CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Theoretical Framework

2.1.1. Learning Definition

Learning is an individual conscious effort to achieve the goal of self-improvement or

change themselves through exercises, repetitions and changes that occur not by coincidence.
Almost all experts have been trying to formulate and make interpretations of "learning".
Learning is a relatively permanent change in one's personal capacity as a result of the processing
on the experience gained and practices that do (Permendiknas RI No. 41 of 2007). Learning is a
process of change in the human personality, and the changes revealed in the form of improved
quality and quantity of behavior such as increased skills, knowledge, physics, habits,
understanding, skills, intellect, and others capabilities. Improving the quality and quantity of a
person's behavior is shown in the form of increasing the quality and quantity of man's ability in
various fields (Thursan, 2000). Hakim, Thursan. 2000. Belajar secara efektif. Jakarta:
Puspa Swara

In addition, Learning is a process of changing the behavior of individuals acquired

through experience; through stimulus-response process; through habituation; by imitation;
through understanding and appreciation; through the activity of individuals achieve anything
wanted. In more operations can be stated that: learning is an attempt to master something new.
This concept contains two main things, the effort to master and something new. An effort to
master is real learning activities and something new is the result obtained from the learning
activities (Prayitno.2009). Prayitno. 2009. Dasar Teori dan Praksis Pendidikan. Jakarta:
Penerbit Grasindo

According to the theory of constructivism, learning is defined as a process that occurs in

a vague environment from increased core elements, which are not entirely controlled by the
individual. The process of learning that is taking the knowledge that lies outside of ourselves,
which is available in the environment, and we are focused on taking the relationship of a series
of information and knowledge, which allows us to learn more from the condition of our current
knowledge. This theory is directed by the understanding, that the decision was based on the rapid
changes. The principles of constructivism learning theory are:

1. Learning of knowledge lies in the variety of opinions and arguments.

2. Learning is the process of connecting the sources of certain information.
3. Ability and desire to know more is important, from there based on the knowledge that
is known right now.
4. Maintain and keep the inter-relationships necessary to facilitate learning to be
sustainable.
5. The ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
6. Accurate knowledge is the intention of all the learned connectivity.

Determinant of success in learning is the learning process itself. Selection for the things what is
learned and the meaning of incoming information is seen from the reality. (Arnold, 2015).
Arnold, Ricky. 2015. Belajar Any Where. Jakarta: Guepedia
7.

Constructivist theory emphasizes that learners or students construct their knowledge over the
prior knowledge that has been obtained previously. Students are active in conducting activities
and active thinking. In other words, students construct their knowledge, developing the concept,
and give the meaning of the things learned. Teachers only provide optimal opportunities for the
learning process. Thus, who determines the realization of the symptoms of learning is the
intention of studying students themselves. Thereby, constructivist theory supporting attitudes,
motivation, and self-concept of students in the learning process independently (Wicaksono,
2016). Wicaksono, dkk. 2016. Teori Pembelajaran Bahasa. Yogyakarta: Penerbit
Garudawaca

The influence of constructivism in education today can be seen in a variety of published

curricula as well as instructional practices. Social constructivist applications are commonly
found in schools through the widespread use of cooperative and collaborative teaching strategies
such as: Teams-Games-Tournament, Student Teams Achievement Division, Jigsaw, Numbered
Heads Together, and Peer-Peer Tutoring. In each of these, the emphasis is on having students
working together while sharing ideas and challenging each other's perspectives (Jones, 2001).
Jones, 2002. The Impact Of Constructivism on Education: Language, Dscourse and
Meaning. Spring. Volume 5 N0. 3

2.1.2. Learning Activity

 Learning is a complex cognitive and social process that necessarily interacts with the
world around it. Activity theory provides an alternative lens for analyzing learning processes and
outcomes that captures more of the complexity and integrated with the context and community
that surround and support it. Rather than focusing on knowledge states, it focuses on the
activities in which people are engaged, the nature of the tools they use in those activities, the
social and contextual relationships among the collaborators in those activities, the goals and
intentions of those activities, and the objects or outcomes of those activities. Rather than
analyzing knowledge states as detached from these entities, activity theory sees consciousness as
the mental activities that suffuse all of these entities. Concepts, rules, and theories that are not
associated with activity have no meaning. Articulating each of these entities and their dynamic
interrelationships is important when designing instruction, because the richer the context and the
more embedded the conscious thought processes are in that context, the more meaning that
learners will construct both for the activities and the thought processes (Jonassen: 2000).
Jonassen, David. 2000. Learning: as Activity. University of Missouri : Columbia

The learning activity is any activity carried out in the process of interaction (teacher and
students) in order to achieve learning objectives. Activity is meant here the emphasis is on
students, because the presence of student activities in the learning process will impact the
creation of active learning situation (Sadirman, 2004). Sardiman. , 2004. Interaction of
Teaching and Learning and Motivation. PT King Grafindo Persada: Jakarta.

Behavioral changes in the learning process become the result of interaction with the
environment that took place intentionally. So someone said to learn if any changes, which
originally did not know be aware. Therefore, the success or failure of teachers to teach, is highly
dependent on the teacher understanding of what, why, and how the learning activities that take
place, the teachers know how to teach good and how to create conditions conducive to teaching
and learning.

Organizing a classroom into activity centers is important because such an organization allows the
teacher to responsively instruct and assist small groups of students - the most effective classroom
organization for teaching and learning. Activity centers also facilitate the development of a
classroom community that supports all students learning, with each person working together for
the success of everyone. Therefore, an important outcome of activity centers is the development
of the values necessary for a successful classroom community - fairness, harmony, inclusion, and
academic excellence (Georgia, 2003). Georgia, dkk. 2003. Designing Effective Activity
Centers for Diverse Learners. Callifornia: Center for research on education, diversity
& excellenge.

Activity centers can be located anywhere in the classroom. They can be as simple as creating a
poster, or as sophisticated as a series of technology or science lab activities. Almost any
meaningful activity can provide the foundation for an activity center. Students often work in
small groups or with partners to generate shared products, and at times its also appropriate for
students to work independently on skill-based, review or practice-level tasks (Georgia, 2003).
Georgia, dkk. 2003. Designing Effective Activity Centers for Diverse Learners.
Callifornia: Center for research on education, diversity & excellenge.
There are many kinds of students activities. Those students activities are classified into
8 groups:

1. Visual Activities include activities such as reading, watching (pictures, demonstrations,

experiments and the work of others).
2. Oral Activities, such as: states, formulate, ask questions, give advice, an opinion, conduct
interviews, discussions, and interruptions.
3. Listening Activities, such as: listening to the description, conversational discussion,
music and speech.
4. Writing Activities, such as: writing stories, writing essays, writing reports, questionnaires,
copy, create a summary.
5. Drawing Activities, such as drawing, create graphs, maps, diagrams.
6. Motor Activities, such as: conducting experiments, making the construction, model,
repair, play and breed.
7. Mental Activities, such as responding to, remembering, problem solving, analyzing,
seeing relationships and making decisions.
8. Emotional Activities, such as: interest, boredom, excitement, daring, quiet and nervous.
(Sadirman, 2004). Sardiman. , 2004. Interaction of Teaching and Learning and
Motivation. PT King Grafindo Persada: Jakarta.

2.1.3 Learning Outcomes

A learning outcome makes clear the intended result of the learning rather than what form
the instruction will take. A good learning outcome states what a student will know or be able to
do at the end of instruction. It focuses on student performance. Learning outcomes focus on the
learner. Well-written learning outcomes should give students precise statements of what is
expected of them. Students can use the outcomes to measure and guide their own learning, and
determine how much support to ask for/pursue.
 Learning outcomes also govern other processes that are part of instruction. Outcomes
help in the planning instruction: they help break down the syllabus and the teaching process so
that instructors select meaningful content/materials and activities to aid the meeting of an
outcome; they help facilitate assessment and evaluation; and they (should) align a course with a
program and curriculum, i.e., a set of course-level outcomes should nest within program
outcomes.

Learning outcomes are statements that specify what learners will know or be able to do as a
result of a learning activity. Outcomes are usually expressed as knowledge, skills, or attitudes.
Students learning outcome are organized into three broad categories: Content Knowledge,
Critical Thinking, and Communication (University of Florida, 2011). Brophy, Timothy. 2011.
A guide for writing Student LearninG Outcomes. Florida: University of Florida

Learning outcomes should flow from a needs assessment. The needs assessment should
determine the gap between an existing condition and a desired condition. Learning outcomes are
statements which described a desired condition that is, the knowledge, skills, or attitudes
needed to fulfill the need. They represent the solution to the identified need or issue. Learning
outcomes provide direction in the planning of a learning activity. They help to:

Focus on learners behavior that is to be changed

Serve as guidelines for content, instruction, and evaluation

Identify specifically what should be learned

Convey to learners exactly what is to be accomplished

In the process of construction of learning outcomes, taxonomy should be used. The most
widely taxonomy for the construction of learning outcomes is Blooms taxonomy. Bloom
identified three domains of educational activities: cognitive or mental skill (knowledge),
affective or growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude) and psychomotor or physical skills
(skill). According to Bloom, a learner who is able to perform at higher levels of the taxonomy
also demonstrates a more complex level of cognitive thinking. Blooms classification of
cognitive skills has six hierarchical stages: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation. All these stages can be defined by verbs that describe related
behaviors. Anderson, a former student of Bloom, revisited the cognitive domain in the learning
taxonomy. According to Anderson, the revised Bloom taxonomy has the following categories:
remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating. The Bloom taxonomy
is a very useful tool in the process of construction of a study program learning outcomes (Juan,
2012). Angle, Juan. 2012. Teaching Mathematics Online. USA: IGI Global

Fig2.1. Bloom Taxonomy Revised (Vanderbilt University, 2016)

2.1.4. Critical Thinking Ability

It is widely held that developing critical thinking is one of the goals of science
education. Although there is much valuable work in the area, the field lacks a
coherent and defensible conception of critical thinking. As a result, many efforts to
foster critical thinking in science rest on misconceptions about the nature of critical
thinking. Critical thinking is frequently conceptualized in terms of processes or skills.
Much educational literature refers to cognitive or thinking skills and equates critical
thinking with certain mental processes or procedural moves which can be improved
through practice. This orientation is clearly evident in literature dealing with critical
thinking in science (Sharon, 2002). Bailin, Sharon. 2002. Critical Thinking and
Science Education. Kluwer Academic Publisher. Volume 11 (361-375)

Critical thinking is not one activity; the term refers to a collection of thinking skills
that advance intellectual focus, motivation, and engagement with new ideas. These
thinking skills include the ability to recognize patterns; to solve problems in
practical, creative or scientific ways; to engage in psychological reasoning; and to
adopt different perspectives when evaluating ideas or issues. Teaching students to
think critically in or outside the classroom improves their abilities to observe, infer,
question, decide, develop new ideas, and analyze arguments (Halonen, 2008)
Halonen, Jane. Teaching Critical Thinking in Psychology: A handbook of best
practices. UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well informed, trustful of reason, open
minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making
judgements, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in
seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and
persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry
permit (Tracy, 2000).

Critical thinking is an activity to analyze the idea or ideas towards more specific,
distinguish significantly, select, identify, assess and develop towards a more perfect. This mental
process to analyze ideas and information obtained from observations, experience, common sense
or communication.

Critical thinking is a universal thinking skill that is useful for all professions and
occupations. Critical thinking includes the ability to recognize a problem deeply, find a way that
can be done to solve the problem, collect relevant information, recognizes assumptions and
values that lie behind the confidence, knowledge, and conclusions.

The essential aspects of critical thinking are as follows:

1. Dispositions: Critical thinkers are skeptical, open-minded, value fair-mindedness,

respect evidence and reasoning, respect clarity and precision, look at different points
of view, and will change positions when reason leads them to do so.

2. Criteria: To think critically, must apply criteria. Need to have conditions that must be
met for something to be judged as believable. Although the argument can be made
that each subject area has different criteria, some standards apply to all subjects. "...
an assertion must... be based on relevant, accurate facts; based on credible sources;
 precise; unbiased; free from logical fallacies; logically consistent; and strongly
reasoned".

3. Argument: Is a statement or proposition with supporting evidence. Critical thinking

involves identifying, evaluating, and constructing arguments.

4. Reasoning: The ability to infer a conclusion from one or multiple premises. To do so

requires examining logical relationships among statements or data.

5. Point of View: The way one views the world, which shapes one's construction of
meaning. In a search for understanding, critical thinkers view phenomena from many
different points of view.

6. Procedures for Applying Criteria: Other types of thinking use a general procedure.
Critical thinking makes use of many procedures. These procedures include asking
questions, making judgments, and identifying assumptions.

(Beyer, 1995). Beyer, B. 1995. Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa
Educational Foundation.

There are several indicators of critical thinking ability, as follows:

N
Aspect Indicator Sub-indicator
o
1 Giving simple Focusing the question Identify or formulate questions
explanation Identify or formulate criteria for
consideration of possible answers
Maintaining the condition of
thinking
Analyzing the Identify conclusions
argument Identify sentences question
Identify the sentences is not the
question
Identifying and addressing an
inaccuracy
Looking at the structure of an
N
Aspect Indicator Sub-indicator
o
argument
Create summary
Question and answer Provide an explanation simple
the question Mention example
2 Create the basic Consider whether the Consider expertise
skill source is reliable or Considering the attractiveness of
not the conflict
Consider the suitability of resources
Consider reputation
Consider the use of proper
procedures
Consider the risk to reputation
Ability to give reasons
Habits cautious
Observe and consider Involve bit allegations
the report of Using the short time between the
observation observations and reports
Report the results of observation
Record the results of observation
Use the correct evidence
Use good access
Use of technology
Accounting for the results of
observation
3 Concluding Deducing and Condition logic
consider Deduction Declare interpretation
Induce and consider To suggest a common thing
the results of Suggests conclusions and
induction hypothesis
1. To put forward the
hypothesis
2. Designing experiments
3. Drawing conclusions fit the
facts
4. Drawing conclusions from
the results investigate
Create and determine Create and determine the results of
 N
Aspect Indicator Sub-indicator
o
the outcome of consideration based on the
consideration background facts
Create and define results based on
due consideration
Create and determine the outcome
of consideration by the application
of facts
Create and determine the results of
balance considerations and issues
4 Giving Defining the terms Creating a form definition
advanced and consider a Strategies to Make the definition
explanation definition 1. Acting by providing
Advanced explanation
2. Identifying and addressing
deliberate untruth
Creating a definition contents
Identifying Explanation is not a statement
assumptions Constructs arguments
5 Set the strategy Determine a course of Uncover problems
and tactics action Choose the criteria to consider
possible solutions
Formulate alternative solutions
Determine a temporary measure
Repeat
Viewing application
Interact with others Using arguments
Using the logic strategy
Using rhetorical strategy
Shows the position, speeches, or
writing

Table 2.1. Indicators of Critical Thinking Ability (Ennis, 2011) Ennis, Robert H. 2011 The
Nature of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Ability. USA: University of Ilinois

From all categories that have been described, critical thinking skills that will be examined
more pursed again, because one of the indicators are already representing some of the other
indicators. Based on these considerations indicator of critical thinking that will be studied which
include classifying, hypothesizes, designing an investigation, interpret data, conclude, measure,
observe, evaluate, and analyze.

1. Classify

Classify is a grouping or separating objects or the data or the make something into
a chart taken from observations. Classifying can be done by observing the similarities,
differences, and relating interconnectedness thing. Examples of activities that reflect the
activities of classification is to group Which variety of measuring instruments that can
measure current and voltage.

2. Hypothesizes

Predicting and hypothesis is an activity to make a provisional estimates and could

be tested to determine the truth of reviews these allegations by certain reasons. For
example, students can be hypothesized lights if one of the lights in a series circuit is
disconnected.

3. Designing the investigation

Designing or planning activities needed in experiments that the activities carried

out in a systematic and targeted so as to reduce wastage of time, effort, and cost as well
as the results of experiments incompatible with the expected goals. Examples of the
activities of designing an investigation is to determine the tools and materials in the
experiment Ohm's law, determine the object to be studied, to determine how working and
stringing experimental tools.

4. Interpret data

Interpret data Interpretation of the data is an activity that combines the results of
the analysis with the statement, criteria, or a certain standard to find the meaning of the
data collected to answer the problem. For example, create a table observation experiment
Ohm's law. The form of a table created can facilitate someone in interpreting the data
obtained.
 5. Concluding

Concluding is a skill to interpret the state of an object or event based on facts.

One can appreciate the environment better if he could interpret and explain the events
that occur in the vicinity.

6. Measuring

Measuring is comparing objects at a certain standard materials. For example,

measuring the electrical current to the resistor by using ammeter, measure the voltage
using a voltmeter.

7. Observing

Observing an activity using one or more senses to search for information including the
use of tools. Observing capabilities can be developed in a manner invites students to see,
hear, smell, and feel everything around it. Examples observe Ohm's law experiment is to
observe, observe the lights in series and parallel circuits.

8. Evaluating

Evaluating an activity to make decisions, express their opinions, make an

assessment based on certain criteria. For example, students can work on the problems
after learning materials.

9. Analyzing

Analyzing an activity describes a material (a phenomenon, or teaching materials)

into its elements, then connecting piece with structured and organized manner. For
example outlines the relationship between voltage, resistance, and electric currents in
Ohms Law Topic.

2.2. Learning Material

2.2.1. Electric Current

 Dynamic power relates to the electric charge that moves or electric current. The word
'current' means flow or continuous motion. Electric current is analogous to water flow. The water
flow occurs when there is a height difference or differences in potential energy. Water flows from
high places (high potential energy) to a low (low potential energy). Similarly, an electric current
flows due to differences in electrical potential. Electric potential difference in the electrical
circuit is caused by force Motion Electric (EMF) in the electric current source (eg batteries).

Fig 2.2. The flow of Electric Current

This current flow in a material that is easy to flow of electric current are called
conductors. A material called conductor if in it there are quite a lot of charge (electrons) which
free. Opponent of the conductor is an insulator a material that is difficult to to flow of electric
current due to less or no free electrons.

Metals in general are good conductors because they are easy to have a free electron.
While nonmetal materials in general is an insulator because it is difficult to have a free electron.
The free electrons are electrons that are not bound to the nucleus, or though bound, it is electrons
that are located far from the core so just get a small tensile force. The free electrons then, which
would "flow" in a material (wire) if there is a potential difference between two points on the
wire. The electrons in a wire having a flow potential objects of lower potential (-) to a higher
potential (+) (But the opposite happened battery).

From the explanation above can be concluded that the electric current is the movement of
groups of electrically charged particles in a certain direction. Direction of electric current
flowing in a conductor is of high potential to low potential (the opposite direction to the motion
of electrons).

2.2.2. The magnitude of electric current

 The flow of electricity generated by electric charge moving inside a conductor. As will be
discussed further, the direction of the electric current (I) which arise on the opposite conductor
direction to the direction of motion of electrons. The electrical charge in a certain amount that
penetrate a cross-section of a conductor in unit time is called as a magnitude of electric current.
Thus strong electric current (I) is defined as "the amount of electrical charge that penetrates
conductor cross-section per unit time; or the amount of charge that flows in one second, "so
mathematically be formulated as:

Q
I
t
(2.1)

Where:

I = electric current (Ampere)

Q = electric charge (Coulomb)

t = time (Second)

The unit of the magnitude of electric currents in the International System (SI) is the
Coulomb / sec or Ampere (A). One ampere can be defined as one coulomb of charge that moves
through the cross-sectional area at intervals of one second. The unit of current is less often

10 3
expressed in milliamp and microampere. One milliamp equals to A, and 1 microampere =

10 6
A.

From the definition of magnitude of currents can be understood that the greater the
number of electric charge (electrons) move, the greater the magnitude of current. Likewise, the
greater the cross sectional area of a conductor of the more current flowing electrons. In addition
to its magnitude of influence sectional area of the electric current is determined by other factors
such as the electric potential difference on the conductor and the conductor types.

2.2.3. Voltage
 Electrical circuits can be used for sending signals, storing information, or doing
calculations, but their most common purpose by far is to manipulate energy, as in the battery-
and-bulb. The rate of energy transformation by a battery will not just depend on how many
coulombs per second it pushes through a circuit but also on how much mechanical work it has to
do on each coulomb of charge:

(2.2)

Units of joules per coulomb are abbreviated as volts, 1 V=1 J/C, named after the Italian
physicist Alessandro Volta. Everyone knows that batteries are rated in units of volts, but the
voltage concept is more general than that; it turns out that voltage is a property of every point in
space.

Voltage is always measured across a circuit element as demonstrated in figure

Fig2.3. A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the circuit element, R to measure the voltage
across it.

2.2.4. Resistance

When "flowing" in a wire conductor, electron dealing / setback of the molecules and ions
in a conductor has retained a flow of electrical current experience some degree. How big is stated
by the resistance barriers (barriers) symbolized by R. The unit of resistance in SI is the ohm. The
magnitude of the resistance of a material or a conductor cross-sectional area A and length l and
resistor-type (resistivity) is:
 Fig2.4. A wire with a cross-section area A and length l

l
R
A
(2.3)

Where:

R: Barriers / resistance (ohms)

: Barriers types / Resistivity (ohms. Meter)

l: wire length (m)

A: wire cross-sectional area (m)

Resistivity is properties of the medium. Substances with properties of good conductivity

have a resistivity that is very small, while substances that are insulators instead.

Table 2.2. The data of some of conductivity properties and their resistivity matter

Conductivity Conductivity R
Resistivity
Properties
Good Conductor
10 8 108 102
Cu, Ag, Au
Good Isolator
1012 10161012 1016 1020
Glass, Plastic
Resistance is also a function of temperature (temperature influenced) by the following
formula:

R Ro Ro T To
(2.4)
with:

R = resistance at temperature T

Ro = resistance at temperature To (room temperature)

= temperature coefficient of resistance

How does the change in resistance with temperature curve can be seen as follows:

Fig2.5. The curve of resistance to temperature change for copper

The curve above is the curve of resistance to temperature changes to copper with a

1.7 x10 8
resistance at room temperature of and the temperature coefficient at room

3.9 x10 3 C 1
temperature of .

Resistance (also resistivity) of a material will increase with increasing temperature, in

this case that happened is the increase in temperature makes the electrons move more actively
and more collisions that occur so that the electric current to be blocked. Below is the resistivity
of some materials at room temperature (Around 20C):

Table 2.3. The Data of resistivity and resistance temperature constants for some matters
 Matter m
Aluminum 2.8 x10 8 3.9

Iron 10 x10 8 5.0

Sulfur 1x1015

Glass 1010 1014

Wood 10 8 1014

Rubber 1013 1016

Carbon 3.5 x10 3 0.5

Argent 1.6 x10 8 3.8

Copper 1.7 x10 8 3.9

Lead 22 x10 8 4.3

In the electric circuit component used as resistance is resistor commonly denoted with
zigzag lines.

The value of resistance in a resistor is usually indicated by rings of color contained in the
resistor body. Generally a resistor has 4 rings, although sometimes there are 5 or 6 rings. But
here we use resistor 4 colors. These colors are codes that show certain quantities as shown in the
following table:

Table 2.4. The color code of resistor of 4-band

 With:

Ring-1: The first digit

Ring-2: The second digit

Ring-3: Factor Multiplier

Ring-4: Tolerance

For a resistor with 5 rings, three colors first show number digits and fourth ring indicates
a multiplier, while the fifth digit indicates a tolerance.

2.2.5. Ohms Law

George Simon Ohm (1789-1854) formulated the relationship between electric current (I),
the resistance (R) and the potential difference (V), later known as Ohm's as follows:
 The current flowing in a conductor at a constant temperature is proportional to the voltage, or
potential difference of both ends of the conductor and inversely with the conductive resistance.

Mathematically,

V
I
R
(2.5)

Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance or electrical resistance

measured in ohms (). Graphically, the V-I relationship for a resistor according to Ohm's law is
in Fig. Below:

Fig2.6. V-I relationship for a resistor according to Ohms Law

At any given point in the graph above, the ratio of voltage to current is always constant.

2.2.6. Series and Parallel Circuit

In general, the circuit in an electrical appliance consists of many types of components

that are not stitched simple, but to make it easier to learn the usual types of circuits are usually
grouped in series circuit and parallel circuit. Some resistor assembled for a specific purpose such
as to divide the flow (flow reduce) or divide the voltage.

2.2.6.1. Series Circuit

 Fig2.7. (a) Two light bulbs arranged in series, (b) series circuit

Series circuit has characteristics as follow:

a. The voltage at the ends of equivalent resistance series equal to the amount of voltage
at the ends of each resistor.

Vtotal V1 V2 ... Vn
(2.6)

b. Current through each resistors are same, which are equal to the current through
the series equivalent resistor.

I total I1 I 2 ... I n
(2.7)

c. The equivalent resistance for a series circuit is equal to the amount of each resistance
in the circuit, so that:

Rtotal R1 R2 ... Rn
(2.8)

d. The arrangement series aims to increase the resistance

2.2.6.2. Parallel Circuit

 Parallel circuit is also called the circuit of rows. In a parallel circuit resistor, the current
from the source is divided into separated branches is shown in figure.

Fig2.8. (a) Two light bulbs arranged in parallel, (b) parallel circuit

Installation of electrical appliances in homes and buildings are installed in parallel. If we

disconnect with one tool, the current flowing in the other components are not interrupted. But in
a series circuit, if one component of the current is interrupted, the flow to other components also
stopped.

Parallel arrangement has the following characteristics:

a. Current through the parallel equivalent resistance is equal to the amount current
through each component.

I total I1 I 2 ... I n
(2.9)

b. The voltage at the ends of each same component, which is equal to the voltage at the
ends of the parallel equivalent resistance.

Vtotal V1 V2 ... Vn
(2.10)

c. The resistance equivalent for the parallel circuit are:

 1 1 1 1
...
Rtotal R1 R2 Rn
(2.11)

d. Parallel arrangement aims to reduce resistance the circuit.

With a single source of energy can provide energy to more than one consumer
(incandescent bulb). It can be done by installing two (or more) consecutive incandescent bulbs in
a series circuit or to create branching, which means a parallel circuit. The second type of circuit it
has some different properties. In a series circuit incandescent bulbs will be less bright than
incandescent bulbs in a parallel circuit. Two incandescent bulbs in a series circuit has doubled
barriers and therefore produce less light. In parallel circuits there is only the resistance of the
incandescent bulb in every branch of the circuit and therefore every incandescent bulb has the
same light as an incandescent bulb in a single series. In other words, two parallel incandescent
bulbs will spend more energy to spend energy battery faster than the two incandescent bulbs are
connected in series. Another difference is that the chances of getting interference. If one part
(incandescent bulbs) in a series circuit is damaged, the entire series will be disrupted. If some
incandescent lamps mounted in parallel and one does not work, the lights others are not affected,
because the circuit is not disturbed. Because of the nature of the electric circuits in homes
(ignition, lights, and other energy consumers) mounted in parallel.

2.2.7 Electrical Energy and Power

2.2.7.1 Electrical Energy

When the ends of a conductive wire whose resistance R there is a potential difference V,
then it flows a current of I = V / R. For this drain current, the current source of energy. Most of
this energy turns into heat which causes the wires to heat. This occurs because the electrons in a
wire-free wire atoms in its path. Based on the experiment results J.P. Joule, the amount of heat
that arises is determined by factors:

1. The resistance wire that current passed

2. The amount of current flowing

 3. The time or duration of the current flows

The amount of energy expended by the current source to an electric current is:

W=VIt (2.12)

Where:

V= Voltage (Volt)

I= Electric Current (Ampere)

T= Time (second)

If all the electrical energy turns into heat, then the amount of heat that arises W = 0.24
I R t calories.

Where

1 calorie = 4.2 joules

1 joule = 0.24 calories

2.2.7.2. Electrical Power

Power an electrical appliance is the work done that tool each second. The work done by a
voltage source equal with energy expended the voltage source.

Thus, the electrical power mathematically as follow:

workdone W
Power P
time t
or (2.13)

Based on the understanding that the power of 1300 watts maximum power indicated on
utility bills, shows us that the use of electricity in the house should not be more than 1300 joule
in one second. If more than 1300 joules per second then fuses the barrier will soon open (off)
automatically, so that the flow of electricity into the house will stop.
2.3 Learning Model

According to Cassidy, For some time now educational research exploring the issue of
academic achievement or success has extended rightfully so beyond "simple" issues of
intelligence and prior academic achievement. There are a number of learning related concepts,
such as perception of academic control and achievement motivation which have been a focus of
attention when attempting to identify factors affecting learning related performance. One concept
in particular which has provided some valuable insights into learning in both academic and other
settings is learning style. There is general acceptance that the manner in which individuals
choose to or are inclined to approach a learning situation has an impact on performance and
achievement of learning outcomes (Cassidy, 2004). Cassidy, Simon. 2004. Learning
Styles: An overview of theories, models, and measures. Cartax Publishing.
Volume 24 No. 4

According to Imas Kurniasih, learning model is a systematically procedure in organizing

learning experience to achieve learning goals. Moreover, can be defined as the approach that is
used in learning activity (Imas, 2015). (Kurniasih, Imas. and Berlin Sani. 2015. Model
Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Penerbit Kata Pena

The importance of effective teaching in global, knowledge-based societies cannot be

overstated. In a world that is rich in information and communication technologies, and
characterized by complex social, economic, cultural and political interactions, young people need
high level problem-solving skills and an ability to apply knowledge to new and different
situations. The extent to which students develop these capacities will depend in large part on the
quality of teaching they experience at school. The following models can be used to help teachers
analyze and reect on the impact of their practice and generate ideas for improvement.

1) Action Research

Action research is a strategy for learning more about the teaching and learning process.
Teachers decide what questions are important to examine in order for them to gain
insight into what is happening in their classroom. It involves selecting a focus, collecting,
analyzing and interpreting data and then taking action. The model is based on the belief
 that teachers have the ability to formulate valid questions about their own practice and
pursue objective answers to these questions. Action research assists teachers to become
more reective practitioners and more systematic problem solvers.

2) Examination of Student Work

Collaboratively examining students work enables teachers to understand how students

think, permitting them to develop appropriate learning and teaching strategies and
materials. Teams rst identify a clear focus for their work and what outcomes they
expect. The most fruitful discussions result from using examples of student work that are
varied in nature and quality, for example, written work from several students in relation
to the same assignment that includes students explanations of their thinking. The team
then reects on the implications of what is learned for teaching. The discussions highlight
the ways in which teachers can enhance their teaching based on what they have learned
about student understanding of important concepts.

3) Study Groups

Study groups engage in regular collaborative interactions around topics identied by the
group. This provides opportunities to reect on classroom practice and analyzing student
learning data. Groups can also read and discuss educational research publications in a
collaborative and supportive environment, over an extended period of time. The study
group model can include the entire staff of a school in nding solutions to common
problems. Opportunities are then provided for groups to share their ndings and
recommendations with other staff members.

4) Case Discussions

Case discussions provide teams of teachers with the opportunity to reect on teaching
and learning by examining narrative stories or videotapes depicting school, classroom,
teaching or learning situations or dilemmas. They are usually brief, rough-and-ready
evidence of what students have done, said or written in class. Case discussions promote
 reective dialogue and enhance teachers ability to describe, analyze and evaluate their
teaching.

5) Peer observation

One of the most effective ways to learn is by observing others, or being observed and
receiving specic feedback from that observation. Analyzing and reecting on this
information can be a valuable means of professional growth. The most effective
observations are well planned, focused on specic issues and with follow-up to document
improvements. Peer observation promotes an open environment where public discussion
of teaching is encouraged and supported.

6) Lesson Study

Lesson study helps teachers to prepare lesson plans and develop a deeper understanding
of how students learn specic subject matter. A small group of teachers meets regularly to
plan, design, implement, evaluate and rene lessons for a unit of work. One member of
the team conducts the lesson while other members of the team observe it. In concert with
their observations and reection, the lesson is modied and may be taught again by
another member of the team. The aim of the model is to promote a process whereby
teachers experience gradual and incremental professional growth through the
collaborative development of lessons.

(Department of Education & Training of Victoria of East Melbourne, 2005)

Department of Education and Training of Victoria. 2005. Proffesional Learning in
Effective School. Victoria: McLaren Press

Learning models provide teachers with an organized system for creating an appropriate
learning environment, and planning instructional activities. Learning models affect what the
teacher does, what the student does, the organization of the classroom, the nature of the
procedures, materials, and the instructional tasks.
2.4. The Cooperative Learning Model

Classrooms are very social places but often when teachers think about learning the focus
is on individual learning and the social aspects are often viewed as a distraction and/or a
nuisance. If, however teachers are able to make positive use of this social aspect and the social
arrangement of the classroom then more learning would take place. Cooperative Learning
improves students' communication skills and enhances their ability to be successful in the world
of work and to live in the society.

2.4.1. Definition and Characteristic of Cooperative Learning Model

Cooperative Learning is children learning together in groups, which are structured so that
group members have to cooperate to succeed. Effective cooperative learning is dependent on the
sort of talk, which takes place in the group between students. Talking about a question helps
create meaning and understanding; humans make meaning about things through talk. Studies
have shown that by having to explain answers to problems to a peer that the act of having to
clarify and communicate actually enhances the students understanding. In these conversations it
is the process of discussion that is important not whether the answers are right or wrong.
According to Vygotsky, new knowledge and ideas develop in a context of discussion, and they
appear first out there in the extra mental plane.

During cooperative learning activities, each member of a team is responsible not only for
learning what is taught but also for helping team-mates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of
achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully
understand and complete it. In cooperative learning students will:

1) Gain from each other's efforts.

2) Your success benefits me and my success benefits you.

3) Understand that all group members share in the outcome.

 4) We all sink or swim together.

5) Know that how well you do is the result of both individual and team performance.

6) We cannot do it without you.

7) Feel proud and jointly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement.

8) We all congratulate you on your accomplishment!

The best place to start in trying to use Co-operative Learning effectively is to first
understand the purposes of such a methodology. There are basically four main reasons why
Cooperative Learning is to be recommended:

a. More children actively learning

Co-operative Learning helps to actively engage more children in learning than do teacher
centered or lecture-oriented methodologies. In using the latter, it is usually only possible
to actively engage at most one or two students in active learning at the same time. By
using more cooperative methodologies in which students work together in groups, all
students are actively engaged on a learning task. Students become more active
participants in their own learning, as opposed to passive recipients of knowledge who
only listen, observe and take notes.

b. Children learn to help one another

Co-operative Learning encourages students to support their classmates in a group rather

than to compete against one another. In this way, students can combine their talents and
help one another.

c. Child-to-child learning support

Co-operative Learning provides the opportunity for higher-achieving students to help

students who are slower learners. These higher achieving students can probably
 communicate more easily with their peers than can the teacher. The help of these students
also increases the amount of explanation that occurs in the classroom overall.

d. Improved motivation through success

Co-operative Learning helps to improve the motivation of many students by offering the
opportunity to more students to experience the joy of winning (in the case of cooperative
activities that require games) and academic success. In classrooms where students are
only allowed to compete individually, only the few high achieving students will likely
have this experience. In classrooms where the students are divided into cooperative
teams, each with its high- and low-achieving students, the opportunity to succeed is more
evenly distributed.

(USAID, 2009) USAID. 2009. Cooperative Learning: Theory & Practice. Boston:
World, Education, INC

2.5. Cooperative Learning Model type Numbered Heads Together (NHT)

The use of cooperative learning has been done and also has many innovations made and
the results showed that students who get cooperative learning ability and achievement are
relatively better. It is caused by the teachers allowed students to dare to think to solve a problem
and producing them. Basically the goal of cooperative learning is to train students to be able to
think and work in groups, discussing to solve a problem and then is responsible to report the
answer to the other group members. The type cooperative learning which covers all things that
have been mentioned above is the type cooperative learning Numbered Head Together. Four
points contained in the type of learning Numbered Head Together namely 1) The numbering
(Numbering); 2) Submission of questions (Questioning); 3) Think with (Head together), and the
provision of answers (Answering) (Ferry, 2010). Pietersz, Ferry. 2010. Pengaruh
Penggunaan Pembelajaran Kooperatif Tipe Numbered Head Together
Terhadap Pencapaian Matematika Siswa di SMP Negeri 1 Cisarua. Prosiding
Seminar Nasional Fisika. ISBN: 978-979-98010-6-7

2.5.1. Definition and Characteristic of Numbered Heads Together (NHT)

 Numbered Heads Together is an approach developed by Spencer Kagan (1993) to involve
more students in the review of materials covered in a lesson and to check their understanding of
a lessons content. According to Munawaroh, Numbered Heads Together (NHT) learning model
is part of a structural model of cooperative learning, which emphasizes the special structures that
are designed to influence the pattern of student interaction.

The steps on learning model NHT teacher divides the class into small groups.
Each person in the group are numbered. Once the group is formed teachers ask
some questions to be answered by each group. After that, given the opportunity for
each group to find the response. The next step is that the teacher calls on students
who have the same number of each group. They are given the opportunity to
provide answers to questions that have been received from the teacher. The work is
ongoing until all students with the same number of each group gets a turn to
exposes answer has been received from the teacher (Munawaroh, 2015).
Munawaroh. 2015. The Comparative Study Between The Cooperative Learning
Model of Numbered Heads Together (NHT) and Student Team Achievement Division
(STAD) to The Learning Achievement in Social Subject. IOSR Journal, Volume 5, No 1. e-ISSN:
2320-7388

This model has a characteristic where the teacher only appoint one student to represent
the group without telling in advance who will represent the group. So this way ensures the total
engagement of all students. In this way a very good effort to ensure individual responsibility in
group discussions. There are several techniques when using cooperative learning model type
NHT as follow:

a. Students are divided into group, every students of every groups get the number.

b. The assignment is given to each student based on the number of the sequential task. For
example: students in charge of recording the number one problem. Students work on the
problems and the number two number three students report the results of the work and so
on

c. If necessary, the teacher can tell cooperation between groups. Students were told to get
out of the group and joined with students of the same number of other groups. In this
occasion students with the same tasks can help each other and match the results of their
cooperation
 d. Report the results and feedback from the other groups

(Imas, 2015) Kurniasih, Imas. and Berlin Sani. 2015. Model Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Penerbit
Kata Pena

2.5.2. Numbered Heads Together Goals

NHT learning strategy promotes the cooperation between students in groups to

achieve learning objectives. The students are divided into small groups and directed
to study the learning material that has been assigned. The purpose of the grouping
is to provide opportunities for students to be actively involved in the thinking
process and the learning activities. In this case, most of the learning activities are
centralized on students, that is studying the subject matter as well as discussing
and solving problems. NHT learning strategy is one type of cooperative learning that
emphasizes on the special structure designed to influence the pattern of students
interaction, and its goal is to improve the academic mastery, so that it can develop
and increase students retention (Aloysius, 2016). Duran, Aloysius. 2016. The Effect
of Numbered Heads Together (NHT) Learning Strategy on The Retention of Senior
High School Students in Muara Badak East Kalimantan, Indonesia. European Journal
of Education Study. Volume 2 N0.5. ISSN: 2501-1111

Number Head Together of cooperative learning model has been developed to achieve at
least three important instructional objectives such as academic achievement, improved race
relation, and cooperative problem solving skills.

1) Academic achievement is improving student performance on important academic tasks.

The belief is that the model cooperative incentive structure raises the value placed on
academic learning and change the norm associated with achievement. In addition, to
change norm associated with achievement, cooperative learning can benefit low
achieving and high achieving students who work on academic material together. High
achievers tutor low achievers. In the process, high achievers gain academically because
serving as a tutor requires thinking deeply about the relationship and the meaning of
particular subject.
 2) Improve race relation is the students have wider tolerance and acceptance of people who
are different by virtue of the race, culture, social class and ability.

3) Cooperative problem and solving skills is that the students learn skills of cooperation and
collaboration. These are important skills in a society where much adult work is carried
out in large, independent organization and where communities become more global in
their orientation.

2.5.3. Numbered Heads Together Syntax

Table 2.5. The Syntax of Numbered Heads Together (NHT)

Phase Teacher and Student Activity

Phase 1 The teacher divides the students into groups of 4-
Numbering 5 people and each member of the group is given a
number between 1-5.
Phase 2 The teacher asks a question to the learners.
Asking Question Questions can vary. Questions can be specific and
in a question form.
Phase 3 Learners unify its opinion on the answers to
Thinking Together questions and convince each member of the team
knows that answer.
Phase 4 Teachers call a specific number, then the
Answering appropriate number of learners who raised the
hand and try to answer the question for the whole
class.
2.5.4. The Advantages of NHT

There are several advantages for using NHT learning model, as follow:

1. Can improve student achievement

2. Able to deepen students' understanding

3. Train the student's responsibility

4. Fun for students to learn

 5. Develop curiosity of students

6. Boost the confidence of students

7. Develop a sense of belonging and cooperation

8. Each student is motivated to master the material

9. Eliminating the gap between smart by not clever

10. Created an atmosphere of joy in learning. Thus although currently occupy the last
hour lesson, students remain enthusiastic about learning

2.5.5. Numbered Heads Together toward Students Critical Thinking Ability

Application of critical thinking in learning should be supported by active learning. Active

learning is to make every student active in learning. some learning model can be used for active
learning, as Numbered Heads Together (NHT). Step NHT learning where each student in the
group given a number, and then the teacher asking questions and a time limit to answer.
Furthermore, students express their own opinion in the group and start a discussion. Recently, the
teacher said student numbers, to answer questions represent the opinion of the group. NHT
allows students to be active in learning and improving the process of thinking (Widya, 2016).
Wati, Widya and Rini Fatimah. 2016. Effect Size Cooperative Learning Model
Numbered Heads Together (NHT) Type Towards Critical Thinking Skills
Student At Physics Learning. Jurnal Imiah Pendidikan Fisika 'Al-Biruni'. Volume
5, no. 2. ISSN: 2503-1832

Classroom learning requires the active participation of all students, both less capable
students and students whose abilities well. The active participation of students in learning can
build a better thought process. To that end, the cooperative learning model NHT which is one of
active learning that can be used to enhance students' critical thinking process.
2.6. Conceptual Framework

The problems that occurred at the high school in physics is the study is still in progress in
one direction, the teacher is still dominated learning, students become passive and did not
understand the concept well, although the method of discussion actually not all individuals learn
in earnest, many of which are still indifferent to material, only a few students are active, so that
the average value is low grade. This indicates the critical thinking ability of students is still low.
To overcome these problems, there should be some measures including changes in teaching
methods from passive to active learning.

Active learning is learning that seeks to make students contribute actively to obtain
information or understanding of learning materials. It is intended that students can develop
student thinking ability when learning takes place. Thus, students can use the thinking ability
since the students gain an understanding of the learning materials provided.

Cooperative learning Numbered Heads Together requires each individual active and
responsible for the problems in group discussions, because at the end of their study of the
designated number at random to present the results of the discussion. Learning Numbered Heads
Together is designed to engage students actively in the learning process. Students are trained to
discuss in groups, and try to resolve the problem are available in Student Worksheet. In this
method, students are required to acquire the own understanding without the involvement of
teachers is too dominant. In this method of student learning activities is a major requirement for
students to gain an understanding of the learning material, especially in the critical thinking
ability of students. Thus, learning Numbered Heads Together will train students to be active and
responsibility for the material, students discuss resolve the problem so as to improve students'
critical thinking ability.

Some indicators of students' critical thinking skills that classifying, hypothesizes,

designing an investigation, interpret data, make inferences, evaluate, and analyze. These
indicators will be clearly visible when learning Numbered Heads Together is applied. It will
especially noticeable when students are faced with complex problems and are associated with the
material they get.
 Cooperative learning model Numbered Heads Together suitable when applied to the
subject matter physics dynamic electricity. This is due to several reasons, among others, the
availability of tools practicum dynamic power is adequate, the subject matter that can train
students to think critically and facilitate the learning process. So it is more suitable when applied
to the material.

Thus through worksheets that contain designed such problems include indicators of
critical thinking we can see the students' critical thinking skills. Each individual will learn to
earnestly although discussions were conducted in a group, because at NHT learning students
were assigned at random to communicate the answers in the classroom so the learning process
every student has the same responsibility.

The implementation of cooperative learning Numbered Heads Together is supported with

lesson plans, worksheet, and observation sheet that have been adapted to the learning model.
Critical thinking ability of students can be observed through a written test at the end of each
cycle. In addition, critical thinking ability is also assessed through the worksheet and observation
sheet when learning takes place.

2.7. Hypothesis

Hypothesis is the interim answer for the research problem until it is proved through the
collecting data. The hypothesis research that:

Ho
: There is no difference of students critical thinking between using cooperative learning
model type Numbered Heads Together (NHT) with conventional learning in Dynamic Electricity
Topic at grade X SMA Asy-Syafiiyah International.

Ha
: There is difference of students critical thinking between using cooperative learning model
type Numbered Heads Together (NHT) with conventional learning in Dynamic Electricity Topic
at grade X SMA Asy-Syafiiyah International