Tiger

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Thetiger(Pantheratigris)isthelargestcatspecies,mostrecognisable
fortheirpatternofdarkverticalstripesonreddishorangefurwitha Tiger
lighterunderside.ThespeciesisclassifiedinthegenusPantherawith Temporalrange:
thelion,leopard,jaguarandsnowleopard.Tigersareapexpredators,
earlyPleistoceneRecent
primarilypreyingonungulatessuchasdeerandbovids.Theyare

territorialandgenerallysolitarybutsocialanimals,oftenrequiringlarge Pre OS D C P T J K Pg N
contiguousareasofhabitatthatsupporttheirpreyrequirements.This,
coupledwiththefactthattheyareindigenoustosomeofthemore
denselypopulatedplacesonEarth,hascausedsignificantconflictswith
humans.

TigersoncerangedwidelyacrosseasternEurasia,fromtheBlackSeain
thewest,totheIndianOceaninthesouth,andfromKolymatoSumatra
intheeast.Overthepast100years,theyhavelost93%oftheirhistoric
range,andhavebeenextirpatedfromWesternandCentralAsia,from
theislandsofJavaandBali,andfromlargeareasofSoutheast,Southern
andEasternAsia.Today,theyrangefromtheSiberiantaigatoopen
grasslandsandtropicalmangroveswamps.Theremainingsixtiger
subspecieshavebeenclassifiedasendangeredbytheInternational
UnionforConservationofNature(IUCN).Theglobalpopulationinthe
wildisestimatedtonumberbetween3,062and3,948individuals,down
fromaround100,000atthestartofthe20thcentury,withmost
remainingpopulationsoccurringinsmallpocketsisolatedfromeach
other,ofwhichabout2,000existontheIndiansubcontinent.[4]A2016
globalcensusestimatedthepopulationofwildtigersatapproximately ABengaltiger(P.tigristigris)
3,890individuals.[5][6]Majorreasonsforpopulationdeclineinclude Conservationstatus
habitatdestruction,habitatfragmentationandpoaching.Theextentof
areaoccupiedbytigersisestimatedatlessthan1,184,911km2
(457,497sqmi),a41%declinefromtheareaestimatedinthemid
1990s.In2016,wildlifeconservationgroupatWWFdeclaredthat
world'scountofwildtigershasrisenforthefirsttimeinacentury.[7] Endangered(IUCN3.1)[1]
Scientificclassification
Tigersareamongthemostrecognisableandpopularoftheworld's
charismaticmegafauna.Theyhavefeaturedprominentlyinancient Kingdom: Animalia
mythologyandfolklore,andcontinuetobedepictedinmodernfilms
Phylum: Chordata
andliterature.Theyappearonmanyflags,coatsofarms,andasmascots
forsportingteams.ThetigeristhenationalanimalofBangladesh,India, Class: Mammalia
MalaysiaandSouthKorea.
Order: Carnivora
Family: Felidae
Contents Genus: Panthera
Species: P.tigris
1 Taxonomyandetymology
1.1 Evolution Binomialname
1.2 Subspecies
1.3 Hybrids Pantheratigris
2 Description (Linnaeus,1758)
2.1 Size
 2.2 Colourvariations Subspecies
3 Distributionandhabitat
4 Biologyandbehaviour
4.1 Socialactivity P.t.tigris
4.2 Huntinganddiet P.t.corbetti
4.3 Enemiesandcompetitors P.t.jacksoni
4.4 Reproduction P.t.sumatrae
5 Conservationefforts P.t.altaica
5.1 Rewildingandreintroducing P.t.amoyensis
6 Relationwithhumans P.t.virgata
6.1 Tigerasprey P.t.balica
6.2 Maneatingtigers P.t.sondaica
6.3 Commercialhuntingandtraditionalmedicine P.t.acutidens
6.4 Incaptivity P.t.trinilensis
7 Culturaldepictions P.t.soloensis
7.1 Inmythandlegend
7.2 Inliteratureandfilm
7.3 Asasymbol
8 Seealso
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Externallinks

Taxonomyandetymology
Tiger'shistoricrangeinabout1850
In1758,LinnaeusdescribedthetigerinhisworkSystemaNaturaeand
(paleyellow)andin2006(in
gaveitthescientificnameFelistigris.[3]In1929,theBritishtaxonomist
ReginaldInnesPococksubordinatedthespeciesunderthegenus green). [2]
PantherausingthescientificnamePantheratigris.[8] Synonyms

ThewordPantheraisprobablyofOrientaloriginandretraceabletothe FelistigrisLinnaeus,1758[3]
AncientGreekwordpanther,theLatinwordpanthera,theOldFrench
wordpantere,mostlikelymeaning"theyellowishanimal",orfrom TigrisstriatusSevertzov,1858
pandarahmeaningwhitishyellow.ThederivationfromGreekpan
("all")andther("beast")maybefolketymology.[9] TigrisregalisGray,1867

Thespecificepithet,tigris,aswellasthecommonname,tiger,come
fromtheMiddleEnglishtigreandtheOldEnglishtigras(apluralword),bothusedfortheanimal.[10]These
derivefromtheOldFrenchtigre,itselfaderivativeoftheLatinwordtigrisandtheGreekwordtigris.The
originalsourcemayhavebeenthePersiantigrameaningpointedorsharpandtheAvestantigrhimeaningan
arrow,perhapsreferringtothespeedwithwhichatigerlaunchesitselfatitsprey.[11]

Evolution

Thetiger'sclosestlivingrelativeswerepreviouslythoughttobethelion,leopardandjaguar,allofwhichare
classifiedunderthegenusPanthera.Geneticanalysisindicatesthatthetigerandthesnowleoparddiverged
fromtheotherPantheraspeciesabout2.88millionyearsago,andthatbothspeciesmaybemoreclosely
relatedtoeachotherthantothelion,leopardandjaguar.[12][13]

Theoldestremainsofanextincttigerrelative,calledPantherazdanskyiortheLongdantiger,havebeenfound
intheGansuprovinceofnorthwesternChina.Thisspeciesisconsideredtobeasistertaxontotheextanttiger
andlivedabout2millionyearsago,atthebeginningofthePleistocene.Itwassmallerthanthemoderntiger,
beingthesizeofajaguar,andprobablydidnothavethesamecoatpattern.Despitebeingconsideredmore
 "primitive",theLongdantigerwas
functionallyandpossiblyecologically
similartoitsmoderncousin.As
Pantherazdanskyilivedinnorthwestern
China,thatmayhavebeenwherethe
tigerlineageoriginated.Tigersgrewin
size,possiblyinresponsetoadaptive
radiationsofpreyspecieslikedeerand
bovidswhichmayhaveoccurredin
SoutheastAsiaduringtheearly
Pleistocene.[14]

Theearliestfossilsoftruetigersare
Tigerphylogeneticrelationships fromJava,andarebetween1.6and1.8
millionyearsold.Distinctfossilsare
knownfromtheearlyandmiddlePleistocenedepositsinChinaandSumatra.A
RestorationofPanthera
subspeciescalledtheTriniltiger(Pantheratigristrinilensis)livedabout1.2
zdanskyi,anextinctrelative
millionyearsagoandisknownfromfossilsfoundatTrinilinJava.[15] whoseoldestremainswere
foundinnorthwestChina,
TigersfirstreachedIndiaandnorthernAsiainthelatePleistocene,reaching
suggestingtheoriginsofthe
easternBeringia(butnottheAmericanContinent),Japan,andSakhalin.As
tigerlineage
evidencedbySandraHerrington,somefossilskullsthataremorphologically
distinctfromlionskullscouldindicatehoweverthattigersmighthavebeen
presentinAlaskawithinthelast100,000yearsduringthelastglaciation.[16]FossilsfoundinJapanindicatethe
localtigerswere,likethesurvivingislandsubspecies,smallerthanthemainlandforms,anexampleofinsular
dwarfism.UntiltheHolocene,tigersalsolivedinBorneo,aswellasontheislandofPalawaninthe
Philippines.[17]AsoftheMiddleAges,CaspiantigerswerenotedtorangeinthePonticCaspiansteppesof
UkraineandsouthernRussia.[18]

Thetiger'sfullgenomesequencewaspublishedin2013.Itandothercatgenomeswerefoundtohavesimilar
repeatcompositionandanappreciablyconservedsynteny.[19]

Subspecies

Thereare11recognisedtigersubspecies.Two,theTrinilandJapanesetigers,becameextinctinprehistoric
times.[20]Theremainingsubspeciesallsurvivedatleastintothemid20thcenturythreeofthesearealso
consideredextinct.TheircorehistoricalrangeinSouthAsia(Afghanistan,India,Pakistan),EasternAsia
(China,Mongolia,NorthKorea,Siberia,SouthKorea)andSouthEastAsia,includingthreeIndonesianislands,
isseverelyconstrictedtoday,notwithstandingkeyextinctpopulationsintheBlackSea(Iran,Georgia,Southern
Russia,Turkey)andCentralAsia(Kazakhstan,Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan).

Themodernsubspeciesare:
 Survivingsubspeciesoftiger
Subspecies Description Image
LivesinIndia,Nepal,Bhutan,andBangladesh,andisthemostcommon
subspecies.In2011,thetotaladultpopulationwasestimatedat1,5201,909
inIndia,440inBangladesh,155inNepaland75inBhutan.[21]In2014,the
populationinIndiawasestimatedat2,226,[22]163253inNepaland103in
Bhutanasof2015.[23]Itlivesinalluvialgrasslands,subtropicalandtropical
rainforests,scrubforests,wetanddrydeciduousforests,andmangroves.It
Bengal isthesecondlargestofthesurvivingsubspecies.Malesattainatotalnose
tiger(P.t. totaillengthof270to310cm(110to120in)andweighbetween180to
tigris),also 258kg(397to569lb),whilefemalesrangefrom240to265cm(94to
calledthe 104in)and100to160kg(220to350lb).[24][25]InnorthernIndiaand
Indiantiger Nepal,theaverageislargermalescanweighupto235kilograms(518lb),
whilefemalesaverage140kilograms(310lb).[26]Coatcolourvariesfrom
lightyellowtoreddishyellowwithblackstripes.[27]

SouthAsia:Bangladesh,Bhutan,India,andNepalextinctinPakistan
andChina

IsfoundinCambodia,China,Laos,Burma,Thailand,andVietnam.In2010
thetotalpopulationwasestimatedatabout350individuals.[28]Their
Indochinese preferredhabitatisforestsinmountainousorhillyregions.[24]Males
tiger(P.t. average108inches(270cm)intotallengthandweighbetween150195kg
corbetti), (331430lb),whilefemalesaverage96inches(240cm)and100130kg
alsocalled (220290lb).[29]
Corbett's
tiger SoutheastAsia:Laos,Myanmar,Thailand,andVietnamextinctin
CambodiaandChina

ExclusivelyfoundinthesouthernpartoftheMalayPeninsula.Thelast
nativewildtigerinSingaporewasshotdeadin1930.[30]Wasnotconsidered
asubspeciesinitsownrightuntila2004geneticanalysisshowedthatthey
aredistinctinmtDNAandmicrosatellitesequencesfromtheIndochinese
subspecies.[31]Asof2014thetotalpopulationisestimatedatfewerthan500
Malayan individuals,[32]thoughanewreportfromSeptemberthatyearestimateditat
tiger(P.t. between250and340individuals.[33]Malesrangeintotallengthfrom190
jacksoni) 280cm(75110in)andweighbetween47.2to129.1kg(104to285lb),
whilefemalesrangefrom180260cm(71102in)and24to88kg(53to
194lb).[34]

SoutheastAsia:MalaysiaextinctinThailandandSingapore.[30]

Siberian InhabitstheAmurUssuriregionofPrimorskyKraiandKhabarovskKraiin
tiger(P.t. fareasternSiberia,withtheexceptionofasmallpopulationinHunchun
altaica), NationalSiberianTigerNatureReserveinnortheasternChina,nearthe
alsoknown borderofNorthKorea.[35][36]In2005,therewere331393adultand
astheAmur subadultSiberiantigersintheregion,withabreedingadultpopulationof
tiger about250individuals.Asof2015,thereanestimatedpopulationof480540
individualsintheRussianFarEast.[37][38][39]Itisthelargestsubspeciesand
ranksamongthelargestfelidsevertohaveexisted.Maleshaveaheadand
bodylengthofbetween190230cm(7591in)andweighbetween180to
306kg(397to675lb),whilefemalesaverage160180cm(6371in)and
100to167kg(220to368lb).Taillengthisabout60110cm(2443in).[24]
 Comparedtoothersubspecies,Siberiantigershavethickercoats,palerhues,
andfewerstripesindarkbrowninsteadofblack.[27][29][40]

NorthAsia:ChinaandSiberiaextinctinMongolia,NorthKorea,and
SouthKorea

Isthemostcriticallyendangeredsubspeciesoftiger,andoneofthe10most
endangeredanimalsintheworld.[29]Despiteunconfirmedreportsandsome
evidenceoffootprints,therehasbeennoconfirmedwildsightinginover25
South years,leadingexpertstoconsiderit"functionallyextinct",withtheentire
Chinatiger knownpopulationofroughly65+individualsheldincaptivity.[41][42]Itis
(P.t. thesecondsmallestsubspecies.Malesrangeintotallengthfrom230
amoyensis), 260cm(91102in)andweighbetween130to180kg(290to400lb),while
alsoknown femalesrangefrom220240cm(8794in)and100to110kg(220to
astheAmoy 240lb).TheSouthChinatigerisconsideredtobethemostancientofthe
orXiamen tigersubspeciesandisdistinguishedbyaparticularlynarrowskull,long
tiger muzzlenose,rhombuslikestripesandvividorangecolour.[29]

EastAsia:ExtinctinthewildofChina

FoundonlyontheislandofSumatra,andisthusthelastsurvivingofthe
threeIndonesianislandsubspecies.Listedasadistinctsubspeciesasof
1998,whengenetictestingrevealedthepresenceofuniquegeneticmarkers,
andiscriticallyendangered.[43]Asof2014thewildpopulationisestimated
atbetween400and500,seenchieflyintheisland'snationalparks.[44][45]It
isthesmallestofalllivingtigers.Malesrangeintotallengthfrom220to
Sumatran 255cm(87to100in)andweighbetween100to140kg(220to310lb),
tiger(P.t. whilefemalesrangebetween215to230cm(85to91in)and75to110kg
sumatrae) (165to243lb).[24]Theirreducedsizeisanadaptationtothethick,dense
forestsandsmallerpreyintheirnativehabitat.Thissubspeciesalsohasthe
darkestcoat,withmorenarrowlyspacedstripesandalongermaneand
beard.[29][40]

SoutheastAsia:Indonesia
 Extinctsubspeciesoftiger
Subspecies Description Image
WaslimitedtotheIndonesianislandofBali.Hadaweightof90100kg
(200220lb)inmalesand6580kg(143176lb)infemales.[46]Bali
tigerswerehuntedtoextinctionthelastBalitiger,anadultfemale,is
thoughttohavebeenkilledatSumbarKima,WestBali,on27September
Balitiger(P. 1937,thoughtherewereunconfirmedreportsthatvillagersfoundatiger
t.balica) corpsein1963.[47]TheBalitigerisreportedtohavehadsomespotsin
betweenitsstripes.[29]

SoutheastAsia:ExtinctinIndonesia

Wasfoundinthesparseforesthabitatsandriverinecorridorssouthand
eastoftheBlackandCaspianSeas,throughthePonticCaspiansteppeinto
CentralAsia,andontotheTaklaMakandesertofXinjiang.[18]The
Caspiantiger Caspiantigerhadbeenrecordedinthewilduntiltheearly1970s.[48]The
(P.t.virgata), Siberiantigeristhegeneticallyclosestlivingrelativeofthesubspecies.[49]
alsoknownas
the EasternEurope/WestAsia:ExtinctinArmenia,Azerbaijan,Iran,
Hyrcanian Iraq,Georgia,Russia,Syria,TurkeyandUkraine
tigeror CentralAsia:ExtinctinKazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,
Turantiger Turkmenistan,andUzbekistan
EastAsia:ExtinctinChinaandMongolia
SouthAsia:ExtinctinAfghanistan

WaslimitedtotheislandofJava,andhadbeenrecordeduntilthemid
1970s.[50]JavantigerswerelargerthanBalitigersmalesweighed100
141kg(220311lb)andfemales75115kg(165254lb).[51]After1979,
Javantiger nomoresightingswereconfirmedintheregionofMountBetiri.[52]An
(P.t. expeditiontoMountHalimunSalakNationalParkin1990didnotyield
sondaica)
anydefinite,directevidenceforthecontinuedexistenceoftigers.[53]

SoutheastAsia:ExtinctinIndonesia

Ananalysisofcraniodentalandpelagemorphology,ecology,andmolecularbiologyofthetigersubspecies
indicatesthattheyhavemanytraitsincommonandthatthegeneticdiversitybetweenthemislow.Theauthors
ofthisanalysissuggesttogrouptheBengal,Indochinese,Malayan,SouthChina,andSiberiantigersubspecies
totheContinentaltigerPantheratigristigrisandtheSumatran,JavanandBalitigersubspeciestotheSunda
tigerPantheratigrissondaica.Thisclassificationisintendedtofacilitatetigerconservationmanagement,both
regardingbreedingprogrammesinzoosandfuturetranslocationsinthewild.[54]Theclassificationiscriticised
byseveralgeneticists,whomaintainthatthecurrentlyrecognisedninesubspeciescanbedistinguished
genetically.[55]

Hybrids

Lionshavebeenknowntobreedwithtigers(mostoftentheAmurandBengalsubspecies)tocreatehybrids
calledligersandtigons.Suchhybridswereoncecommonlybredinzoos,butthisisnowdiscouragedduetothe
emphasisonconservation.HybridsarestillbredinprivatemenageriesandinzoosinChina.[56]

Theligerisacrossbetweenamalelionandatigress.[57]Becausethelionsirepassesonagrowthpromoting
gene,butthecorrespondinggrowthinhibitinggenefromthefemaletigerisabsent,ligersgrowfarlargerthan
eitherparent.Theysharephysicalandbehaviouralqualitiesofbothparentspecies(spotsandstripesonasandy
background).Maleligersaresterile,butfemaleligersareoftenfertile.Maleshaveabouta50%chanceof
havingamane,but,eveniftheydo,theirmaneswillbeonlyaroundhalfthesizeofthatofapurelion.Ligers
aretypicallybetween10and12feetinlength,andcanweighbetween800and1,000poundsormore.[57]

Thelesscommontigonisacrossbetweenalionessandamaletiger.[58]Becausethemaletigerdoesnotpass
onagrowthpromotinggeneandthelionesspassesonagrowthinhibitinggene,tigonsareoftenrelatively
small,onlyweighingupto150kg(350lb),whichisabout1020%smallerthanlions.Likeligers,theyhave
physicalandbehaviouraltraitsfrombothparentalspecies,andmalesaresterile.Femalesaresometimesfertile
andhaveoccasionallygivenbirthtolitigonswhenmatedtoalion.[56]

Description
Tigershavemuscularbodieswithpowerfulforelimbs,largeheadsand
longtails.Thepelageisdenseandheavycolourationvariesbetween
shadesoforangeandbrownwithwhiteventralareasanddistinctive
verticalblackstripes,whosepatternsareuniquetoeach
individual.[24][59]Theirfunctionislikelyforcamouflageinvegetation
suchaslonggrasswithstrongverticalpatternsoflightandshade.[59][60] Thoughsimilartoalion's,thelower
Thetigerisoneofonlyafewstripedcatspeciesitisnotknownwhy jawstructureisareliableindicatorof
spottedpatternsandrosettesarethemorecommoncamouflagepattern thespecies.
amongfelids.[61]Thetiger'sstripesarealsofoundontheskin,sothatif
itweretobeshaved,itsdistinctivecoatpatternwouldstillbevisible.Theyhaveamanelikeheavygrowthof
furaroundtheneckandjawsandlongwhiskers,especiallyinmales.Thepupilsarecircularwithyellowirises.
Thesmall,roundedearshaveaprominentwhitespotontheback,surroundedbyblack.[24]Thesefalse
"eyespots",calledocelli,apparentlyplayanimportantroleinintraspeciescommunication.[62]

Theskullissimilartothatofthelion,thoughthefrontalregionisusuallynotasdepressedorflattened,witha
slightlylongerpostorbitalregion.Theskullofalionhasbroadernasalopenings.However,duetovariationin
skullsofthetwospecies,thestructureofthelowerjawisamorereliableindicatorofspecies.[63]Thetigeralso
hasfairlystoutteeththesomewhatcurvedcaninesarethelongestamonglivingfelidswithacrownheightof
upto90mm(3.5in).[24]

Theoldestrecordedcaptivetigerlivedfor26years.Awildspecimen,havingnonaturalpredators,couldin
theorylivetoacomparableage.[64]

Size

Tigersarethemostvariableinsizeofallbigcats,muchmoresothanlions.[65]TheBengalandSiberian
subspeciesarethetallestattheshoulderandthusconsideredthelargestlivingfelids,rankingwiththeextinct
Caspiantigeramongthebiggestthateverexisted.[66]AnaverageadultmaletigerfromNorthernIndiaor
Siberiaoutweighsanaverageadultmalelionbyaround45.5kg(100lb).[65]Malesvaryintotallengthfrom
250to390cm(98to154in)andweighbetween90to306kg(198to675lb)withskulllengthrangingfrom
316to383mm(12.4to15.1in).Femalesvaryintotallengthfrom200to275cm(79to108in),weigh65to
167kg(143to368lb)withskulllengthrangingfrom268to318mm(10.6to12.5in).[67]Thelargestwildtiger
everreportedhadatotalbodylengthof3.38m(11.1ft)overcurvesandweighed388.7kg(857lb).Ineither
sex,thetailrepresentsabout0.6to1.1m(24to43in)oftotallength.[24]

BodysizeofdifferentpopulationsseemstobecorrelatedwithclimateBergmann'sruleandcanbe
explainedbythermoregulation.[24]LargemaleSiberiantigerscanreachatotallengthofmorethan3.5m
(11.5ft)overcurvesand3.3m(10.8ft)betweenpegs,andcanweighupto306kg(675lb).Thisis
considerablylargerthantheweightof75to140kg(165to309lb)reachedbythesmallestlivingsubspecies,
theSumatrantiger.Attheshoulder,tigersmayvariouslystand0.7to1.22m
(2.3to4.0ft)tall.[46]Thecurrentrecordweightinthewildwas389kg(858lb)
foraBengaltigershotin1967.[66][68]

Theyareanotablysexuallydimorphicspecies,femalesbeingconsistently
smallerthanmales.Thesizedifferencebetweenmalesandfemalesis
proportionallygreaterinthelargertigersubspecies,withmalesweighingupto
1.7timesmorethanfemales.[69]Malesalsohavewiderforepawpadsthan
females,enablinggendertobetoldfromtracks.[69]

Colourvariations

AwellknownallelefoundonlyintheBengalsubspeciesproducesthewhite
tiger,acolourvariantfirstrecordedintheearly19thcenturyandfoundinan
estimatedonein10,000naturalbirths.Genetically,whitenessisrecessive:acub ASiberiantiger,oneofthe
tallestsubspecies,together
iswhiteonlywhenbothparentscarrythealleleforwhiteness.[70]Itisnot
withtheBengaltigerare
albinism,pigmentbeingevidentinthewhitetiger'sstripesandintheirblue
consideredthelargestliving
eyes.[59]Thecausativemutationchangesasingleaminoacidinthetransporter felids.
proteinSLC45A2.[71]

Whitetigersaremorefrequentlybredincaptivity,
wherethecomparativelysmallgenepoolcanleadto
inbreeding.Thishasgivenwhitetigersagreater
likelihoodofbeingbornwithphysicaldefects,such
ascleftpalate,scoliosis(curvatureofthespine),and
strabismus(squint).[70]Evenapparentlyhealthy
whitetigersgenerallydonotliveaslongastheir
orangecounterparts.Attemptshavebeenmadeto
crosswhiteandorangetigerstoremedythis,often Whitetigers,thisrecessivecolour Agoldentiger,another
variantisfoundonlyinthe colourvariant,results
mixingwithothersubspeciesintheprocess.[72]
Bengalsubspeciesandwith inthickerlightgold
Anotherrecessivegenecreatesthe"golden"or regularstripesandblueeyes.Itis fur,palelegsandfaint
"goldentabby"colourvariation,sometimesknown notalbinism. orangestripes
as"strawberry".Goldentigershavethickerthan
usuallightgoldfur,palelegs,andfaintorangestripes.Fewgoldentigersarekeptincaptivitytheyare
invariablyatleastpartBengal.Somegoldentigerscarrythewhitetigergene,[73]andwhentwosuchtigersare
mated,theycanproducesomestripelesswhiteoffspring.Althougha"pseudomelanistic"effectwidestripes
thatpartiallyobscuretheorangebackgroundhasbeenseeninsomepelts,notrueblacktigershavebeen
authenticated,withthepossibleexceptionofonedeadspecimenexaminedinChittagongin1846.Thesewholly
orpartiallymelanistictigers,iftheyexist,areassumedtobeintermittentmutationsratherthanadistinct
species.[74][75]Therearefurtherunconfirmedreportsofa"blue"orslatecolouredvariant,theMaltesetiger.
However,whilesomefelidsdoexhibitthiscolourationasasolidcoat,thereisnoknowngeneticconfiguration
thatwouldresultinblackstripesonabluegraybackground.[74]

Distributionandhabitat
ThetigerwashistoricallywidespreadthroughouteasternEurasia,withthePonticCaspiansteppe,Eastern
TurkeyandMesopotamiaservingasthewesternmostfringeoftheirrange,andthecoastsbetweeneastern
SiberiaandtheIndonesianislandsofJava,BaliandSumatraactingasthefrontiertothePacificOcean.In
between,tigersroamedwhatistodayArmenia,Azerbaijan,Iran,Iraq,Georgia,southernRussia,Syria,Turkey
andeasternUkraine(aspartoftheBlackSearegion),Afghanistan,Bhutan,Bangladesh,India,Pakistan,and
Nepal(comprisingSouthAsia),Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,andUzbekistan
(composingCentralAsia)China,Mongolia,NorthKorea,Siberiaand
SouthKorea(constitutingEastAsia)andSouthEastAsia(Cambodia,
Indonesia,Laos,Malaysia,Myanmar,Singapore,Thailand,and
Vietnam).

FossilremainsindicatetigerswerealsopresentinBeringiaandthe
Yukoninthenorth,Japantotheeast,andBorneoandPalawaninthe
PhilippinesinthesouthduringtheLatePleistoceneandEarly
Holocene.[76][16][20][77][78][79] Historicaldistribution

Duringthe20thcentury,tigersbecameextinctinWesternandCentralAsia,andwererestrictedtoisolated
pocketsintheremainingpartsoftheirrange.TheywereextirpatedontheislandofBaliinthe1940s,around
theCaspianSeainthe1970s,andonJavainthe1980s.Thiswastheresultofhabitatlossandtheongoing
killingoftigersandtigerprey.Today,theirsignificantlyfragmentedanddepopulatedrangeextendseastward
fromIndiatoBangladesh,Bhutan,Nepal,Myanmar,Thailand,Cambodia,Laos,Vietnam,China,Malaysia,
Indonesia,NorthKoreaandRussia.ThenorthernlimitoftheirrangeisclosetotheAmurRiverinsoutheastern
Siberia.TheonlylargeislandtheystillinhabitisSumatra.[1]Sincethebeginningofthe20thcentury,tigers'
historicalrangehasshrunkby93%.Inthedecadefrom1997to2007,theestimatedareaknowntobeoccupied
bytigershasdeclinedby41%.[2][80]

Tigerscanoccupyawiderangeofhabitattypes,butwillusuallyrequiresufficientcover,proximitytowater,
andanabundanceofprey.Comparedtothelion,thetigerprefersdenservegetation,forwhichitscamouflage
colouringisideallysuited,andwhereasinglepredatorisnotatadisadvantagecomparedwiththemultiple
felinesinapride.[59]Afurtherhabitatrequirementistheplacementofsuitablysecludeddenlocations,which
mayconsistofcaves,largehollowtrees,ordensevegetation.[64]Bengaltigersinparticularliveinmanytypes
offorests,includingwet,evergreen,andthesemievergreenofAssamandeasternBengaltheswampy
mangroveforestoftheGangesDeltathedeciduousforestofNepal,andthethornforestsoftheWesternGhats.
Invariouspartsoftheirrangetheyinhabitorhaveinhabitedadditionallypartiallyopengrasslandandsavanna
aswellastaigaforestsandrockyhabitats.

Biologyandbehaviour
Socialactivity

Adulttigersleadlargelysolitarylives.Theyestablishandmaintainterritories
buthavemuchwiderhomerangeswithinwhichtheyroam.Residentadultsof
eithersexgenerallyconfinetheirmovementstotheirhomeranges,within
whichtheysatisfytheirneedsandthoseoftheirgrowingcubs.Individuals
sharingthesameareaareawareofeachother'smovementsandactivities.[75]
Thesizeofthehomerangemainlydependsonpreyabundance,and,inthecase
ofmales,onaccesstofemales.Atigressmayhaveaterritoryof20km2
(7.7sqmi),whiletheterritoriesofmalesaremuchlarger,covering60to
100km2(23to39sqmi).Therangeofamaletendstooverlapthoseofseveral
females,providinghimwithalargefieldofprospectivematingpartners.[81]

Unlikemanyfelids,tigersarestrongswimmersandoftendeliberatelybathein Tigersarecomfortablein
ponds,lakesandriversasameansofkeepingcoolintheheatoftheday. waterandfrequentlybathe.
Amongthebigcats,onlythejaguarsharesasimilarfondnessforwater.[82]
Theymaycrossriversupto7km(4.3mi)acrossandcanswimupto29km(18mi)inaday.[64]Theyareable
tocarrypreythroughorcaptureitinthewater.
Youngfemaletigersestablishtheirfirstterritoriesclosetotheirmother's.Theoverlapbetweenthefemaleand
hermother'sterritoryreduceswithtime.Males,however,migratefurtherthantheirfemalecounterpartsandset
outatayoungeragetomarkouttheirownarea.Ayoungmaleacquiresterritoryeitherbyseekingoutanarea
devoidofothermaletigers,orbylivingasatransientinanothermale'sterritoryuntilheisolderandstrong
enoughtochallengetheresidentmale.Youngmalesseekingtoestablishthemselvestherebycomprisethe
highestmortalityrate(3035%peryear)amongstadulttigers.[83]

Toidentifyhisterritory,themalemarkstreesbysprayingurine[84][85]
andanalglandsecretions,aswellasmarkingtrailswithscatand
markingtreesorthegroundwiththeirclaws.Femalesalsousethese
"scrapes",aswellasurineandscatmarkings.Scentmarkingsofthis
typeallowanindividualtopickupinformationonanother'sidentity,
sexandreproductivestatus.Femalesinoestruswillsignaltheir
availabilitybyscentmarkingmorefrequentlyandincreasingtheir
vocalisations.[86]
Maletigermarkinghisterritory
Althoughforthemostpartavoidingeachother,tigersarenotalways
territorialandrelationshipsbetweenindividualscanbecomplex.An
adultofeithersexwillsometimesshareitskillwithothers,eventhosewhomaynotberelatedtothem.George
Schallerobservedamaleshareakillwithtwofemalesandfourcubs.Unlikemalelions,maletigersallow
femalesandcubstofeedonthekillbeforethemaleisfinishedwithitallinvolvedgenerallyseemtobehave
amicably,incontrasttothecompetitivebehaviourshownbyalionpride.[62]InhisbookTiger,StephenMills
describesasocialeatingeventwitnessedbyValmikThaparandFatehSinghRathoreinRanthambhoreNational
Parkthus:

AdominanttigresstheycalledPadminikilleda250kg(550lb)malenilgaiaverylargeantelope.
Theyfoundheratthekilljustafterdawnwithherthree14montholdcubsandtheywatched
uninterruptedforthenexttenhours.Duringthisperiodthefamilywasjoinedbytwoadultfemales
andoneadultmale,alloffspringfromPadmini'spreviouslitters,andbytwounrelatedtigers,one
femaletheotherunidentified.Bythreeo'clocktherewerenofewerthanninetigersroundthe
kill.[83]

Occasionally,maletigersparticipateinraisingcubs,usuallytheirown,butthisisextremelyrareandnotalways
wellunderstood.InMay2015,AmurtigerswerephotographedbycameratrapsintheSikhoteAlinBioshpere
Reserve.ThephotosshowamaleAmurtigerpassby,followedbyafemaleandthreecubswithinthespanof
abouttwominutes.[87]InRanthambore,amaleBengaltigerraisedanddefendedtwoorphanedfemalecubs
aftertheirmotherhaddiedofillness.Thecubsremainedunderhiscare,hesuppliedthemwithfood,protected
themfromhisrivalandsister,andapparentlyalsotrainedthem.[88][89]

Maletigersaregenerallymoreintolerantofothermaleswithintheirterritoriesthanfemalesareofother
females.Territorydisputesareusuallysolvedbydisplaysofintimidationratherthanoutrightaggression.
Severalsuchincidentshavebeenobservedinwhichthesubordinatetigeryieldeddefeatbyrollingontoitsback
andshowingitsbellyinasubmissiveposture.[90]Oncedominancehasbeenestablished,amalemaytoleratea
subordinatewithinhisrange,aslongastheydonotliveintooclosequarters.[83]Themostaggressivedisputes
tendtooccurbetweentwomaleswhenafemaleisinoestrus,andmayrarelyresultinthedeathofoneofthe
males.[83][90]

Facialexpressionsincludethe"defensethreat",whereanindividualbaresitsteeth,flattensitsearsandits
pupilsenlarge.Bothmalesandfemalesshowaflehmenresponse,acharacteristicgrimace,whensniffingurine
markingsbutflehmenismoreoftenassociatedwithmalesdetectingthemarkingsmadebytigressesinoestrus.
LikeotherPanthera,tigersroar,particularlyinaggressivesituations,duringthematingseasonorwhenmaking
akill.Therearetwodifferentroars:the"true"roarismadeusingthehyoidapparatusandforcedthroughan

Youngmaleshowingflehmen
responsewhilesniffingurinemarking
openmouthasitprogressivelycloses,andtheshorter,harsher
"coughing"roarismadewiththemouthopenandteethexposed.The
"true"roarcanbeheardatupto3km(1.9mi)awayandissometimes
emittedthreeorfourtimesinsuccession.Whentense,tigerswillmoan,
asoundsimilartoaroarbutmoresubduedandmadewhenthemouthis
partiallyorcompletelyclosed.Moaningcanbeheard400m(1,300ft)
away.[24]Chuffing,soft,lowfrequencysnortingsimilartopurringin
smallercats,isheardinmorefriendlysituations.[91]Othervocal
communicationsincludegrunts,woofs,snarls,miaows,hissesand
growls.[24]

Tigershavebeenstudiedinthewildusingavarietyoftechniques.The
populationsoftigershavebeenestimatedusingplastercastsoftheirpugmarks,althoughthismethodwas
criticisedasbeinginaccurate.[92]Morerecentattemptshavebeenmadeusingcameratrappingandstudieson
DNAfromtheirscat,whileradiocollaringhasbeenusedtotracktigersinthewild.[93]Tigersprayhasbeen
foundtobejustasgood,orbetter,asasourceofDNAasscat.[94]

Huntinganddiet

Inthewild,tigersmostlyfeedonlarge
andmediumsizedanimals,preferring
nativeungulatesweighingatleast90kg
(200lb).[95][96]Theytypicallyhavelittle
ornodeleteriouseffectontheirprey
populations.[64]Sambardeer,chital,
barasingha,wildboar,gaur,nilgaiand
bothwaterbuffaloanddomesticbuffalo,
Asubadulttigershowingincisors, indescendingorderofpreference,are
Tigerdentition(above)and
caninesandpartofthepremolarsand thetiger'sfavouredpreyinTamilNadu,
Asianblackbear(below).
molars,whileyawning. India,[95]whilegaurandsambararethe Thelargecaninesmakethe
preferredpreyandconstitutethemain killingbitethecarnassials
dietoftigersinotherpartsof tearflesh.
India.[97][98]Theyalsopreyonotherpredators,includingdogs,leopards,
pythons,slothbears,andcrocodiles.InSiberia,themainpreyspeciesare
Manchurianwapitiandwildboar(thetwospeciescomprisingnearly80%ofthepreyselected)followedby
sikadeer,moose,roedeer,andmuskdeer.[99]AsiaticblackbearsandUssuribrownbearsmayalsofallpreyto
tigers,[46][100][101]andtheyconstituteupto40.7%ofthedietofSiberiantigersdependingonlocalconditions
andthebearpopulations.[102]InSumatra,preyincludesambardeer,muntjac,wildboar,Malayantapirand
orangutan.[103][104]IntheformerCaspiantiger'srange,preyincludedsaigaantelope,camels,Caucasianwisent,
yak,andwildhorses.Likemanypredators,tigersareopportunisticandmayeatmuchsmallerprey,suchas
monkeys,peafowlandothergroundbasedbirds,hares,porcupines,andfish.[95]

TigersgenerallydonotpreyonfullygrownadultAsianelephantsandIndianrhinocerosbutincidentshave
beenreported.[105][106]Moreoften,itisthemorevulnerablesmallcalvesthataretaken.[107]Tigershavebeen
reportedattackingandkillingelephantsriddenbyhumansduringtigerhuntsinthe19thcentury.[108]Whenin
closeproximitytohumans,tigerswillalsosometimespreyonsuchdomesticlivestockascattle,horses,and
donkeys.[109]Oldorwoundedtigers,unabletocatchwildprey,canbecomemaneatersthispatternhas
recurredfrequentlyacrossIndia.AnexceptionisintheSundarbans,wherehealthytigerspreyuponfishermen
andvillagersinsearchofforestproduce,humanstherebyformingaminorpartofthetiger'sdiet.[110]Although
almostexclusivelycarnivorous,tigerswilloccasionallyeatvegetationfordietaryfibresuchasfruitoftheslow
matchtree.[109]
Tigersarethoughttobemainlynocturnalpredators,[111]butinareas
wherehumansaretypicallyabsent,theyhavebeenobservedviaremote
controlled,hiddencameras,huntingindaylight.[112]Theygenerally
huntaloneandambushtheirpreyasmostothercatsdo,overpowering
themfromanyangle,usingtheirbodysizeandstrengthtoknockthe
preyoffbalance.Successfulhuntsusuallyrequirethetigertoalmost
simultaneouslyleapontoitsquarry,knockitover,andgrabthethroator
napewithitsteeth.[64]Despitetheirlargesize,tigerscanreachspeedsof
about4965km/h(3040mph)butonlyinshortburstsconsequently, TigersubduinganIndianboar
tigersmustbeclosetotheirpreybeforetheybreakcover.Iftheprey
catcheswindofthetiger'spresencebeforethis,thetigerusually
abandonsthehuntratherthanchasepreyorbattleitheadon.Horizontal
leapsofupto10m(33ft)havebeenreported,althoughleapsofaround
halfthisdistancearemoretypical.Onein2to20hunts,including
stalkingnearpotentialprey,endsinasuccessfulkill.[64][113][114]

Whenhuntinglargeranimals,tigersprefertobitethethroatanduse
theirpowerfulforelimbstoholdontotheprey,oftensimultaneously
wrestlingittotheground.Thetigerremainslatchedontotheneckuntil
Bengaltigerdevouringapangolin
itstargetdiesofstrangulation.[62]Bythismethod,gaursandwater
buffaloesweighingoveratonhavebeenkilledbytigersweighingabout
asixthasmuch.[115]Althoughtheycankillhealthyadults,tigersoftenselectthecalvesorinfirmofverylarge
species.[116]Healthyadultpreyofthistypecanbedangeroustotackle,aslong,stronghorns,legsandtusksare
allpotentiallyfataltothetiger.Nootherextantlandpredatorroutinelytakesonpreythislargeontheir
own.[117][118]Whilsthuntingsambars,whichcompriseupto60%oftheirpreyinIndia,tigershavereportedly
madeapassableimpersonationofthemalesambar'sruttingcalltoattractthem.[95][109]Withsmallerprey,such
asmonkeysandhares,thetigerbitesthenape,oftenbreakingthespinalcord,piercingthewindpipe,or
severingthejugularveinorcommoncarotidartery.[119]Thoughrarelyobserved,sometigershavebeen
recordedtokillpreybyswipingwiththeirpaws,whicharepowerfulenoughtosmashtheskullsofdomestic
cattle,[109]andbreakthebacksofslothbears.[120]

Duringthe1980s,atigernamed"Genghis"inRanthambhoreNationalParkwasobservedfrequentlyhunting
preythroughdeeplakewater,apatternofbehaviourthathadnotpreviouslybeenwitnessedinover200years
ofobservations.Moreover,heappearedtobeunusuallysuccessful,with20%ofhuntsendinginakill.[121]

Afterkillingtheirprey,tigerssometimesdragittoconcealitinvegetativecover,usuallypullingitbygrasping
withtheirmouthsatthesiteofthekillingbite.This,too,canrequiregreatphysicalstrength.Inonecase,afterit
hadkilledanadultgaur,atigerwasobservedtodragthemassivecarcassoveradistanceof12m(39ft).When
13mensimultaneouslytriedtodragthesamecarcasslater,theywereunabletomoveit.[64]Anadulttigercan
goforuptotwoweekswithouteating,thengorgeon34kg(75lb)offleshatonetime.Incaptivity,adulttigers
arefed3to6kg(6.6to13.2lb)ofmeataday.[64]

Enemiesandcompetitors

Tigersusuallyprefertoeatpreytheyhavecaughtthemselves,butarenotaboveeatingcarrionintimesof
scarcityandmayevenpiratepreyfromotherlargecarnivores.Althoughpredatorstypicallyavoidoneanother,
ifapreyitemisunderdisputeoraseriouscompetitorisencountered,displaysofaggressionarecommon.If
thesearenotsufficient,theconflictsmayturnviolenttigersmaykillcompetitorsasleopards,dholes,striped
hyenas,wolves,bears,pythonsandcrocodilesonoccasion.Tigersmayalsopreyonthese
competitors.[46][120][122][123][124][125]Attacksonsmallerpredators,such
asbadgers,lynxes,andfoxes,arealmostcertainlypredatory.[95]
Crocodiles,bearsandlargepacksofdholesmaywinconflictsagainst
tigersandinsomecasesevenkillthem.[46][126][127][128]

Theconsiderablysmallerleopardavoidscompetitionfromtigersby
huntingatdifferenttimesofthedayandhuntingdifferentprey.[129]In
India'sNagarholeNationalPark,mostpreyselectedbyleopardswere
from30to175kg(66to386lb)againstapreferenceforpreyweighing Tigerhuntedbywilddogs(dholes)as
over176kg(388lb)inthetigers.Theaveragepreyweightinthetwo illustratedinSamuelHowett&
respectivebigcatsinIndiawas37.6kg(83lb)against91.5kg EdwardOrme,HandColoured,
(202lb).[130]Withrelativelyabundantprey,tigersandleopardswere AquatintEngravings,1807
seentosuccessfullycoexistwithoutcompetitiveexclusionor
interspeciesdominancehierarchiesthatmaybemorecommontothe
Africansavanna(wheretheleopardmaycoexistwiththelion).[130]Lonegoldenjackalsexpelledfromtheir
packhavebeenknowntoformcommensalrelationshipswithtigers.Thesesolitaryjackals,knownaskolbahl,
willattachthemselvestoaparticulartiger,trailingitatasafedistancetofeedonthebigcat'skills.[131]

Reproduction

Matingcanoccurallyearround,butismorecommonbetween
WikimediaCommonshas
NovemberandApril.[64]Afemaleisonlyreceptiveforthreetosixdays. mediarelatedtoMating
Matingisfrequentandnoisyduringthattime.Gestationcanrangefrom tigers.
[64]
93to112days,theaveragebeing105days. Thelitterisusuallytwo
orthreecubs,occasionallyasfewasoneorasmanyassix.Cubsweigh
from680to1,400g(1.50to3.09lb)eachatbirth,andarebornblind
andhelpless.[64]Thefemalesrearthemalone,withthebirthsiteand
maternaldeninashelteredlocationsuchasathicket,caveorrocky
crevice.Thefathergenerallytakesnopartinrearingthem.Unrelated
wanderingmaletigersmaykillcubstomakethefemalereceptive,since
thetigressmaygivebirthtoanotherlitterwithinfivemonthsifthecubs
ofthepreviouslitterarelost.[64]Themortalityrateoftigercubsisabout
Tigresswithhercub
50%inthefirsttwoyears.[64]Fewotherpredatorsattacktigercubsdue
tothediligenceandferocityofthemothertiger.Apartfromhumansand
othertigers,commoncausesofcubmortalityarestarvation,freezing,andaccidents.[118]

Adominantcubemergesinmostlitters,usuallyamale.[121]Thiscubismoreactivethanitssiblingsandtakes
theleadintheirplay,eventuallyleavingitsmotherandbecomingindependentearlier.Thecubsopentheireyes
atsixtofourteendaysold.Byeightweeks,thecubsmakeshortventuresoutsidethedenwiththeirmother,
althoughtheydonottravelwithherassheroamsherterritoryuntiltheyareolder.Thecubsarenursedforthree
tosixmonths.Aroundthetimetheyareweaned,theystarttoaccompanytheirmotheronterritorialwalksand
theyaretaughthowtohunt.Thecubsoftenbecomecapable(andnearlyadultsize)huntersatelevenmonths
old.[64]Thecubsbecomeindependentaroundeighteenmonthsofage,butitisnotuntiltheyarearoundtwoto
twoandahalfyearsoldthattheyfullyseparatefromtheirmother.Femalesreachsexualmaturityatthreeto
fouryears,whereasmalesdosoatfourtofiveyears.[64]

Conservationefforts
 Tigerpopulations
(2016)[132]
Country Estimate
Bangladesh 106
Bhutan 103
Cambodia 0
China >7
India 2,226
Indonesia 371
Laos 2
Malaysia 250
Myanmar nodata
Nepal 198
NorthKorea nodata
Russia 433
Thailand 189
Vietnam <5
Total 3,890+

Thetigerisanendangeredspecies.[133]Poachingforfurandbodypartsanddestructionofhabitathave
simultaneouslygreatlyreducedtigerpopulationsinthewild.Atthestartofthe20thcentury,itisestimated
therewereover100,000tigersinthewild,butthepopulationhasdwindledoutsideofcaptivitytobetween
1,500and3,500.[134][135]Majorreasonsforpopulationdeclineincludehabitatdestruction,habitat
fragmentationandpoaching.[1]DemandfortigerpartsforuseintraditionalChinesemedicinehasalsobeen
citedasamajorthreattotigerpopulations.[136][137]Someestimatessuggestthattherearefewerthan2,500
maturebreedingindividuals,withnosubpopulationcontainingmorethan250maturebreedingindividuals.[1]
TheglobalwildtigerpopulationwasestimatedbytheWorldWideFundforNatureat3,200in2011and3,890
in2015Voxreportedthatthiswasthefirstincreaseinacentury.[138][139]Theexactnumberofwildtigersis
unknown,asmanyestimatesareoutdatedorareeducatedguessesfewestimatesarebasedonreliablescientific
censuses.ThetableshowsestimatespercountryaccordingtoIUCNandrangecountrygovernments.[133]The
WildlifeConservationSocietyandPantheraCorporationformedthecollaborationTigersForever,withfield
sitesincludingtheworld'slargesttigerreserve,the21,756km2(8,400sqmi)HukaungValleyinMyanmar.
OtherreserveswereintheWesternGhatsinIndia,Thailand,Laos,Cambodia,theRussianFarEastcoveringin
totalabout260,000km2(100,000sqmi).[140]

Indiaishometotheworld'slargestpopulationofwildtigers[141]butonly11%oftheoriginalIndiantiger
habitatremains,andithasbecomefragmented.[142][143]From1973,India'sProjectTiger,startedbyIndira
Gandhi,establishedover25tigerreservesinreclaimedland,wherehumandevelopmentwasforbidden.The
projectwascreditedwithtriplingthenumberofwildBengaltigersfromsome1,200in1973toover3,500in
the1990s,buta2007censusshowedthatnumbershaddroppedbacktoabout1,400tigersbecauseof
poaching.[144]Followingthereport,theIndiangovernmentpledged$153milliontotheinitiative,setup
measurestocombatpoaching,promisedfundstorelocateupto200,000villagersinordertoreducehuman
tigerinteractions,[145]andsetupeightnewtigerreserves.[146]IndiaalsoreintroducedtigerstotheSariskaTiger
Reserve[147]andby2009itwasclaimedthatpoachinghadbeeneffectivelycounteredatRanthamboreNational
Park.[148]A2014censusestimatedapopulationof2,226,a30%increasesince2011.[22]
Inthe1940s,theSiberiantigerwasonthebrinkofextinctionwithonlyabout40animalsremaininginthewild
inRussia.Asaresult,antipoachingcontrolswereputinplacebytheSovietUnionandanetworkofprotected
zones(zapovedniks)wereinstituted,leadingtoariseinthepopulationtoseveralhundred.Poachingagain
becameaprobleminthe1990s,whentheeconomyofRussiacollapsed.Themajorobstacleinpreservingthe
speciesistheenormousterritoryindividualtigersrequire(upto450km2neededbyasinglefemaleandmore
forasinglemale).[149]CurrentconservationeffortsareledbylocalgovernmentsandNGO'sinconcertwith
internationalorganisations,suchastheWorldWideFundforNatureandtheWildlifeConservationSociety.[150]
ThecompetitiveexclusionofwolvesbytigershasbeenusedbyRussianconservationiststoconvincehuntersto
toleratethebigcats.Tigershavelessimpactonungulatepopulationsthandowolves,andareeffectivein
controllingthelatter'snumbers.[151]In2005,therewerethoughttobeabout360animalsinRussia,though
theseexhibitedlittlegeneticdiversity.[37]However,inadecadelater,theSiberiantigercensuswasestimated
from480to540individuals.

HavingearlierrejectedtheWesternledenvironmentalistmovement,
Chinachangeditsstanceinthe1980sandbecameapartytotheCITES
treaty.By1993ithadbannedthetradeintigerparts,andthis
diminishedtheuseoftigerbonesintraditionalChinesemedicine.[152]
Afterthis,theTibetanpeople'stradeintigerskinsbecamearelatively
moreimportantthreattotigers.Thepeltswereusedinclothing,tiger
skinchubabeingwornbysingersandparticipantsinhorseracing
festivals,andhadbecomestatussymbols.In2004,international
conservationorganizationslaunchedsuccessfulenvironmental
propagandacampaignsinChinaagainsttheTibetantigerskintrade. CameratrapimageofwildSumatran
TherewasoutrageinIndia,wheremanyTibetanslive,andthe14th tiger
DalaiLamawaspersuadedtotakeuptheissue.Sincethentherehas
beenachangeofattitude,withsomeTibetanspubliclyburningtheirchubas.[153]

In1994,theIndonesianSumatranTigerConservationStrategyaddressedthepotentialcrisisthattigersfacedin
Sumatra.TheSumatranTigerProject(STP)wasinitiatedinJune1995inandaroundtheWayKambasNational
ParkinordertoensurethelongtermviabilityofwildSumatrantigersandtoaccumulatedataontigerlife
historycharacteristicsvitalforthemanagementofwildpopulations.[154]ByAugust1999,theteamsoftheSTP
hadevaluated52sitesofpotentialtigerhabitatinLampungProvince,ofwhichonly15thesewereintact
enoughtocontaintigers.[155]IntheframeworkoftheSTPacommunitybasedconservationprogrammewas
initiatedtodocumentthetigerhumandimensionintheparkinordertoenableconservationauthoritiesto
resolvetigerhumanconflictsbasedonacomprehensivedatabaseratherthananecdotesandopinions.[156]

Rewildingandreintroducing

In1978,theIndianconservationistBillyArjanSinghattemptedto
rewildatigerinDudhwaNationalParkthiswasthecaptivebred
tigressTara.[157]Soonaftertherelease,numerouspeoplewerekilled
andeatenbyatigressthatwassubsequentlyshot.Governmentofficials
claimeditwasTara,thoughSinghdisputedthis.Furthercontroversy
brokeoutwiththediscoverythatTarawaspartlySiberian
ArewildedSouthChinatigerhunting
tiger.[158][159][160][161]
blesbokinSouthAfrica
TheorganisationSaveChina'sTigershasattemptedtorewildtheSouth
Chinatigers,withabreedingandtrainingprogrammeinaSouthAfricanreserveknownasLaohuValley
Reserve(LVR)andeventuallyreintroducethemtothewildofChina.[162]
AfuturerewildingprojectwasproposedforSiberiantigerssettobereintroducedtonorthernRussia's
Pleistocenepark.TheSiberiantigerssenttoIranforacaptivebreedingprojectinTehranaresettoberewilded
andreintroducedtotheMiankalehpeninsulatoreplacethenowextinctCaspiantigers.[163][164][165]

Relationwithhumans
Tigerasprey

ThetigerhasbeenoneofthebigfivegameanimalsofAsia.Tiger
huntingtookplaceonalargescaleintheearly19thand20thcenturies,
beingarecognisedandadmiredsportbytheBritishincolonialIndiaas
wellasthemaharajasandaristocraticclassoftheerstwhileprincely
statesofpreindependenceIndia.AsinglemaharajaorEnglishhunter
couldclaimtokilloverahundredtigersintheirhuntingcareer.[64]Tiger
huntingwasdonebysomehuntersonfoototherssatuponmachans
withagoatorbuffalotiedoutasbaityetothersonelephantback.[166]
Tigerhuntingonelephantback,
Maneatingtigers India,1808

Wildtigersthathavehadnopriorcontactwithhumansactivelyavoid
interactionswithhumans.However,tigerscausemorehumandeaths
throughdirectattackthananyotherwildmammal.[64]Attacksare
occasionallyprovoked,astigerslashoutafterbeinginjuredwhilethey
themselvesarehunted.Attackscanbeprovokedaccidentally,aswhena
humansurprisesatigerorinadvertentlycomesbetweenamotherand
heryoung,[167]orasinacaseinruralIndiawhenapostmanstartleda
tiger,usedtoseeinghimonfoot,byridingabicycle.[168]Occasionally
tigerscometoviewpeopleasprey.Suchattacksaremostcommonin
areaswherepopulationgrowth,logging,andfarminghaveputpressure
ontigerhabitatsandreducedtheirwildprey.Mostmaneatingtigersare
old,missingteeth,andunabletocapturetheirpreferredprey.[59]For
example,theChampawatTiger,atigressfoundinNepalandthenIndia,
hadtwobrokencanines.Shewasresponsibleforanestimated430
humandeaths,themostattacksknowntobeperpetratedbyasinglewild
animal,bythetimeshewasshotin1907byJimCorbett.[66]According
toCorbett,tigerattacksonhumansarenormallyindaytime,when
peopleareworkingoutdoorsandarenotkeepingwatch.[169]Early Coverofthe1954editionofJim
writingstendtodescribemaneatingtigersascowardlybecauseoftheir Corbett'sManEatersofKumaon,
ambushtactics.[170] illustratedbyRaymondSheppard

ManeatershavebeenaparticularprobleminrecentdecadesinIndia
andBangladesh,especiallyinKumaon,GarhwalandtheSundarbansmangroveswampsofBengal,wheresome
healthytigershavehuntedhumans.Becauseofrapidhabitatlossattributedtoclimatechange,tigerattackshave
increasedintheSundarbans.[172]TheSundarbansareahad129humandeathsfromtigersfrom1969to1971.In
the10yearspriortothatperiod,about100attacksperyearintheSundarbans,withahighofaround430in
someyearsofthe1960s.[64]Unusually,insomeyearsintheSundarbans,morehumansarekilledbytigersthan
viceversa.[64]In1972,India'sproductionofhoneyandbeeswaxdroppedby50%whenatleast29peoplewho
gatheredthesematerialsweredevoured.[64]In1986intheSundarbans,sincetigersalmostalwaysattackfrom
therear,maskswithhumanfaceswerewornonthebackofthehead,onthetheorythattigersusuallydonot
attackifseenbytheirprey.Thisdecreasedthenumberofattacksonlytemporarily.Allothermeanstoprevent
attacks,suchasprovidingmorepreyorusingelectrifiedhumandummies,workedlesswell.[173]
Atleast27peoplewerekilledorseriouslyinjuredbycaptivetigersin
theUnitedStatesfrom1998to2001.[174][174]

Insomecases,ratherthanbeingpredatory,tigerattacksonhumanseem
tobeterritorialinnature.Atleastinonecase,atigresswithcubskilled
eightpeopleenteringherterritorywithoutconsumingthematall.[175]
Stereographicphotograph(1903),
Commercialhuntingandtraditionalmedicine captioned"Famous'maneater'at
Calcuttadevoured200men,women
Historically,tigershavebeenhuntedatalargescalesotheirfamous
andchildrenbeforecapture
stripedskinscouldbecollected.Thetradeintigerskinspeakedinthe
1960s,justbeforeinternationalconservationeffortstookeffect.By India"[171]
1977,atigerskininanEnglishmarketwasconsideredtobeworth
US$4,250.[64]

ManypeopleinChinaandotherpartsofAsiahaveabeliefthatvarious
tigerpartshavemedicinalproperties,includingaspainkillersand
aphrodisiacs.[176]Thereisnoscientificevidencetosupportthese
beliefs.TheuseoftigerpartsinpharmaceuticaldrugsinChinais
alreadybanned,andthegovernmenthasmadesomeoffencesin
connectionwithtigerpoachingpunishablebydeath.Furthermore,all
tradeintigerpartsisillegalundertheConventiononInternationalTrade
inEndangeredSpeciesofWildFaunaandFloraandadomestictrade Ahuntingpartyposeswithakilled
Javantiger,1941.
banhasbeeninplaceinChinasince1993.[177]

However,thetradingoftigerpartsinAsiahasbecomeamajorblackmarketindustryandgovernmentaland
conservationattemptstostopithavebeenineffectivetodate.[64]Almostallblackmarketersengagedinthe
tradearebasedinChinaandhaveeitherbeenshippedandsoldwithinintheirowncountryorintoTaiwan,
SouthKoreaorJapan.[64]TheChinesesubspecieswasalmostcompletelydecimatedbykillingforcommerce
duetoboththepartsandskintradesinthe1950sthroughthe1970s.[64]Contributingtotheillegaltrade,there
areanumberoftigerfarmsinthecountryspecialisinginbreedingthecatsforprofit.Itisestimatedthat
between5,000and10,000captivebred,semitameanimalsliveinthesefarmstoday.[178][179][180]However,
manytigersfortraditionalmedicineblackmarketarewildonesshotorsnaredbypoachersandmaybecaught
anywhereinthetiger'sremainingrange(fromSiberiatoIndiatotheMalayPeninsulatoSumatra).IntheAsian
blackmarket,atigerpeniscanbeworththeequivalentofaround$300U.S.dollars.Intheyearsof1990
through1992,27millionproductswithtigerderivativeswerefound.[64]InJuly2014ataninternational
conventiononendangeredspeciesinGeneva,Switzerland,aChineserepresentativeadmittedforthefirsttime
hisgovernmentwasawaretradingintigerskinswasoccurringinChina.[181]

Incaptivity

InAncientRomantimes,tigerswerekeptinmenageriesandamphitheatrestobeexhibited,trainedand
paraded,andwereoftenprovokedtofighthumansandexoticbeasts.[182][183]Sincethe17thcentury,tigers,
beingrareandferocious,weresoughtaftertokeepatEuropeancastlesassymbolsoftheirowners'power.[184]
Tigersbecamecentralzooandcircusexhibitsinthe18thcentury:atigercouldcostupto4,000francsin
France(forcomparison,aprofessoroftheBeauxArtsatLyonsearnedonly3,000francsayear),[185]orupto
$3,500intheUnitedStateswherealioncostnomorethan$1,000.[186]

China(2007)hadover4,000captivetigers,ofwhich3,000wereheldbyabouttwentylargerfacilities,withthe
restheldbysome200smallerfacilities.[187]TheUSA(2011)had2,884tigersin468facilities.[188]Nineteen
stateshavebannedprivateownershipoftigers,fifteenrequirealicense,andsixteenstateshaveno
regulation.[189]Geneticancestryof105captivetigersfromfourteen
countriesandregionsshowedthatfortynineanimalsbelonged
distinctlytofivesubspeciesfiftytwoanimalshadmixed
subspeciesorigins.[190]Assuch,"manySiberiantigersinzoos
todayareactuallytheresultofcrosseswithBengaltigers."[191]

TheTigerSpeciesSurvivalPlanhascondemnedthebreedingof
whitetigers,allegingtheyareofmixedancestryandofunknown
lineage.Thegenesresponsibleforwhitecolourationare
representedby0.001%ofthepopulation.Thedisproportionate TigersmadetoperformatRingling
growthinnumbersofwhitetigerspointstoinbreedingamong BrothersandBarnumandBaileyCircus
homozygousrecessiveindividuals.Thiswouldleadtoinbreeding
depressionandlossofgeneticvariability.[192]

Culturaldepictions
TigerbyAugustusAaronWilson,
1931.WhentheRinglingBrothers
circuscametotownin1931,Wilson
wasinspiredbyEmyr,saidtobethe
largesttigerincaptivity,tocarve
thesetigersfromsalvagedrailroad
tiesandtelephonepolesthathekept
inhisbarn.BrooklynMuseum
Tigersandtheirsuperlative
qualitieshavebeenasourceof
fascinationformankindsince
ancienttimes,andtheyare
routinelyvisibleasimportant
culturalandmediamotifs.They
arealsoconsideredoneofthe
charismaticmegafauna,andare
usedasthefaceofconservation
Chineseheadrestwithtigerfromthe
campaignsworldwide.Ina2004
12thcentury.HallwylMuseum
onlinepollconductedbycable
televisionchannelAnimal
Planet,involvingmorethan50,000viewersfrom73countries,thetiger
wasvotedtheworld'sfavouriteanimalwith21%ofthevote,narrowly
beatingthedog.[193]
Inmythandlegend

InChinesemythandculture,thetigeris
oneofthe12animalsoftheChinesezodiac.InChineseart,thetigerisdepicted
asanearthsymbolandequalrivaloftheChinesedragonthetworepresenting
matterandspiritrespectively.TheSouthernChinesemartialartHungGais
basedonthemovementsofthetigerandthecrane.InImperialChina,atiger
wasthepersonificationofwarandoftenrepresentedthehighestarmygeneral
(orpresentdaydefensesecretary),[194]whiletheemperorandempresswere
representedbyadragonandphoenix,respectively.TheWhiteTiger(Chinese:
pinyin:BiH)isoneoftheFourSymbolsoftheChineseconstellations.
ItissometimescalledtheWhiteTigeroftheWest(),anditrepresents
thewestandtheautumnseason.[194]

Thetiger'stailappearsinstoriesfromcountriesincludingChinaandKorea,it TheHindugoddessDurga
beinggenerallyinadvisabletograspatigerbythetail.[195][196] ridingatiger.Gulerschool,
early18thcentury
InBuddhism,thetigerisoneoftheThreeSenselessCreatures,symbolising
anger,withthemonkeyrepresentinggreedandthedeerlovesickness.[194]The
TungusicpeoplesconsideredtheSiberiantigeraneardeityandoftenreferredtoitas"Grandfather"or"Old
 man".TheUdegeandNanaicalledit"Amba".The
ManchuconsideredtheSiberiantigerasHuLin,
theking.[69]InHinduism,thegodShivawearsand
sitsontigerskin.[197]Thetenarmedwarrior
goddessDurgaridesthetigress(orlioness)Damon
intobattle.InsouthernIndiathegodAyyappanwas
associatedwithatiger.[198]
ThecarriageofBacchusdrawnby
Theweretigerreplacesthewerewolfin
tigers,asdepictedbyCornelisdeVos
shapeshiftingfolkloreinAsia[199]inIndiathey
wereevilsorcerers,whileinIndonesiaand
Malaysiatheyweresomewhatmorebenign.[200]AsperHinduepicMahabharata,tigeris
morefiercerandruthlessthanlion.[201]

Inliteratureandfilm
19thcentury
paintingofa InWilliamBlake'spoemintheSongsofExperience,titled
tigerby "TheTyger,"thetigerisamenacingandfearfulanimal.In
Kuniyoshi YannMartel's2001ManBookerPrizewinningnovelLife
Utagawa ofPi,theprotagonist,survivingshipwreckformonthsina
smallboat,somehowavoidsbeingeatenbytheother
survivor,alargeBengaltiger.ThestorywasadaptedinAngLee's2012feature
filmofthesamename.JimCorbett's1944ManEatersofKumaontellstentrue
storiesofhistigerhuntingexploitsinwhatisnowthenorthernUttarakhand
regionofIndia.Thebookhassoldoverfourmillioncopies,[202]andhasbeen
thebasisofbothfictionalanddocumentaryfilms.InRudyardKipling's1894
TheJungleBook,thetiger,ShereKhan,isthemortalenemyofthehuman
protagonist,Mowglithebookhasformedthebasisofbothliveactionand
animatedfilms.Othertigercharactersaimedatchildrentendtobemorebenign,
asforinstanceTiggerinA.A.Milne'sWinniethePoohandHobbesofthe
comicstripCalvinandHobbes,bothofwhomarerepresentedassimplystuffed
animalscometolife.
WilliamBlake'sfirstprinting
ofTheTyger,c.1795
Asasymbol

AnearlysilvercoinofkingUttamaChola
foundinSriLankashowstheCholaTiger
sittingbetweentheemblemsofPandyan
andChera.
ThetigerisoneoftheanimalsdisplayedonthePashupatisealof
theIndusValleyCivilisation.Thetigerwastheemblemofthe
CholaDynastyandwasdepictedoncoins,sealsandbanners.[203]
ThesealsofseveralCholacoppercoinsshowthetiger,the
PandyanemblemfishandtheCheraemblembow,indicatingthat
theCholashadachievedpoliticalsupremacyoverthelattertwo
dynasties.GoldcoinsfoundinKavilayadavalliintheNellore
districtofAndhraPradeshhavemotifsofthetiger,bowandsome
indistinctmarks.[204]ThetigersymbolofCholaEmpirewaslater
adoptedbytheLiberationTigersofTamilEelamandthetiger
becameasymboloftheunrecognisedstateofTamilEelamand
Tamilindependencemovement.[205]

TheBengaltigeristhenationalanimalofIndiaandBangladesh.[206]TheMalaysiantigeristhenationalanimal
ofMalaysia.[207]TheSiberiantigeristhenationalanimalofSouthKorea.Sincethesuccessfuleconomiesof
SouthKorea,Taiwan,HongKongandSingaporeweredescribedastheFourAsianTigers,atigereconomyisa
metaphorforanationinrapiddevelopment.Tigerarealsomascotsforvarioussportsteamsaroundtheworld.
TonytheTigerisafamousmascotforKellogg'sbreakfastcerealFrostedFlakes.TheEsso(Exxon)brandof
petrolwasadvertisedfrom1969onwardswiththeslogan'putatigerinyourtank',andatigermascotmore
than2.5millionsynthetictigertailsweresoldtomotorists,whotiedthemtotheirpetroltankcaps.[208]

Thetigerappearsinheraldrybutisdistinctfromtheheraldicbeasttyger,awolflike,snoutedcreaturewhich
hasitsrootsinEuropeanMedievalbestiaries.

Seealso
21stCenturyTiger,informationabouttigersandconservationprojects
Animaltrack
Listofsolitaryanimals
Siegfried&Roy,twofamoustamersoftigers
TigerinChineseculture
TigerTemple,aBuddhisttempleinThailandfamousforitstametigers
Tigerversuslion
ManEatersofKumaon

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CarnivoransofMalaysia Conservationreliantspecies EDGEspecies MammalsofAsia
MegafaunaofEurasia MegafaunaofNorthAsia FaunaofEastAsia FaunaofSouthAsia
FaunaofSoutheastAsia NationalsymbolsofIndia NationalsymbolsofMalaysia
NationalsymbolsofSingapore Apexpredators ExtantPleistocenefirstappearances

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