2. Soil Liquefaction Photo 2.1 Soil liquefaction2.1 Introduction During earthquakes the shaking of ground may cause a loss of strength or stiffnes that results in the settlement of buildings, Iandshdes, the failure of earth dams, or other hazards. The process leading to such loss of strength or stiffies 1s called soil liquefaction Itis a phenomenon associated primarely, but not exclusively, with saturated cohesionless soils (Committee on Earthquake Engineering, 1985). Some effects of liquefaction can be catastrophic, such as flow faitures of stopes or earth ams, and settlement and tipping of buildings and bridge piers Others are less dramatic. such as lateral spreading of slightly inclined ground and deformation and settlement of the ground surface, Even these latter effects, though, have been seen to cause severe damage to highways, railroads, pipeline and buildings in many earthquakes. ‘Attention was drawn to the effects of liquefaction for the first time during the Niigata Earthquake in Japan, 1964. This event caused exstensive damages mainly due to soil falures connected with liquefaction. During the Alaska earthquake the same year, further examples of the destructivness of liquefaction were produced. Since then, great progress has been made in understanding liquefaction phenomena, and in evaluating the risk for liquefaction on a site. In section 2,2 an attempt is made to describe what today is known about liquefaction, its processes and its manifestations Methods of evaluating the potential for liquefaction on a site are discussed in section 2.3. Section 2.4 shortly describes how a zonation of liquefaction susceptibility using geological criteria can be made, ‘Much of the content in this chapter is based on the publication Liquefaction of Soils During Earthquakes (Committee on Earthquake Engineering, 1985). This is a state-of-the- art publication with its origin m a workshop held in Dedham, Massachusetts, on March 1985, at which specialists on liquefaction from the United States, Japan, Canada, and the United Kingdom panicipated 2.2 The Phenomenon 2.2.1 Manifestations of Liquefaction ‘The manifestation most commonly associated with liquefaction is probably the formation of sand boils. These small sand volcanos indicates elevated pore pressures at depth, caused by the compactation of granular soils during the seismic shaking. From zones of high pore pressure water makes channels and transports Sediments to the surface. The sediments are deposited as a cone around the opening of the channel See fig 2./ and photo 2.1 The formation of sand boils is ome dependent on the soil overlying the liquefied material. A thick overlying Fig. 2.1 Sand boil, the manifestation most layer gives fewer and larger boils commonly associated with liquefactionIf the overlying material is cohesive it cracks up and the water-sand mixture vents to the surface through the cracks, forming irregular and elongated sand boils. The amount of sand deposited on the surface depends on the depth of the liquified zone An overlying layer of gravel may prevent the pressurised mixture to reach the surface, ifit can be expended in the pores of the coarser material Liquefaction at depth often cause the overlying soil to break up into blocks bounded by fissures. Floating on the liquefied zone, these superficial blocks are allowed to move in relation to eachother. See fig 2.2 On honsontal ground, the movement of the blocks during an earthquake is called. Fig 2.2 The mechanism of ground oscillation. ground oscillation, and are often seen by observers as ground waves. On slightly inclined ground, gravitational forces and inertial forces generated by the earthquake make the superficial blocks move laterally. This is known as lateral spread and commonly involve displacements ranging up to several meters, but depending on the slope and the seismic shaking, it can extend up to several tens of meters. The movement is towards a free face, such as a river channel ‘and commonly results in x= the formation of fissures, horsts, and grabens. ‘While ground oscillation seldom is very destructive, lateral spreads have caused more damage than any other liquefaction-induced soil s+ failure, Damages typically include the rupture of INITIAL SECTION foundations of buildings, ‘BEPORMED SECTION the tilting of bridge abutments and buckling of bridge decks, Fig 2.3 Lateral spread due to liquefaction. the rupture of burried tubes, and fissuring of road embankments. ‘When a soil that supports a structure liquefies, it will result in a foss of bearing capacity, allowing the structure to settle and tip A classic example of this phenomenon occured during the Niigata Earthquake where apartment buildings tipped as much as 60 degrees. Another phenomenon caused by liquefaction is the buoyant rise of burried structures. ‘When burried structures are lighter in weight than the surrounding soil it “floats” up to the surface This might lead 10 unexpected emergencies of burried tanks, tubes, and cut-off timber piles. When the excess pore pressures connected with liquefaction dissipates, it will be accompanied by a densification of the soil leading to settlements of the ground surface. ‘Uneven settlements may cause damage to roads, railroad tracks, and other structures,