplified Compresile Flow-Gas Pipe Line Formula In the practice of gat pipe line engineering, another ssumpdon is aded tothe foregoing ‘Then, the formula for charge in a horvonal pipe may ewer uy =e F ) | ra ‘his i equivalent to the complete ohesmal equation if ‘the pipe line is ong and abo for shorter ines the aio of pressure drop to inital presue ismal Sice gas Mow problems a usally expresed in tems of fuble metres per hour at andard condition, i soa ‘enlent to rewrite Equation 1 as fellows: oy 2 136x107 / ERS eay ain # 1361% 10: [rr Other commonly used formulas for compressible flow in Jong pipe ines: Weymouth formula” Gh = 261x104 om laea ED Selon Panhancle formula” for natural sus pipe line 6 to ‘2éinch diameter, Reynolds numbers 5 x 10" 10 14x 10% and Se 206 [ea cee] sme Tr ais = 2086 x 10 are ‘The ow efSciency fctor & & defined as an experience factor ands unl sumed to be 092 0 92% for average operating conditions. Sugested values for B for other perating condition ce gen on pape 35. Note: The presures 7 in all he foregoing esustions fren tem of newton pet igure metre. For equations ‘in tees of pressures in bars, Presto page 33. Comparison of formulas for compresible Mow in pipe lines Bauations 1-7, 1-8, nd (9 are devited oom the sume basic foomula, bot ifr in the velestion of data ‘ed forthe detemmination ofthe friction actor. Friction factors In ascordance with the Moody" a gam ate aormally used with the Siplied Compresible Flow formula (Equation 1-1). However, ifthe same fo tion factors employed in the Weymouth or Panhandle formulss are ud in the Simpliled formula, dental mers wl be obtained ‘Tee Weymouth fiction factor Is defined 0.094 Cera “This dential o the Moody fieton factor inthe lly turbulent. low range for 204ach LD. pipe only. Wey ‘mouth fiction factors are greater than Moody factors for sizes less than 20dnen, and smaller for sce larger than 20nd, “The Panhandle ection factor s defined as: reo0es (565) In the flow range to whish the Panhandle forma is ned, this fsuls tn ition factors that are lover than thot obtained from ether the Moody data or the Weymouth Iiton focal. At a rel, flow rates obisinod by solution of the Panhandle formals are ‘usally preter thin those obtained by employing either the Simplified Compresble Flow formula wath Moody ‘oton lator, or the Weymouth fora ‘An example ofthe variation in flow rtes which may be ‘btained for 2 specific condition by employing these ona is gen on page 411CRANE. 19 Principles of Compressible Flow in Pipe — continued Limiting flow of gues and vapour: The feature not evident in the preceting formulas (Equation 14 and 16 {019 inlasive stat the weigh ate of low (kale) of @ compressible ud in'a pipe, with a gten upsvear: ‘presure wil approach x ora maximum rte waich it ‘annot exceed, no mate Row much the dowastioan presaure further reduce ‘The maximum velocty of « compresable Mud in pipe fs limited by the velocity of propagation of a prsure Save which tener at the speed of sound i the uid Since presure fale off and veloc Incest ++ Suid proceeds downstream in pipe of uniform cro section, ‘he maximum velocity occurs i the €ownstream end of ‘the pip. Ifthe pressure drop i sufficiently high, the ext ‘eloeity wil each the vlosty of sound. Further decrease In the outlet pressure wil act be felt upstreum because the prasture wave can only treat sone velo, and the Psjgnal™ wil never tanlate upteam, The “saps” pressure drop obtened by Towering the outlet pressure after the maximum discharge has slready een reached “aks pce beyond she ead ofthe pipe, This prsire Tbat in shock waves and turbulnoe ofthe jetng fui, ‘The maximum possible velocity in the pipe i sonle telocity, which is expresed a. Eeurton 110 en = VRE = VaPT The vale of 7 the satlo of spetfie eats at constant pressure to constant volume, #14 for most dstomle ser sce pages A and A for values of 9 for gases ad eam respectively, Ths velocity wl occu atthe oul fend or in constricted aes, when the pressure drop is ficiently high. The press temperature, sad spose ‘kame are thon ossuring atthe punt in question When ‘omprenble Bids charge fom the end of reasonably hort pipe of uniform cro section into an aren of lato cross ‘section, the flow is sully considered to be ‘tiabatc, This astmpton i sported by experimental fata on pipe having lengths of 720 and 130 pipe diameters ‘Ascharging a to atmosphere. Investigation of the come plete theoretic! analysis of adiabatic Now" hat led 1 & tasis for establishing conection factors, which may be sppied tothe Dury equation for this condition of flow Sine thse conection fstrs compensate forthe changes tn Mid propertis duo to expansion ofthe id, they ar ‘eotified a net expansion factors se page 22 ‘Tho Dury formula inludng the Y foro, w= Lat 10-4 Ya (Resuns conten K defied on 8028) It should be noted that the vale of in this equation is the total rexitance cofficent of the pipeline, including ‘entrance and ext Tose when they exist, and loses de 10 fale and tings. ‘The pressue drop, AP, in the ratio AP/PS which it wad for ue determination of ¥ from the chet on page 8-22, fs the measured liference between the inlet pressure aed the pressure inthe area of larger eros etn. Tha sje. Cischarying. compressible fds 0 atmosphere, this AP fe equal to the lot gauge presure, or the difference between absolute inlet presure and atmosphere presure. This valve of AP also used in Equation I-T, whenerer the F factor falls within the limit defined by the soas- tance factor K cures in che charts on page A22. When the rao of APIP,, wing AP as defined above, fas beyond the limits Of the K carves in the chats sonic velocity oscars at the point of dscharge of at some Fesrction within the pipe, andthe limiting value fo nd AP, a detonnied fom the tabultons to the gh of the charts on page A2, ust be ued ia Equation LLL Applicaton of Equation 111 and the determination of tales for K, Y, and AP in the formulas demonstrated in ‘xamples on pages 413 and 414 “The charts on page A22 ae bas upon the genera gs taws for perfect gues and, sone velocity conditions at the outlet end, wil yield accurate results for all faqs which approximately follow the perfect gus laws. id example ofthis typeof flow problem i presented on page +0 This condition of fow is comparable to the Now though noaees and vent abe, covered on pate 2-15, snd the olution of uch problems are init ‘Foc eget i wens of press drop in bantp) 8 98834,CRAFTER 1 — THEORY OF FLOW IN PPE RANE ‘Steam Gane Dieuson Water under nosmal atmomperi conditions exes in the form of lguid. When a hody of water i heated by ‘means of some external medium, the temperatire of the ‘water sit and soon small bubbles, which break and orm Continuously, are noted on the surface. This phenomenon ‘sdoserbed si “boing”. ‘Thre ate thee ditint stage in he proces of converting water to superheated seam. The water mutt be Boing before steam canbe fomed and supeheated steam cannot ‘be formed unl the steam hasbeen completely die, Jn stage one, heat is added to as the temperature ofthe water to the boiling pont corresponding to the pesae conditions under which the heut ls ded, The boing point is umaly refered toa he generation of sution Temperate. The amount of heat seguled to rae the Temperature of the water fom O°C to the saturation temperature is known ab the enthalpy of the water 0° sent het In the second stage heat i added tothe boiling water and Under coustant pressive conditions the water ls changed to stam without any incense in tempeatue, Thi the cvaporation or latent heat sage. At this stage, with the ‘Hoar in contact with liquid water, the seam is ln the ‘condition known as Saturated It may be "ry depending on the generating conditions. “Dry” saturated ‘eum i steam fre from meshantaly mixed water par ticks. “Wet” saturated stem contang water parler fo suspension. Saturated seam at any penne hara definite fenpersture. If the water is heated in closed vessel not completely filled, the presure will se after steam begins fo form secompanie by an increase in temperate, Stage three commences when seam at any given pressure is heated to a temperature higher than the temperature of saturated stern at that presure. The steam i thea sid to be Superheated. Heat ss one of the forme of energy and the SI unl foal forme ie the oe (0). Thiet very small uit of eneey fn i often more convenient to use the klojoule Ge) ‘reve larger multiple, megajule (4). ‘Tho SI uit for eatgy per unit musi the oul peck ram (J/kg) of some multiple ofthis unit and the steamy {ables promded on pages ALS to AL1 ive detalles infor. ‘mation on the specie extalpy of steam, in tems of Iojoutes per ogra (Ug), over a! wide range of presure and) temperature conditions. The datum taken a8 0°C, From the table on page A-13 the speci enthalpy semble het of water at | ba beste BE seen to be 417-5 if and the specific enthalpy of, ‘eaportion (latent est) 2257°9 kg. Consequeny, he {otal heat or eneay of the vapour, foamed when water bots a bar pressure isthe smn ofthese two quant, 226754 Kk. The relationship betweon the joule ané the British thermal unit (Bru i defined by the equation: 1 Buu = 2.326 He = 2.326 kik