(Power Plant Engineering)

.. 2554




(Power Plant Engineering)

-

-
(E-book)

2552

e-mail: somchart@engr.tu.ac.th
2554


1 1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 9
2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 31
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41


3.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4 49
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.7.1 . . . . . . . . 69
4.7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5 89
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116


6 121
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

7 151
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

8 185
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185


8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

9 203
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
9.2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

10 237
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.3.3 . . . . . . . . 256
10.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260


11 267
11.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
11.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . 277
11.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
11.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

12 287
12.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
12.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
12.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
12.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
12.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
12.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
12.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
12.8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.8.5 RBMK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
12.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

 1

1.1

-

1.1 .. 2548

(power generation system)

(power transmission system)

2

1.1: .. 2548

(MW.h/)
12.80
10.91
7.61
7.46
5.84
5.29
3.11
2.30
1.83
1.71
1.14
0.56
0.34
0.20
0.13

(substation)

-

69 kW 115 kW 230 kW 500 kW

(power distribution system)

1.2 3

11 kW 12 kW 22 kW 24 kW 33 kW

380/220 V

3 (1) (.) -

(2) (.)
. -
(3) (.)
.
.
.

1.2

(thermal power plant)

(gas turbine power plant)

-


4

(combined-cycle power plant) -

-

(nuclear power plant)

(hydroelectric power plant)

(diesel power plant)

(renewable energy)

1.3

MW MW 1.2
.. 2547


1.3 5

1.2: .. 2547

(MW) (%)
11305 43.6
8032 31.0
3476 13.4
861 3.3
2233 8.7

(1) . (2)
(independent power producer) IPP (3)
(small power producer) SPP

.

.
IPP SPP

IPP .
. IPP
(1)
(2) . (3) .
(4)

SPP
. 90 MW
SPP


(cogeneration)
-
6

10%
45%

1.3 -
.. 2551 IPP

1.3: .. 2551

(MW) (%)
. 15794 55
11452 38
2070 8
() 640 2

1.4








-

-

1.4 7

(environmetal impact assessment EIA) -
(.)
EIA

1. 100 MW

2. 150 MW

3. 3000 MW

4.

-
-


EIA .
EIA

EIA

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9. (IPP)
(SPP)

10.
EIA
 2

2.1

(discount rate)
(future value)
(present value)

PV = fP V F V (2.1)

P V , F V n

fP V = (1 +1 i)n (2.2)

(present worth factor) i

fP V

1
3 1.1

10

P V = 1000000 F V = 1100000
PV
fP V =
FV
= 0:909
= (1 +1 i) 3

i = 0:0323

(series
payment) (2.1) (2.2)

-
500000 600000
5% 700000
4.5%

P V = P V0 + P V1 + P V2
P V0 = 500000
P V1 =
600000
(1 + 0:05)
= 471729
PV =
700000
2
(1 + 0:045) 2

= 641011
=) P V = 1612740

n

2.1 11

F Vk
k

F Vk+1 = (1 + r)F Vk

100
r (r > 0) (r < 0)

 
FV
PV = 1 1 1 + r n  (2.3)
i r 1+i
r = i (2.3) P V

PV = nF
1+i
V 1
(2.4)

1000000
5%
5 7%

F V1 = 1000000 , r = 0.05 i = 0.07
"  #
= 0:1000000 1:05  5

PV
07 0:05 1 1:07
= 4501444

-

(optimization process)
-
(levelized value)
12

(annual value)

n
(fP V 1 ; fP V 2 ; :::; fP V n )
(2.2) (P V1 ;
P V2; :::; P Vn) (2.1) AV

AV = fP V ++ fP V ++





++ Pf Vn
1 2
(2.5)
PV 1 PV 2 PV n

50 /GJ
2-5 5%
5 4.5%

(2.1)

FV fP V i P Vi
1 50.00 0.9569 47.85
2 52.50 0.9157 48.07
3 55.13 0.8763 48.31
4 57.88 0.8386 48.54
5 60.78 0.8025 48.78

P Vi fP V i (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) (2.5)

AV
47:85 + 48:07 + 48:31 + 48:54 + 48:78
= 0:9569 + 0:9157 + 0:8763 + 0:8386 + 0:8025
= 55:02 /GJ
2.2 13

(net present value)
(internal rate of return)

1500
150
20 8%

1500
(P Vout ) 1500 20
(P Vin ) (2.3) r = 0
"  #
P Vin =
150 1 1 + 0 20

i 0 1+i
i P Vin = P Vout = 1500
"  #
1 1 1  = 10
20

i 1+i
=) i = 0:078
i = 0.08 1500

2.2

14

(load curve)
2.1

2.1
(load)
2.1 (load curve)
1 1
1

2.1: 12

2.2 15

(peak load)
(load factor)
2.2


-


(blackout)


15-20% -

2.2:

2.1 93 MW 7

2.1

.. 2540-2550 -

16

2.1: ..
2540-2550

.. (MW) (MW)
2540 14506.3 16966.9
2541 14179.9 17921.0
2542 15232.9 19109.4
2543 15912.1 22741.7
2544 16126.4 22004.8
2545 16681.1 23754.8
2546 18212.4 25647.0
2547 19325.8 25969.0
2548 20537.5 25810.2
2549 21064.0 27107.2
2550 22586.1 28530.3

kW
kW.h 1 (average load)
(Pave ) (Pmax )
(LF)

LF = PPave (2.6)
max

2.1

2.1
2.1
(rat-
ed capacity)
2.2 17

(capacity factor)

CF = PPave (2.7)
rated

Pave (2.7)
Prated
Pmax (2.6)

Pave (2.6)
(2.7)

CF = LF:P
P
max
(2.8)
rated

(h) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24

(MW) 30 70 90 60 100 80 60

.
.
100 MW
.
70 MW 70 MW
24 30 MW
70 MW

2.3

Pave =
30  6 + 70  4 + 90  2 + 60  4 + 100  4 + 80  2 + 60  2
24
= 65 MW
LF =
65 = 0:65
100
18

2.3:

CF =
LF Pave
=
Prated Pmax = 100 MW

2.3

Pave;1 =
30  6 + 70  6 + 60  4 + 70  6 + 60  2
24
= 57:5 MW
CF1 = 5770:5 = 0:82
70 MW
24 h

Pave;2 =
20  2 + 30  4 + 10  2
24
= 7:5 MW
CF2 = 730:5 = 0:25
2.3 19

2.3

(variable cost)
(xed cost)

-

2.4

2.4:

(fuel cost)
(operation and maintenance cost) (construction cost)

2.3.1

20

( f ) (Cf )
(E ) E kJ f
(kW.h) f

f = 3600E Cf (2.9)

E = :Q (2.10)

Q
(HHV) kJ/kg (mf )
/kg

Q = mf :HHV (2.11)

(Ff )

Cf = mf :Ff (2.12)

E Cf (2.9)

f
3600Ff
= :HHV (2.13)

4 -
1000, 1500, 1300 1100
4 20, 22, 18
15 MJ/kg

(2.12)
f Ff =HHV Ff =HHV
2.3 21

Ff (/kg) HHV (MJ/kg) Ff =HHV (/MJ)

1.0 20 0.050
1.5 22 0.068
1.3 18 0.072
1.1 15 0.073

800 MW 38%
82% 20000 kJ/kg
0.5

Ff (2.13)

Ff = f ::HHV
3600
= 0 :5  0:38  20000
3600
= 1:06 /kg

2.3.2

22

Com
om = (2.14)
E
Com E
8760

E = 8760Pave (2.15)

Pave (2.7)
(2.14)

Com
om = (2.16)
8760:CF:Prated

600 MW 500
35%

om =
500  10 6

8760  0:35  600  10 3

= 0:27 /kW.h

2.3.3

(depreciation)

2.3 23

30-
40
(salvage value)
(A) (G)
(D )
N

(staight-line method)

A G
D= (2.17)
N

(sinking-fund method)

D=
(A G)i (2.18)
(1 + i)N 1
i

-
(xed-charge rate)
C
I
IC
= (2.19)
8760:CF:Prated

C = F Prated (2.20)
24

F F

65
15
5%
5

A = 65 G = 5 N = 15

D=
65 5
15
= 4

150 MW
20000 /kW
10%
120 MW 50%

20000 150 10
  3 = 3000 I = 0.1
(2.8)

CF = 0:5150
 120
= 0:4

=
0:1  3000  10 6

8760  0:4  150  10 3

= 0:57 /kW.h
2.3 25

2.3.4

2.5
1 -
1
2
2
3
3
1
() 2
()
3 (
)

2.5:

2.1 % -
(load dis-
tribution curve) 2.6
(base load)
(intermediate load)
(peak load)
2.6 -
-
26

2.6:

1 2.5
1
2
3 -
1, 2 3

2.3 27

2.3.5

(http://www.mea.or.th) (http://www.pea.or.th)

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (
) (6) (7)

(energy charge)
(kW.h) (demand charge)
15
28

(supply and demand)

(peak period)
(o-peak period)
9.00-22.00 .

(time of use TOU)



2.3 29

1. 3

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. TOU

9. 50 /GJ
5% 2 5 5%
5

10. 6000
500
30 (internal return rate)

11. 800 MW
(peak load) 750 MW
8760 5
(capacity factor)

12. 42% 22000

kJ/kg 1500

13. 0.31
700 MW 8600
45% -

30

14. 800 20

4%
(salvage value) 60
(sinking-fund method)

15. 450 MW 18000 /kW

24 365
9% -
37%
 3

3.1

(coal)

(biomass)

3.1.1

4
(Anthracite) (Bituminous)
(Sub-bituminous) (Lignite)

32

-

(proximate analysis)
(ultimate analysis)
4
(moisture) (volatile matter) (ash)
(free carbon) 3.1

(mi )
(mM )

(coke) (mV M )
mA
(mF C )


mF C
xF C =
mi
; xV M = mmV M ; xM = mmM ; xA = mmA (3.1)
i i i

3.1:
3.1 33

50%
(bound water)
(free water)

(uniform burning)
(tempering process)
3.1
954 C
CH4
CO2

-

(spontaneous com-
bustion)
-


-
Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , CaO, P2 O5

(ash fusion temperature)
(slag)

34

3.1 4

3.1:

(%) (%) (%) (%)

4.3 9.6 5.1 81.0
8.5 10.8 36.4 44.3
22.2 4.3 33.2 40.3
36.8 5.9 27.8 29.5

(C) (H)
(O) (N) (S)


(dry ash-free coal)

m = mF C + mV M (3.2)

5
mC m m
xC =
m
; xH = H ; xO = O ; xN
m m
= mmN ; xS = mmS (3.3)

5 1
(3.1)
mi (as-received coal)
mi m

mi m = mM + mA (3.4)

m = mi (1 xM xA ) (3.5)
3.1 35

C, H, O, N, S (3.3)
(3.1) C, H, O, N, S

xC;ar = xC (1 xM xA ) (3.6)

mC
xC;ar = (3.7)
mi
xH;ar , xO;ar , xN;ar xS;ar

C 39.58%, H
2.57%, O 9.70%, N 0.67%, S 0.49%, 33.54% 13.46%
C, H, O, N, S

xH;ar , xO;ar , xN;ar xS;ar (3.6)

xC;ar
xC =
(1 xM xA )
= (1 0:3958
0:3354 0:1346)
= 0:7468
xH = 0.0485, xO = 0.1830, xN = 0.0126 xS = 0.0092

36

(calorimeter)

-

-
(grindability)

(Hardgrove machine)
(Hardgrove index)

-
(abrasivity)
(carbon steel)

3.1 37

(swelling index)

(stationary grate)
-
800 C
1 9

0

3.1.2

3.2
()
-

38

3.2:

(%) (%) (%) (%) (kJ/kg)
12.00 12.65 56.46 18.88 14,755
10.00 10.39 60.70 18.90 13,650
50.73 1.43 41.98 5.86 9,243
40.00 0.90 45.42 13.68 11,298
59.40 1.50 31.00 8.10 7,451

3.2

C 84-89%, H
12-14%, O 2-3% N 0-1% S 0-3%

(fractional distillation process)

(liquidied petro-
leum gas LPG) (gasoline) (kerosene)
(diesel) (fuel oil)

3.2.1

40705 45520 kJ/kg
1, 2, 4, 5 6 ( 3
)



3.2 39

3.2.2

80%
20%
(emul-
sied diesel)

3.2.3

(specic gravity)

15.6 C
s=
15.6 C
40

API (American
Petroleum Institute) API s API

s=
141:5
131:5 + API

(viscosity)

ASTM Standard D445
(centistoke)
(viscometer)

(pour point)

(ash point)



4-5 C

3.3 41

6 1% 3-4%
2%
SO3

-


(steam coil)

(1)
(2) (3)

3.3

-


(natural gas)
(synthetic gas) (biogas)

3.3.1

-
(CH4 )
CO2
42

(H2 S)
-
-

CO2

-

-

(methyl alco-
hol)

(ethyl
alcohol)

(propylene) -
(polypro-
pylene)

(liqueed petroleum gas LPG)

LPG -

LPG

(natural gasoline NGL)

5
NGL
NGL
3.3 43

100%


(ideal gas)
Mi
yi =
M
= VVi
Mi Vi i M
V

MBtu (1 Btu = 1.055 kJ)


-

3.3.2

(coal gasication) (coke-
oven gas) (producer gas) (water gas)
(synthetic natural gas SNG)
(coke)

+ ! + +
H2 CH4
(exothermic)

+ ! CO + N +
2
44

CO N2 CO

CO H2 -
(endothermic)

+ + ! CO + H 2

SNG N2
CO

CO + H O ! CO + H
2 2 2

SNG SNG
H2 CO CH4

CO + 3H ! CH + H O
2 4 2

(catalyst)

(blast-furnace gas) CO2
(sewer gas) CH4

3.3.3
(biogas)
(anaerobic digestion) -

5 C, H, O, N S
Ca Hb O Ne Se

 
Ca Hb O Nd Se + a
b 3
d e
+ 4 +2 HO !

4 2  
2


a b 3d e a b 3d e
2 + 8 2 8 4 CH + 2 8 + 4 + 8 + 4 CO
4 2
3.4 45

+ dNH + eH S
3 2

CO2 , NH3 H2 S
-



BOD (biochemical oxygen demand)
COD (chemical oxygen demand) BOD
80% COD BOD COD

3.4

7



-
(proven reserve) (probable reserve)
(possible reserve) -
3.3
(
)

3.4
20
46

3.3:

()
P1 P1+P2 P1+P2+P3 P1 P1+P2 P1+P2+P3
176 377 430 4 8 9
()
LPG 265 587 728 9 20 25
()
11198 22874 29717 12 25 32
(
)
2063 2063 2063 115 115 115
()

P1
P2
P3

3.4: .. 2549 2529

.. 2549 .. 2529
5.6% 21.8%
5.5% 13.1%
17.2% 21.8%
66.5% 40.3%
5.2% 3.0%

70%




3.4 47

-
-
-

48

1. -

2. 4

3.

4.

5.

6. (coke)

7. (ultimate analysis)

8.

9.

10. (water gas)

11. (biogas)

12.

13.

14. -

15. (proximate analysis)

15% 5%
(dry, ash-free basis) (ultimate analysis) H
3% H (as-received
coal)
 4

4.1

(ue gas)

3
-

C+ O ! CO
2 2 (4.1)

H2 + 12 O ! H O
2 2 (4.2)

S + O ! SO
2 2 (4.3)

(CH4 )

CH4 + 2O ! CO + 2H O
2 2 2 (4.4)

(4.1)-(4.4)
(react-
ant) (product)
50

(ignition temperature)

O2
N2 , O2 ,
Ar CO2 28.0134, 31.9988, 39.9480 44.0095
4.1
28.97
(theoretical air) N2 79%
O2 21% 28.84 4.76
N2 3.76 O2 1 N2 O2
0.767 0.233

4.1:

(%)

N2 78.084 79
O2 20.946 21
Ar 0.934 0
CO2 0.036 0

(complete combustion)
(stoichiometric combustion)
C, H, S CO
(incom-
plete combustion) O2
O2
(stoichiometric air) (the-
oretical air)
H2 O, CO2 N2 O2
(Cm Hn )
4.2 51

C m Hn + (m + n4 )(O + 3:76N ) ! mCO + n2 H O + 3:76(m + n4 )N

2 2 2 2 2 (4.5)

-
CO CO

CO + 21 (O + 3:76N ) ! CO + 1:88N
2 2 2 2 (4.6)

CO

CO
4
(1) (2)
(3) (4)

(excess air)

4.2

-

(theoretical air-fuel ratio) AF RT

AF RT kgair /kgfuel molair /molfuel

= 28:84  M (4.7)
fuel

28.84 Mfuel

52

C, H S
(4.1)-(4.3) O N
Ca Hb S Od Ne
C

 
b d
Ca Hb S Od Ne + a+
4 + 2 (O + 3:76N ) !
2 2

   
b b d e
aCO2 + H2 O + SO2 + 3:76 a + 4 + 2 + 2 N (4.8)
2 2

(4.8)
 
b d
AF RT = 4:76 a+
4 + 2 molair =molfuel (4.9)

4.2 AF RT (4.9)
N, O2 CO2 AF RT

4.2: AF RT

AF RT (molair /molfuel )
C 4.76
H 1.19
S 4.76
CH4 9.52
C2 H6 16.66
C3 H8 23.8
CO 2.38

AF RT
k
y1 , y2 , ..., yk AF RT AF RT;1 ,
AF RT;2 , ..., AF RT;k AF RT
AF RT = y AF RT; + y AF RT; + ::: + yk AF RT;k
1 1 2 2 (4.10)
4.2 53

AF RT C3 H8 40% C4 H10
60%

C3 H8 1 C4 H10 2
y1 = 0.4, y2 = 0.6, AF RT;1 = 23.8, AF RT;2 = 30.94

AF RT = 0:4  23:8 + 0:6  30:94

= 28:1 molair =molfuel

AF RT CH4 70%,
C2 H6 10%, C3 H8 10% CO2 10%

CH4 , C2 H6 , C3 H8 CO2 1, 2, 3 4

y1 = 0.7, y2 = 0.1, y3 = 0.1, y4 = 0.1, AF RT;1 = 9.52, AF RT;2
= 16.66, AF RT;3 = 23.8, AF RT;4 = 0

AF RT = 0:7  9:52 + 0:1  16:66 + 0:1  23:8 + 0:1  0

= 10:7 molair =molfuel

AF RT
(4.9) (4.7)
 
AF RT =
28 :84  4:76 b
a+ +
d
kgair =kgfuel (4.11)
Mfuel 4 2
Ca Hb S Od Ne

Mfuel = 12a + b + 32 + 16d + 14e (4.12)

C, H, S O

xC =
12a (4.13)
Mfuel
54

b
xH = (4.14)
Mfuel
xS =
32 (4.15)
Mfuel
xO =
16d (4.16)
Mfuel
xC , xH , xS xO a, b, d (4.11)

AF RT = 11:44xC + 34:32xH + 4:29xS 4:29xO kgair =kgfuel (4.17)

xM
xA

AF RT = (11:44xC + 34:32xH + 4:29xS 4:29xO )(1 xM xA ) (4.18)

xC , xH , xS xO
(3.6) (4.18)

AF RT = 11:44xC;ar + 34:32xH;ar + 4:29xS;ar 4:29xO;ar (4.19)

xC;ar , xH:ar , xS;ar xO;ar

4%
5%
C 83.1%, H 5.5%, O 7.4%, N 2.1% S 1.9% AF RT

(4.18) AF RT
AF RT = (11:44  0:831 + 34:32  0:055 + 4:29  0:019 4:29  0:074)
 (1 0:04 0:05)
= 10:2 kgair =kgfuel
4.3 55

4.3


(formation enthalpy)

(adiabatic ame temperature)

(heating value)
1 kg
1 m3 (bomb calorimeter)

(higher heating value)
(lower heating value)

4.3
C S

4.3: C H S

HHV (kJ/kg)
C C + O2 ! CO2 33700
H H + 0.25O2 ! 0.5H2 O 144200
S S + O2 ! SO2 9300

4.3 H
1 kg O 8 kg
56

 xO 
HHV = 33700xC + 144200 xH
8 + 9300xS (4.20)

(Dulongs formula) (4.20)

 xO 
HHV = (33700xC + 144200 xH
8 + 9300xS )(1 xM xA ) (4.21)

 xO;ar 
HHV = 33700xC;ar + 144200 xH;ar
8 + 9300xS;ar (4.22)

4.3 C S
H 9 kg 1 kg H


9

25 C 2442 kJ/kg

LHV = HHV 2442(9xH;ar + xM ) (4.23)

Cm Hn Cm Hn , CO
H2
4.4
k y1 ,
y2 , :::, yk HHV1 , HHV2 , :::,
HHVk

HHV = y HHV + y HHV + ::: + yk HHVk

1 1 2 2 (4.24)
4.3 57

4.4:

HHV (kJ/m3 ) HHV (kJ/kg)

CH4 CH4 + 2O2 ! CO2 + 2H2 O 39700 55600
C2 H6 C2 H6 + 2 O2 ! 2CO2 + 3H2 O
7
69600 52000
C3 H8 C3 H8 + 5O2 ! 3CO2 + 4H2 O 99100 50500
H2 H2 + 2 O2 ! H2 O
1
12700 142200
CO CO + 2 O2 ! CO2
1
12600 10100

k x1 , x2 ,
:::, xk HHV1, HHV2, :::, HHVk

HHV = x HHV + x HHV + ::: + xk HHVk

1 1 2 2 (4.25)

4.4
CO Vi
i 1 m3
1 m3 k

V = y V + y V + ::: + yk Vk
1 1 2 2 (4.26)

25 C 1962 kJ/m3

LHV = HHV 1962V (4.27)

(4.20) xM = 0

C 70%, H 5%, O 4%, S 1%,

10% 10%

58

4 100%

xC;ar = 0.70, xH;ar = 0.05, xO;ar = 0.04, xS;ar =

0.01, xM = 0.10 xA = 0.10 (4.22)

HHV = 33700(0:7) + 144200(0:05 0:04=8) + 9300(0:01)

= 30172 kJ=kg
(4.23)

LHV = 30172 2440(9  0:05 + 0:1)

= 28828 kJ=kg

CH4 80%, H2 15% CO 5%

(4.24) 4.4

HHV = 39700(0:8) + 12700(0:15) + 12600(0:05)

= 34295 kJ=m 3

1 m3 (4.26)
4.4

V = 2  0:8 + 1  0:15
= 1:75 m 3

(4.27)

LHV = 34295 1960  1:75

= 30865 kJ=m 3
4.4 59

4.4

2

-


(Orsat apparatus)
CO2 , CO
O2 (CO2 , CO, O2
N2 ) N2

yN2 = 1 yCO2 yCO yO2 (4.28)

(AF RA )

4.4.1

AF RA
AF RA

AF RA =
!
1
= 0:767 N2

!
1 N N
= 0:767 2 2

!
1
= 0:767 28( N )
2
xN;ar (4.29)

xN N C CO
CO2 x b C 1 kg
60

CO CO2
x b =

= 12( )(yCO + yCO )

2

=) = 12(yCO + yCO )(
x
2 )
(4.30)
b

x b C
(4.30) (4.29)
 
AF RA =
1 28x byN 2
xN;ar (4.31)
0:767 12(yCO + yCO ) 2

x b

x b

(xA )
(refuse)
(x r ) x b

=1 x r


= xA


= 1 xAx
r
! !

= 

x r xA
= 1 x r

x b =


=

4.4 61

x r xA
x b = xC;ar (4.32)
1 x r
C 36%, H
3%, O 8%, S 0.64%, N 0.84%, 36% 15.52%
CO2 18.57%, O2 5.84%,
SO2 0.13% CO 0.66% 7.18%

yN2 = 1 yCO2 yO2 ySO2 yCO

= 0:748
x b = 0:36
0:0718  0:1552
1 0:0718
= 0:348  
AF RA =
1 28  0:348  0:748 0:0084
0:767 12(0:0066 + 0:1857)
= 4:11 kgair =kgfuel

4.4.2

Ca Hb S Od
(4.8)
 
b d
Ca Hb S Od + a+
4 + 2  (O + 3:76N ) !
2 2

aCO2 + 2b H O + SO + 3:76 a + 4b + d2 N
2 2 2 (4.33)

O2
CO
62

 
b d
C a Hb S Od + a+
4 +  2 (O + 3:76N ) ! (a  )CO +  CO +
2 2 2


b
2 H O+ SO
2 2 + ( 1) a + 4b + d2 + 2 O + 2


b d
3:76 a + 4 + 2 N 2 (4.34)

 (air ratio) AF RA AF RT
O2 , CO N2 (4.29)

yO2 =
( 1)(a + b=4 + d=2) + =2
(4.35)
Ntotal

yCO = (4.36)
Ntotal
yN2 =
3:76(a + b=4 + d=2) (4.37)
Ntotal
Ntotal  (4.30)
(4.31)

yO2
1 y = ( 1)(a + b=4 + d=2)
(4.38)
2 CO Ntotal
(4.32) (4.33)

yO2
yN2
0:5yCO = (3:761)

yN2
= (4.39)
yN2 3:76(yO2 0:5yCO )
 AF RA
AF RA = AF RT (4.40)

C3 H8
CO2 , O2 CO 11.5%, 2.7% 0.7%
4.5 63

AF RT C3 H8 23.8 / 
(4.31) N2

yN2 = 1 yCO2 yO2 yCO

= 0:851
N (e = 0)

=
0:851=(0:027 007=2)
0:851=(0:027 007=2) 3:76
= 1:116
=) AF RA = 1:116  23:8 = 26:56 molair =molfuel

4.5

(lean mixture)
(rich mixture)
-

20%
20% (e)
 
AF RA AF RT
e=  100 (4.41)
AF RT


N2 O2

64

(burner)
15-30% 5-10%
3-15%

O2 CO2
Cm Hn O2

 n h n  i
Cm Hn + m+
4 ( O + 3:76N ) ! mCO + ( 1) m +
2 2 2
4O 2

+ n2 H O + 3:76 m + n4 N
2 2

(4.42)

O2 , CO2

yO2 =
[( 1)(m + n=4)
4:76(m + n=4) n=4
m
yCO =
2
4:76(m + n=4) n=4
e = 100( 1)

yO2 yCO2 e

yO2 =
0:01e
4:76(1 + 0:01e) n=(4m + n)
yCO2 =
4m=(4m + n)
4:76(1 + 0:01e) n=(4m + n)
4.1 yO2 yCO2 e Cm Hn
m n yO2
yCO2
CO2
CO2

4.5 65

4.1: yO2 yCO2 e

O2 CO2 O2

O2

CO2

CO2 O2 CO2
O2

CO2 O2 CO2

66

4.2 CO2 , O2 CO
CO2
O2

4.2: O2 CO2 CO

O2 -
O2
O2
O2
O2 -

CO -
O2 CO



O2
CO CO

4.6 67

4.6
SO2

S + O ! SO
2 2

SO2 O2 SO3

SO2 + 12 O ! SO
2 3

SO3 (sulfu-
ric acid)

SO3 + H O ! H SO
2 2 4

-
SO2
SO2
(p) 1
atm (partial pressure) (pH2 O )

pH2 O = yH2 O p
yH2 O
1 atm
(dew-point temperature)
pH2 O

4.7



68

1. (ignition temperature)

-
4.5

4.5:

( C)
C 700
S 243
H2 500
CO 609
CH4 580
C2 H6 515
C3 H8 480

2.
-

3.

(furnace)

(1)
(2)
(3)

4.7 69

4.7.1

(burner)
4.3



4.3

4.3:

11 kV
(pilot ame) (main ame)








70

(turndown ratio)
-
-

-


(atomizer)


(1)
(2)
(3)

4.7.2

H2 , CH4
CO





(mechanical stok-
er) (pulverizer-burner system)
(uidized bed combustion system)

(grate)

4.7 71

(spread-
er)


(arch)

4.4
(spreader stoker)

4.4:

72

-

(pulverizer)
3


26 112


85%
200 (200 mesh) 74
60% 200

4.3
4 (1) (2)
(3) (ashback)
-
(4)

4.5

4.7 73

4.5:

32 mm
0.6-4.6 m/s


-



(CaCO3 ) MgCO3 CaCO3
CaO CO2

CaCO3 ! CaO + CO 2

CaO SO2 O2

CaO + SO + 0:5O ! CaSO

2 2 4

SO2 815 C
870 C CaSO4

900 C -
-

74

NOx
-

(bubbling uidized bed combus-
tion) (bubbling uidized bed combustion) 4.6

4.6:

4.7


4.8 75

(SH) (RH)
(Eco) (AH)

4.7:

SO2

4.8

-
N2 O2

76

(particulate) (NOx ) SO2

NOx (NO) (NO2 )

NO
NO2
-

SO2 SO2
(sulfuric acid)
SO2

-

4.8

4.8.1

4.8 77

4.8:

(bottom ash)
(y ash)
4.6

4.6:

(%) (%) (%)
60-80 0-5 20-40
10-30 0-10 70-90
5-90 0-5 10-95

(elec-
trostatic precipitator) (fabric lter)
(cyclone separator)
78

(emitting electrode)
(grounded collecting plate)
20 100 kV
4.9

(hopper) 4.10

4.9:

(resistivity)
1 10 1 10

 8  14 .cm

5 10 5 10

 9  10 .cm
SO3
SO3
4.8 79

4.10:

-

(lter bag)
125 300 mm 12.5 m

(cell plate)



(reverse gas fabric lter)
4.11


4.12
80

(pulse jet fabric

lter)

4.11:

4.12:
4.8 81

4.13

4.8.2

NOx NOx
NOx
(combustion control) NOx
(post-combustion control)
NOx
82

4.13:

NOx
NOx -
-
-


(ue gas recirculation)
NOx

NOx

NOx
NOx (low NOx burner)


-
4.8 83

(air staging) (fuel staging)
NOx


4.14

4.14: NOx

NOx NOx
NOx NOx
SCR (selective catalytic reduction) NOx
SCNR (selective non-catalytic reduction)
SCR (NH3 ) NOx

4NO + 4NH + O ! 4N + 6H O
3 2 2 2

2NO + 4NH + 2O ! 3N + 6H O
2 3 2 2 2

4.15
84

4.15: NOx SCR

SNCR (NH3 ) NO SCR

SNCR (CO(NH2 )2 ) NH3

4NO + 2CO(NH ) + O ! 4N + 2CO + 4H O

2 2 2 2 2 2

SNCR NO2 NOx

NO 95% NO2 5% SNCR
NOx 70-80%

4.8.3

SO2 -
70%

SO2


SO2 SO2

SO2 FGD (ue gas desul-

furization) (CaCO3 ) SO2
4.8 85

SO2 95-98%

SO2

+ SO + 12 H O ! CaSO : 12 H O + CO
CaCO3 2 2 3 2 2

1 1 3
CaSO : H O + O + H O ! CaSO :2H O
23
2
2
2 2 2 4 2

SO2
FGD (CaSO4 .2H2 O) (CaSO3 )

86

1.

2. (stoichiometric combustion)
(complete combustion)

3.

4. H xH O
xO (free hydrogen)

5. (air ratio)

6. Orsat apparatus

7.

8.

9.

10. O2

11. CO2 O2

12.

13.

14.

15.

16. (uidized-bed combustion system)

4.8 87

17. (uidized bed) SO2

18. NOx

19.

20.

21. NOx

22. NOx SNCR

23. SO2 FGD

24. (HHV) C4 H10 128400 kJ/m3

1960 kJ/m3 (LHV)
C4 H10

25. (as-received basis)

C 70%, H 3%, O 4%, N 2%, S 1%, 15% 5%
AFRT

26.

27. C5 H12

28. C4 H10 1 m3

29. CH4 74%, C2 H6 17% CO 9%

HHV 41475 kJ/m3
1960 kJ/m3 LHV

30. 30%
AF RT = 10 kgair /kgfuel AF RA
88
 5

5.1

5.1

(compressed liquid
subcooled liquid)
(saturated liquid)
(saturated vapor)
(superheated vapor)

5.1
5.2
(saturated liquid line)
(saturated vapor line)
374 C 22 MPa
(vapor dome)

90

5.1:

5.2

5.2:

(T ) (p) (v ) -
(h) (s)


(steam table) (steam chart)
5.3 h-p
5.2 91

(steam
quality)

x x =1 x =0

5.3


-

5.2

-
(Carnot cycle)
5.4

1-2 (boiler)

2-3 (turbine)

3-4 (condenser)

4-1 (compressor)
92

5.3: h-p

1-2 3-4

5.2 93

5.4:

1-2 3-4

T4
=1 (5.1)
T1

-
(Rankine cycle) 5.5 -

1-2

2-3

3-4

4-1

T-s 5.4 5.5

4-1

94

5.5:

wnet
= (5.2)
qin
wnet = (h2 h3 ) (h 1 h4 ) (5.3)
qin = h2 h1 (5.4)

5.3

5.5
(5.1) -


5 (1)
(2) (3)
(4) (5)
5.3 95

5.3.1

5.6 T-s
( 5.6)

(heat sink)



15%

5.6:

5.3.2

1-2 5.5
(superheater) (superheat-
ed steam) 5.7

5.5


-

96

650 C

5.7:

5.3.3

5.8
T-s


( )

-

(22.1 MPa)

5.9 (supercrit-
ical Rankine cycle)

5.3 97

5.8:

5.9:

5.3.4

3

(reheat) 5.10

(reheater)





98

20%

5.10:

850 K 15 MPa
0.01 MPa 0.9

5.11:

5.3 99

5.11 T-s
6
h6 = 192 kJ/kg
p6 p1 h1 = h6
2 h2 = 3510 kJ/kg.K
5 0.01 MPa 0.9 h5 = 2340 kJ/kg.K
5.11 s4 = s5
T4 = T2 (s4 T4 ) 4 h4
3620 kJ/kg p4 = 3.5 MPa
3 p3 =
p4 s3 = s2 h3 = 3090 kJ/kg

wnet = wt
= h2 h3 + h4 h5
= 1700 kJ/kg
qin = h h + h
2 1 4 h3
= 3848 kJ/kg
=
1700 = 0:44
3848
50 -
s5 = s2 p5 = 0.01 MPa h5 = 2100 kJ/kg
0 0 0

wnet = h2 h50

= 1410 kJ/kg
qin = h h2 1

= 3318 kJ/kg
=
1410 = 0:42
3318
100

5.3.5

(feed water)

5.12


(regeneration)


(1-
34
2-3-4-5-1) (1-2- 0 - 0 -1)

5.12:

(feed
water heater)
2
5.3 101

(1) (open feed water heater) (2) (closed feed water heater )
5.13



5.14 T-s

5.13:

5.14:

(5.2)
5.14

w_ net
= (5.5)
q_in
102

w_ net q_in
w_ net = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (1 m)(h5 h4 ) (h 7 h6 ) (5.6)
q_in = h1 h7 (5.7)

m
1 kg/s
m

h6 h1
m= (5.8)
h2 h5

(shell-and-tube heat exchanger)

5.15
(drain)


TTD (terminal tem-
perature dierence)

5.15:

5.16
()
5.3 103

(throttle valve)
()

5.16: ()
()

5.17 T-s

(5.5)
_ _
wnet , qin m

w_ net = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (h 7 h4 ) (5.9)

q_in = h1 h8 (5.10)
h h
m= 8 7 (5.11)
h2 h5
TTD (terminal temperature dierence)
-
(Tsat ) TTD
T8

T8 = Tsat TTD (5.12)

Tsat p2
5.18 T-s

5.14
104

5.17:

5.14 (feed wa-

ter pump) 5.16
_
5.14 (5.5) wnet qin _

w_ net = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (1 m)(h5 h4 ) m(h8 h6 ) (5.13)

q_in = h1 h9 (5.14)

m h9 (5.13) (5.14)
(mixing chamber)

h7 h5
m= (5.15)
h2 h6 + h7 h5
h9 = (1 m)h7 + mh8 (5.16)

TTD T7
T7 = Tsat TTD (5.17)

Tsat p2

70 bar
540 C 7 bar
5.3 105

5.18:

0.07 bar TTD = 3 C

5.18

h1 = 3500 kJ/kg
h2 = 2860 kJ/kg
h3 = 2150 kJ/kg
h4 = 163 kJ/kg
h5 = h4
h6 = 697 kJ/kg
h8 = h6

7 h7 p7 T7 5.18
p7 = p1 = 70 bar T7 (5.17) 7 bar Tsat =
165 C

T7 = 162 C

h7 162 C
h7 = 684 kJ/kg
106

m (5.15)

m=
684 163
2860 697 + 684 163
= 0:194 kg
h9 (5.16) (mixing chamber)
h9 = (1 0:194)  684 + 0:194  697
= 689 kJ/kg
1 kg/s (5.13),
_ _
(5.14) (5.5) wnet , qin 

w_ net = (h h ) + (1
1 2 m)(h2 h3 )
= 1212 kg/s
q_in = 3500 689
= 2811 kg/s
=)  = 0:43

5.4

-

-

(pump eciency, p ) (turbine ecien-
cy, t )

p =

wps

wp
t =

wt

wts
5.5 107

wps wp
wps (isentropic process)
wp
wt wts
5.19
T-s

5.19: (4-1, 2-3)

(4-1s, 2-3s)

h1s h4
p =
h1 h4
h2 h3
t =
h2 h3s

5.5

5.20

108

(o )

Pe
o = (5.18)
m_ f :HV
_
Pe , mf HV (heating
value) HV (HHV )
(LHV ) HV
HV

5.20:

o
o = b ::g (5.19)

b (boiler eciency)

m_ s (hout hin )
b = (5.20)
m_ f :HV
5.6 109

_
ms , hin
hout

(Pnet ) (Qin )
Pnet
= (5.21)
Qin
Qin
(5.20)
g (Pe )

Pe
g = (5.22)
Pnet
1 kW.h
(heat rate)
mf :HV
HR = (5.23)
Pe
t


t mf
HR kJ/kW.h HR o

HR =
3600 (5.24)
o

5.6

5.21

(5.20)

(input-
output method) (heat-loss method)
(5.20)
110

(Ql ) _

Q_ l
b = 1 (5.25)
m_ f :HV

5.21

5.21:

Q_ l;i
Li = (5.26)
m_ f :HV
5.6 111

b = 1 (L + L + L + L + L + L )
1 2 3 4 5 6 (5.27)

1.
Ta Tg

xdg : pg (Tg Ta )
L1 = (5.28)
HHV

xdg
pg ( 1.0 kJ/kg. C)
Tg
Ta

CO2 , CO, O2 N2 NCO2 , NCO , NO2
NN2

mdg = 44NCO2 + 28NCO + 32NO2 + 28NN2 (5.29)

(4.30)

mf = 12(yCO +x yCO )Ndg 2

(5.30)
b

Ndg (5.29) (5.30)

xdg

xdg =
(11yCO + 7yCO + 8yO + 7yN )x b
2 2 2
(5.31)
3(yCO + yCO ) 2
112

2.

H O -

L2 =
(xM + 9xH;ar )[2442 + pv (Tg Ta )
(5.32)
HHV
pv ( 1.9 kJ/kg. C)
2442 kJ/kg 25 C
H

3.

!:AF RA : pv (Tg Ta )
L3 = (5.33)
HHV
! L3
L2

L3
L3 = 0
4.
(refuse)

xu :HHVC
L4 = (5.34)
HHV
xu
HHVC (32800 kJ/kg)

5. CO -

5.6 113

CO CO
L5 = 

CO C
= 
C
CO


= MM(COy yCO+xy b HHV CO
(5.35)
C CO CO2 )HHV

x b
CO (MCO ) 28 C (MC ) 12
CO (HHVCO ) 10100 kJ/kg

6.







1% -
L6

180 ton/h
170 ton/h 4 MPa 405 C
124 C C 73%, H 5%, O 8%, N 2%, 6%
6% 17600 kg/h
30% 27 C 1232 kg/h
14.3% 167 C
CO2 13.65%, CO 0.47% O2 5.18% N2

L6 =
114

0.5%

hout 4 MPa 405 C hin
124 C
hin
124 C hout = 3225.3 kJ/kg hin = 520.0 kJ/kg
(4.22) 30369 kJ/kg
(5.20) HV = HHV

b =
170  10 (3225:3 520:0)
3

17600(30369)
= 0:860

1232 kg/h 0.143  1232 = 176 kg/h
(xu ) 0.01
(x b ) 0.72
N2 1 - 0.1365 - 0.0047 - 0.0518 = 0.807
(5.31)

xdg =
[11(0:1365) + 7(0:0047) + 8(0:0518) + 7(0:807)  0:72
3(0:0047 + 0:1365)
= 12:9
(5.28)

L1 =
12:9  1:0  (167 27)
30369
= 0:0595
(5.32)

L2 =
(0:06 + 9  0:05)[2442 + 1:9(167 27)
30369
= 0:0455
5.6 115

L3 = 0
0.01
(5.34)

L4 =
0:01  32800
30369
= 0:0108
CO (5.35)

L5 =
28  0:47  0:72  10100
12(0:47 + 13:65)  30369
= 0:0186
L1 L5 L6 (5.27)
b = 1 0:0595 0:0455 0 0:0108 0:0186 0:0050
= 0:861

(4.23) HV
(5.20) (5.25) LHV
(L2 )

b = 1 (L + L + L + L + L ) HHV
1 3 4
LHV
5 6 (5.36)

(4.23)

b = 30369 2442(9(0:05) + 0:06)

116

= 29124

b =
0:861  30369 = 0:898
29124

5.7
(cogeneration)



(bottoming system)
(topping system) 5.22

-





(absorption chiller)

(trigeneration)

5.23

5.7 117

5.22: () ()

5.23:

(back-pressure turbine)
-

5.24
(extraction turbine)



118

5.24:
5.7 119

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
( , , )

7.

8.

9. T-s

10.

11. T-s

12.

13. 6 MPa 850 K

14. 900 K 12 MPa

TTD 5 K

120

15.
10 MPa 700 K
3 MPa 0.01 MPa -
()

16.

8 MPa 850 K
0.8 MPa 0.01 MPa
(drain cooler) TTD 5 C
()

17. 9000 kJ/kW.h

18. 180 ton/h 4

MPa 800 K
450 K 15000 kJ/kg
10 kg/s

19.
70% CO2 10%, O2 5% SO2 1% CO
0.5% N2 83.5%
1 kg

20.
19600 kJ/kg
CO ( HHV CO 10080 kJ/kg)
 6

6.1

-


(pro-
cess boiler)


(utility boiler)

2 (re-tube boiler)
(water-tube boiler)


18 bar
6.2 kg/s


(boiler shell)
122

-

(tensile stress)
pD
= (6.1)
2t
 p D
t
(D )

6.2

(steam generator)
(drum-type steam
generator) (once-through steam gen-
erator) 6.1
6.2 123

(furnace) (evaporator) (drum)

(superheater) (reheater)
(economizer) (air heater)

22.1 bar

6.1:

(
5.11)
124

-

6.1


(steam separator)

-
-

6.3

(refractory)
(water wall) 6.2
(membrane)

6.3

6.3 125

6.2:

(convection)

(bubbly ow)
(slug ow)
(annular ow)

(mist ow) 6.3
(h) h
h
h

126

6.3:

6.4

(pressure vessel)
(6.1)
30 m 4.5 m
30 (riser)
(downcomer) 6.4











6.4 127

6.4:

6.5 (bae)
(screen)





-


(cyclone separator)

128

6.5:

(d )


(r ) ( p)


p
(H ) d r
(natural circulation)
d r

H r d


H
r d

d r
6.5 129

180 bar
(forced circulation)

H

6.5

(total dissolved solid, TDS)
ppm (part per million)

(blowdown)

(continuous blowdown)
(intermitten blowdown)



6.6
xd
xw
xs ms _

 
xw xs
m_ b = m_ s (6.2)
xd xw

(xs = 0) (6.2)

 
xw
m_ b = m_ s (6.3)
xd xw
130

6.6:

_
mb
d (t)
xd1 xd2
xd2 xd1
6.7
m_ s (xw xs )(d + t)
m_ b = (6.4)
[0:5(xd1 + xd2 ) xw d
t =0
xd1 = xd = xd (6.4)
2

(6.2)

6.6

100 MW

6.6 131

6.7:

(radiant superheater)

(convective superheater)




-



6.8
(parallel ow)
(counter-ow)

6.8

132

6.8:

(6.1)










20-30 C



6.7 133

(soot blower)

6.7

5 C
4
(attemperation)
(gas recir-
culation)

1. -




134

6.9

6.9:

2. (attemperator) -
6.10


_
(mw )

m_ s hs1 + m_ w hw = (m_ s + m_ w )hs2

6.7 135

6.10:

3.

6.11
(Q)
(Qa ) (Qg )
(Qr )


-

4.



136

6.11:

6.12

6.8

-


(ther-
mal stress)



6.8 137

6.12:

30 C
-

-

10-12 m/s

138

6.9

-

-
110 C 4%
280 C 11% 150-
420 C
280-
400 C 135-180 C

-
(recuperator) (regenerator)

6.13
6.13()
6.13()

(hopper)
30-60 W/m2 . C
-

50-65
mm

(matrix)


6.9 139

6.13: () ()

-

6.14 (Ljungstrom re-
generator) (Rothe-
muhle regenerator)
-


(eectiveness)
-

(self-cleaning)




140

6.14: () ()

120 MW
10 m 0.5-3 rpm

6.10

-


-


6.10 141

(soot blow-
er)

(multi-nozzle soot blower) (retractable soot
blower)
50-64
mm
2 m

180
6.15
-
1000 C

-
142

6.15:

6.16

-
-

50 cm
-

6.16:
6.11 143

6.11

-


(draft)
2 (natural draft)
(mechanical draft)

6.11.1

(stack)
6.17 H


( p) H

6.11.2




144

6.17:

(forced draft)
(induced draft)


p
(PF D )

m_ f :AF RA :va :
p

PF D = (6.5)
F D

va F D


-

(PID )
6.11 145

p
m_ f (1 + AF RA )vg :
p
PID =
ID

vg ID

(balanced draft)

6.11.3

(axial type)
(centrifugal type)

(single-stage axial fan)
(two-stage axial fan)

-
-

-
146

(forward-curved)
(at) (backward-curved)
6.18


6.1


-

-

6.18: ,

(characteristic curve)

(system resistance curve)

6.11 147

6.1:

78-83% 84-91% 70-72%

6.19

(inlet vane control) 6.20

sp1 sp2 sp2 sp3 -
p1 p2 p2 p3

a b b c
a0
p1 b0 p2 b0 p2 c0 p3

(variable-speed control) sp1 p1
148

6.19:

6.20:

sp2 p2 sp3 p3

6.11 149

6.21:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.
150

12.

13.

14. -

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.
 7

7.1

(radial-ow turbine)
(axial-ow turbine)


-



-




(stator) (rotor)
7.1

152

7.1:

7.2

(stage)

7.2
4

(impulse stage)
(reaction stage)

7.2.1

7.3

7.2 153

7.2: 5

7.3:

(pressure
compound stage) 7.4

-



154

7.4:

7.4
-
(velocity compound stage)
7.5

7.2.2

-

7.2 155

7.5:

(reaction de-
gree)

R=

hr (7.1)

hs +
hr

hs hr
0 1
50%
7.6

50%
(air foil)
156

7.6: 50%

7.3

(nozzle)

-

(nozzle eciency)

(isentropic ow)

N =

hh (7.2)
s

(h0 ) (V0 )
(h1 ) (V1 )

V02 V 2
h0 + = h + 1

2 2 1

=)
h = h h = V2 V02
2
1
0 1
2
7.4 157

V0 V1

h = V2
2
1
(7.3)
p
V = 2
h
1 (7.4)

0.4 MPa
0.1 MPa 90%

0.4 MPa h0 = 2740
kJ/kg 0.1 MPa s1s = s0 h1s = 2500 kJ/kg

h (7.2)

h = 0:90(2740 2500)  10 3

= 2:16  10 J/kg 5

h (7.4)
p
V1 = 2  2:16  10 5

= 657 m/s

7.4

(velocity tri-
angle)
V ~ (absolute velocity) U~
W ~

V~ = W~ + U~ (7.5)
158

7.7

V1 (nozzle
angle)
(1 ) (2 )

7.7: () ()

U = !r (7.6)

! rad/s r
N rpm
!

!=
2N (7.7)
60
7.4 159

F = m_ (V os  + V os  )
1 1 2 2 (7.8)

_
m

P = mU
_ (V os  + V os  )
1 1 2 2 (7.9)

 
P = m_ h1 h2 + 21 V 1
2
V 2
2


(7.10)

W1
W2

 
0 = m_ h1 h2 + 12 W2
1 W 2
2

=) h h2 =
1 W12 W22


(7.11)
1
2
h1 h2 (7.10)

P = m2_  V 1
2
V22


W12 W22


(7.12)

(7.12)

V12 = W12 + U 2 + 2W1 U os 1

160

V22 = W22 + U 2 2W U os 
2 2

(7.12)

P = mU
_ (W os  + W os  )
1 1 2 2 (7.13)

7.7
(7.9) (7.13) (vertex)

7.8
50% 1 =
2 50%

50%
1 = =
2 2 1 W1 V2 =
W2 = V1

7.8: ()
50% ()

(blade eciency)

P
B = (7.14)
m_
h
7.4 161

h
(7.3) (7.14)
P
B = (7.15)
1
2
_ 12
mV

h
(h0 h1 ) (h1 h2 )
2
V12 = (7.3) h1 h2
(7.11)

h = 12 [V + (W1
2 2
2 W12 ) (7.16)

P
B = (7.17)
1
2
m_ [V + (W22
1
2
W12 )

3000 rpm
600 mm 800 mm

(rm ) (600+800)/2 = 700 mm
(7.6) (7.7)

U = 2Nr
60
m

= 2   3000  0:7
= 220 m/s
60
50%
20 C 50 m/s
30 m/s 8 kg/s

162

(1 ) (1 )

W1 sin 1 = V1 sin 1
W1 os 1 = V1 os 1 U
 
V1 sin 1
1 = tan 1

V1 os 1 U

= tan 1 50 sin20 
50 os20 30
= 45:2
W1
V sin 1
W1 = 1
sin 1
= 50sinsin20

45:2
= 24:1 m/s
P (7.11) B (7.15)
=
50% (2 1 W2 V1 ) =
P = 8  30(24:1 sin45:2 + 50 sin20 )
= 15:4 kW
B =
1:54  10 4

 8[50 + (50 24:1 )

1
2
2 2 2

= 0:87

7.5

Pa t P (7.10)


7.5 163

7.5.1

(1 =
=
2 ) (W1 W2 )
V2
(2 = 90
) 7.9
(Uopt ) -

Uopt = W2 os 2

V1 os 1 = W1 os 1 + Uopt
-

V1 os 1
Uopt = (7.18)
2

7.9:

164

Uopt (7.1)
m_
Pmax = (V1 os 1 )2 (7.19)
2
Pmax (7.13)

B;max = os2 1 (7.20)

(7.16) 1 1 = 0

1 0

7.10

(Uopt )

Uopt = W4 os 2

V3 os 2 = W3 os 2 + Uopt
(W3 = W )
4

V3 os 2 = 2Uopt (7.21)

7.5 V2 V3
(V2 V3 ) =

V2 os 2 = 2Uopt (7.22)

Uopt
W2

W2 os 1 = V2 os 2 + Uopt
7.5 165

7.10:

= 3Uopt

V1 os 1 = W1 os 1 + Uopt

(W1 = W )
2

V1 os 1 = 4Uopt (7.23)

V1 os 1
Uopt =
4

n
V1 os 1
Uopt = (7.24)
2n
166

(P1 ) (P2 ) (7.7)

P1 = mU
_ opt (V1 os 1 + V2 os 2 )
P2 = mU
_ opt (V3 os 2 )
V1 os  ,
1 V2 os 2 V3 os 2 (7.21), (7.20) (7.19)

P1 = 6mU
_ opt
2
(7.25)
P2 = 2mU
_ opt
2
(7.26)

3 : 1


3 5 : 3
: 1 2



h

n


h=n

r
V1 =
2
h (7.27)
n
(7.16) Uopt
n
7.4

7.5 167

7.5.2

50%

7.11

Uopt = V1 os 1 (7.28)

Uopt 2 = 90 (7.11)
Pmax = m_ (V1 os 1 )2 (7.29)

Pmax (7.27) (7.15) -

B;max =
2 os 
2
1
(7.30)
1 + os  2
1

7.11: 50%

168

W2 kW1 =
1
k < 1

7.13

V1 os 1 = W1 os 1 + Uopt
Uopt = W2 os 2 = kW1 os 1
U
V1 os 1 = opt + Uopt
k 
k
=) Uopt = k + 1 V1 os 1

7.12:

(7.7) (7.13)

P = mU
_ opt(V os  )
1 1
7.6 169

 
k
= m_ k+1
(V1 os 1 )2
 
k
B = 2 os2 1
k+1

7.6
_


m hs hs

1.
_

(turbulence) m hs

2.

3. 7.7


(PS ) P
(7.7) (7.11)

4.

5.

7.12 (W )
(Wm )

PS P

170

7.13:

(stage eciency)

PS
S = (7.31)
m_
hs
(7.29)
     
S =

h
:
P P
: S

hs m_
h P

1
2
3-5
PS
P
=1 fL (7.32)

fL (energy loss factor)

S = N B (1 fL ) (7.33)

S N , B fL


hs (! )
_
( ) PS =m
PS
m_
= ! (7.34)
7.7 171

!
S = (7.35)

hs
0.7 MPa 800 K
0.4 MPa
1500 rpm 1000 N.m

0.7 MPa h0 =
3540 kJ/kg 0.1 MPa s1s = s0 h1s = 3340 kJ/kg

hs = (3540 3340)  10 = 2:00  10

5 5
J/kg

(N ) rpm !

!=
2N = 157 rad/s
60
(7.33)

S =
1000  157 = 0:785
2:00  10 5

7.7

PT

PT
n= (7.36)
PS
172

S 4
7.14
1 2s, 3ss, 4ss 5ss
1 2, 3, 4 5

T = m_ (h PT h ) (7.37)
1 ss 5

PT 4
PT = PS + PS + PS + PS
1 2 3 4

S

PT = m
_ S [(h 1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s )

PT (7.35)
 
T = S (h1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s )
h1 h5ss

7.14

(h 1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s ) > h1 h5ss

T
S
T = fR S (7.38)

fR (reheat factor) 1



7.7 173

7.14: 4

2
2
50% 2 (1 )

-

h (1) 2

h =2
(1)

(7.4)
q
V1 =
h (1)

(7.16)

V1 =
2U
os  1
2
=)
h (1) = 4 osU
1
174

h (2)
(7.4)
q
V1 = 2
h (2)

(7.22)

V1 =
4U
os  1
2
=)
h (2) = 8 osU
1

h (3) -

h =2(3) 50%

r
V1 =

h (3)

2
(7.23)
U
V1 =
os  1
2
=)
h (3) = 2 osU
1

h(1) :
h(2) :
h (3) = 2 : 4 : 1

50%
50%

7.15 -
-
-

7.7 175

-
7.15




-


-
-

7.15:
176

7.8

P F

(axial thrust)

T = (p1 p2 )A m_ (W1 sin 1 W2 sin 2 ) (7.39)

A (7.31)
7.3
p1 p2
7.6 p1 p2

7.16

7.9

7.9 177

7.16:

(high-pressure section)
(low-pressure section)
7.17


7.17

7.17:
178

(back-pressure turbine)

-

7.18
(hp turbine)


(ip turbine)
(lp turbine)

7.18:

7.19 -


7.10 179

7.19: (extraction turbine)

7.17
(double-ow turbine)


7.20

7.20
3000 rpm
(tandem-compound turbine)

3000 rpm

1500 rpm
7.21 (cross-com-
pound turbine)

7.10

-
50%
180

7.20: (triple-ow turbine)

(four-ow turbine)

7.21:

(7.29) U (Uopt =
7.10 181

V1 os 1 )

(governor)

7.22
(yball governor)
(sleeve)

(governor oil pump)

7.22:

182

10% 3000 rpm

3300 rpm


7.10 183

1.

2.

3.

4.
50%

5.

6. 50%

7. -
V1 1

8.

9.

10.

11. -

12.

13.

14.

15. 3100 kJ/kg

3000 kJ/kg
184

16.
500 mm 3600 rpm

17. 900 m/s

20 300 m/s

18. 150 kJ/kg

5 kg/s
20

19. 19 -

20. 50% 15

 8

8.1

(cooling tower)

8.1

8.2

(shell-and-tube heat exchanger)

186

8.1:

(one-pass)
(two-pass) 8.2

U
(four-pass)
8.3

Q = UA
Tlm (8.1)

Tlm = ln(ITD TTD

ITD=TTD)
(8.2)

ITD TTD
8.2 187

8.2:

U
A -
(8.1)
ITD TTD
Q

8.3:

8.1
188

(admilralty
copper) 304 (304 stainless steel)


(fouling)


90-10


4

8.4

1.8 3 m/s

8.2 189

8.4:

(vacuum pump)
190

(ejector)

8.3

-

8.3.1

(deaerator)
O2 CO2
O2 CO2
8.5
(heater section) (vent con-
denser) (storage section)



(trays)

8.3 191

8.5:

8.3.2

(LP heater)
(HP heater)

(desuperheater) (condensing section) -
(drain cooler)

8.6

8.7

192

8.6:

8.7:

8.3.3

8.4 193

8.1 200
MW 3 8
200 MW

8.1:

(MW)
0 50 3 5
50 100 5 6
100 200 5 7
200 6 8

8.4



(once-through sys-
tem) (thermal pollu-
tion)
(closed-loop system)
(cooling tower)

194

2 (wet cooling tow-
er) (dry cooling tower)

8.4.1

(approach)
(range)
(wet-bulb temperature)


-




(natural draft) (me-
chanical draft)

(i ) (o ) H


( p)

p = (o i )gH (8.3)

p





(hyperbola)
-
8.4 195

8.8
150 m
2.5-5

8.8:

(forced draft)





(induced draft)

(counter-ow) 8.9
196

(cross-ow) 8.10

8.9:

8.10:

8.8-8.10

8.4 197

(ll) (packing)


-

(makeup water)

1-1.5% -

(drift)
(drift eliminator)
0.03%
(bae) -

(blowdown)

1-1.5%

(recirculation) (interference)

198

8.4.2

-
8.11

8.12

8.11:

8.5

(blowdown)

8.5 199

8.12:

(makeup water)
1.5-2%
-

3 Ca+ , Mg2+ ,
Na+ 3 HCO3 , Cl , SO24

(scale)

CO2 O2

(sedimen-
tation)
200

(coagulation)

(internal
treatment) (external treatment)


-



(ion exchange process) (cation
resin) (anion resin) ( Ca+ , Mg2+ ,
Na+ ) ( HCO3 , Cl , SO24 )

R H+ +C !R+
C+ +H+

2R H+ +C !R
2+
2 C2+ + 2H +

R+ OH +A !R +
A + OH
2R +
OH +A !R
2 +
2 A2 + 2OH

R
C Ca+ , Mg2+ , Na+
A HCO3 , Cl , SO24
H+ OH
(H2 O)

(regeneration)

8.5 201

2R C+ + H SO ! 2R
2 4 H+ +C
+
2 SO24
R2 C2+ + H SO ! 2R
2 4 H+ +C
2+
SO24

R+ A + NaOH ! R OH + Na A
+ +

R+
2 A
2
+ 2NaOH ! 2R OH + Na A
+ +
2
2

202

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

 9

9.1

(open-loop control)
(closed-loop control) 9.1
(output)
(input) (set point)
204

(controller) (control element)

(process equipment)


-


(sensor)
-
(feedback)

9.1:

9.1
(feedback control) (disturbance)


9.2 205

(feedforward controller)
9.2

9.2:

(cascade control) 9.3

1 (primary control loop)
1 2 (secondary
control loop) 2 1
2 2
1 2
1
1

9.2

-


206

9.3:

9.2.1

(manometer)
(Bourdon gauge) (bellows gauge) (diaphragm gauge)
(strain gauge)

9.4


p1 p2 p2

h  p1 p2
p1 p2 = gh (9.1)
9.2 207

9.4:

p2 p1 p2

9.5

9.5:

9.6
208

9.6:

9.7

9.7:

9.8



-


9.2 209

9.8:

(dierential pressure transmitter)


(block valve) (equalizing valve)
9.9

9.9: (DPT)

9.2.2

(level gauge) (displacer level gauge)
(dierential pressure level gauge)
210

9.10


-

9.10:

9.11

9.12

(9.1)
(h)

DPT



9.2 211

9.11:

9.12:

9.2.3

-

(bimetallic thermometer)
(lled-bulb thermometer) (resistance tem-
perature detector RTD) (thermistor) (thermo-
couple) (optical temperature sensor)

9.13


212

9.13:

9.14
(bellows)
-

9.14:
9.2 213

RTD




RTD -

(Seebeck eect)


9.15



9.16 V1 V2 V1
1 V2 2
2 0 C 2 V2
V1
1 2
2
1
0 C RTD 2
V2
V1 1

-


-
(thermowell) 9.17 -


214

9.15:

9.16:

9.17:

9.2 215

9.2.4

-
(pres-
sure-dierence ow meter) (velocity-based
ow meter) (positive-displacement ow
meter)

(DPT)

(orice meter) -
(Venturi tube) (ow nozzle) 90 (elbow
meter) (Pitot tube) (averaging Pitot tube)
(Annubar)

9.18 9.19

9.20
(9.2)
r
p1 p2
Q=k (9.2)

216

k
(d)
(D ) ( = d=D )

9.18:

9.19:

9.21

(throat)

9.2 217

9.20:

(9.2) k

9.21:

-

9.22

90 9.23

218

9.22:

9.23: 90

-

9.24
90 (p1 )


(total pressure)

1
p2 = p1 + V 2 (9.3)
2
9.2 219

V
s
Q=A
2(p2 p1 )
(9.4)


9.24:

9.25

90

9.26 -

(turbine ow meter)
220

9.25:

9.26:

(vortex ow meter) (magnetic ow me-

ter)

9.27

9.28

(vortex)
9.2 221

9.27:

9.28:

9.29




222

9.29:

(1)
(2)
(3)
9.30
(gear ow meter)

9.3

-



50 Hz
9.3 223

9.30:

50
Hz

50 Hz




(load demand signal)


(boiler-following control) (turbine-
following control) (coordinated control)

9.31
(EC) (load set point)


(ET)
EC
(PC)
(pres-
sure set point)
224

PC

(PT)

PT

PC -

9.32
EC


PC

9.33 EC

9.31:
9.4 225

9.32:

9.33:

9.4

-

226

-
9.34

9.34:

9.34
(cross-limited control) 9.35
(FT)
(FC)
(low
select)

(high select)


9.4 227

9.35:

-




9.34

228

9.34

9.5



9.36
(PT)
(PC)

PC


PC

9.36

9.6

9.6 229

9.36:

(single-
element control) 9.37 (LT)
(LC)

230

9.37:

(two-element control) 9.38

FT

-






(three-element control) 9.39

9.7 231

9.38:

9.39:

9.7

232

-
6

9.40
(primary superheater)
(secondary superheater)

(attem-
petor)
-
1 ( TT1)
2 (TT2)
1 (TC1)
TT1
2 (TC2)

9.40:
9.7 233

TC2 TT2
TC2

234

1.

2.
10 cm

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10. RTD

11.

12.

13.

14. (total
pressure) (static pressure) (dy-
namic pressure)

15.

16.
9.7 235

17.

18.

19.

20.

236
 10

10.1
(gas tur-
bine cycle) 10.1
(compressor)
(combustor)
(gas turbine)

10.1:

-
238

(open Brayton cycle)

10.2
(heater)

10.2:

10.3 (closed Brayton cycle)

(cooler)
T1
-





(ideal gas)
T-s 10.3
4

1-2

2-3

3-4
10.1 239

4-1

10.3:

(wnet ) (qin )

wnet = p(T3 T4 ) p (T2 T1 ) (10.1)

qin = p(T3 T2 ) (10.2)

p (B )

T4 T1
B = 1
T3 T2
T1 (T4 =T1 1)
=1 T2 (T3 =T2 1)
1-2 3-4
2-3 4-1
T2
T1
= rpk
( 1)=k
= TT3
(10.3)
4

k = p= v rp = p =p
2 1

T1
B = 1
T2
240

=1 1 (10.4)
(k 1)=k
rp
(10.4) k
k He Ar k 1.67
k 1.4

(T3 ) (T1 ) rp rp

 k=(k
T3 1)

rp:max = (10.5)
T1
T3 T1

(10.3) (10.1)
" ! #
wnet = p T3 1 1 T1 rp (k 1)=k
1

(10.6)
rp(k 1)=k

rp wnet (10.6)
 k=2(k
T3 1)

rp;opt = (10.7)
T1

r !2
T1
wmax = pT3 1 (10.8)
T3

10.4 1-2 3-4

T2s T1
 = (10.9)
T2 T1
10.1 241

T3 T4
t = (10.10)
T3 T4s
100%

10.4:

(regenerator)

10.5
T-s
10.5
(Tx ) (T4 )
Tx T4 -
(regenerator eectiveness, )
Tx T2
= (10.11)
T4 T2

T4 T2
242

10.5:

T4 T2
(reheating) (intercooling) 10.6
-
(LC)
(HC) (LT)
(HT)

10.5 1
atm 15.6 C 1093.3 C 4
0.88 0.85
0.7
p = 1.005 kJ/kg.K k = 1.4
10.1 243

10.6:

 (k 1)=k
p2
T2s = T1
p1
= 288:6(4) : = : = 429 K
04 14

Ts T
2

T T
=  = 0:85
1

2 1

=) T = 454 K
2
 
p (k 1)=k
T4s = T3 4
p3
= 1366:3(4) 0:4=1:4 = 919 K
T3 T4
T3 T4s
= t = 0:88
=) T4 = 973 K
244

Tx T2
= = 0:7
T4 T2
=) Tx = 817 K
w = p (T T )2 1

= 166 kJ/kg
wt = p (T T )3 4

= 395 kJ/kg
qin = p (T Tx )
3

= 552 kJ/kg
=
395 166 = 41:5%
552

10.2

10.7

(heat recovery steam generator
HRSG)

w_ B + w_ R
 = (10.12)
q_in
_ _
wB wR -
_
qin
(B ) (R )

w_ B = B q_in
w_ R = R (1 B )q_in
w_ B w_ R (10.12)
 = R + B R B (10.13)
10.2 245

R = 0 33
: B = 0 26
:
0.5  0.38
0.42

10.7:

-

HRSG 10.8

_ _
q1 q2

w_ B = B q_1
w_ R = R [(1 B )q_1 + q_2
w_ + w_ R
 = B
q_1 + q_2
=)  = B q_1 + Rq[(1 B )q_1 + q_2
_1 + q_2 (10.14)

x
246

q_2
x=
q_1 + q_2
=) q_2 = x(q_1 + q_2)
q_2 (10.14)
 = B + R B R xB (1 R ) (10.15)

10.8: HRSG

(10.13)
(10.12)
_ _ _
wB , wR qin

w_ B = m_ g pg (T3 T4 T2 + T1 ) (10.16)
w_ R = m_ s (ha hb hd + h ) (10.17)
10.2 247

q_in = m_ g pg (T3 T2 ) (10.18)

_ _
mg ms
pg
_ _
mg ms HRSG
HRSG

m_ g pg (T4 T5 ) = m_ s (ha hd ) (10.19)

10.7
7.5
15 C 750 C
100 C -
50 bar 500 C 0.1 bar
200 MW
-
pg =
1.1 kJ/kg.K k = 1.4

 (k 1)=k
p2
T2 = T1
p1
= 288  (7:5) : = : = 512:2 K
04 14

 (k 1)=k
p4
T4 = T3
p3
= 1023  (7:5) 0:4=1:4
= 620:5 K
w_ B (10.16)
w_ B = 196:1m_ g (10.20)

_
qin (10.18)

q_in = 561:9m_ g (10.21)

248

ha = 3670 kJ/kg
hb = 2305 kJ/kg
h = 192 kJ/kg = hd

w_ R (10.17)

w_ R = 1365m_ s (10.22)

(wB _ + w_ R )
196:1m_ g + 1365m_ s = 200  10 3
(10.23)

_
MW wB (10.20)
_
wR (10.22) kW
kW
(10.19)

m_ s
m_ g
= 0:0712 (10.24)

(10.23) (10.24) m_ g m_ s

m_ g = 681:9 kg/s
m_ s = 48:6 kg/s

mg , _ m_ s (10.20)-(10.22)
(10.12)

w_ B = 133:8 MW
q_in = 383:2 MW
w_ R = 66:3 MW
 = 0:52
10.3 249

10.3

-
1940








-

10.3.1

(aeroderivative gas tur-
bine) (industrial gas turbine)






10.1

10.3.2

(compressor) (combustor) (turbine)
(casing) 10.9
250

10.1:

30 16
50 MW 300 MW

10.9:
10.3 251

(positive displacement)
(centrifugal ) (ax-
ial)

10.10
(lift) ()
( ) (W )
(chord line) ()
10.11
(guide vane)

7

10.10:

(stall)


252

10.11:

10.12

(V ) ()


(variable-angle guide vane)

10.12:

-

(low-pressure compressor)
(high-pressure compressor)
(low-pressure turbine) (high-
pressure turbine)
10.3 253

10.13

10.13:

-





(compressor wash)

(, SNG)
(, , 2) 3
(tubular) (tuboannular) (annular)
10.14
(ame tube)


254

10.14:

10.15

(recirculation zone)



(burning zone)
(di-
lution zone)

NOx NOx
NOx

(single-shaft gas turbine)

10.3 255

10.15:

10.16
(two-shaft gas turbine)

10.16:

256

(creep)
-

(Larson-Miller parameter)
LM LM ( K)
( )

LM = T (20 + log t) (10.25)

LM T1 = 900 K
T2 = 890 K (10.1) t1 = 25000 T2= 47000
10 K

-

10.17

10.3.3

ISO
15 C 60% 1 atm
-

-
10.3 257

10.17:

-
1
atm

-



-
258

NOx

100% -

10.3.4

15 C -


10.18

10.18:
10.3 259

(evaporative cooling system)

(fogging system)

-

(absorption cooling system)

-

(vapor compression system)

10.19 (steam injection cycle)


10.1

10.19:

10.20 (evaporation cycle)

10.1
260

10.20:

10.4

HRSG
HRSG

10.21

Ty Tx (pinch point)
HRSG Tx Ty

10.4 261

HRSG HRSG
5-30 C

10.21: HRSG

HRSG (horizontal) (vertical)

(once-through) 10.22 HRSG

10.22:
262

HRSG
HRSG

10.23 HRSG


HRSG
HRSG HRSG
HRSG HRSG
HRSG

10.23:

HRSG 10.22 10.23 (single-pressure

HRSG) HRSG
HRSG
(double-pressure HRSG)

10.24

HRSG
HRSG
HRSG (triple-pressure HRSG)

10.4 263

10.24: HRSG

HRSG

HRSG

HRSG

HRSG

HRSG

HRSG

HRSG

264

1.

2.

3.

4. T-s

5.

6. B R

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13. NOx

14.

15.

16. ISO -

10.4 265

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24. 50% 300 C

200 C 100 C

25. 30 C
2000 C 4

26. 50%
( k = 1.4, p =
1.005 kJ/kg.K)

27. 300 K 1 atm

80%
8 atm ( k = 1.4)

28. 1300 K 8 atm

80%
1 atm ( k = 1.4)
266

29.
p
2
300 K
1300 K
0.8 ( p = 1.005 kJ/kg.K k =
1.4)

30. 200 MW
7.5 15 C 750 C

750 C HRSG 50 bar
600 C 0.1 bar
( p = 1.11 kJ/kg.K, k = 1.33
)
 11

11.1

-




(hydroelectric power plant) -

100 kW 30 MW
(1) (run-
of-river plant) -
(2) (impoundment plant)
268

(3) (pumped-
storage plant)

11.1 (dam)
(penstock)
(hydraulic turbine)

(generator) -

11.1:

H
Q gQH
75%

 = p :t :g (11.1)

p
11.2 269

t

g

11.2

-




(rock-lled dam) (earth dam)

(gravity dam) (arc dam) (buttress dam)

270

(buttress)

20-30%

11.1

11.1:

(m3 ) (MW)
13462 731
17745 720
9510 500
8860 300
3057 240
1420 72
2263 55
1967 36

11.3 271

(spillway)


(service spillway)

(emergency spillway)

11.3

(low-pressure con-
duit)
(screen) ,



(surge tank)

(penstock)
PVC (polyethelene)

(expansion joint)

p1 1 2 pL
+ V +
 2 1 
= gH (11.2)

H p1
pL (pressure loss)
V1

pL
p = 1 (11.3)
gH
272

p 1

(wa-
ter hammer)

(simple surge tank)

(orice surge
tank)
(dierential surge tank)

11.2

11.4

11.4 273

11.2:

11.3 (p1 ) (V1 )

(p2 ) (V2 )

p1 1 2 p2 1 2
+ V =  + 2 V2 + E
 2 1
(11.4)

E=
p1

p2
+ 21 V12 V22


(11.5)

Ea t
t = (11.6)
E
Ea t

11.4.1

(11.5)
(reaction degree)

R=
(p 1 p2 )=
(11.7)
E
274

11.3:

R (impulse turbine)
R (reaction turbine) R


(Pelton turbine) 11.4

(nozzle)



(needle valve)


(deector)

11.5



 = 180

(V2 =0 )

180
 170
1
11.4 275

11.4:

(V2 > 0)

11.5:

(casing)
-
(Francis turbine) (Kaplan turbine)
11.6

276

(1)
(2) (guide vane) (wicket gate)

(3)
(runner blade)

11.6:

(propeller)
4 8
11.7
(servo-motor)

11.6 11.7 (draft tube)

(11.5) p1 V1 E
11.4 277

11.7:

p2 V2
p1 1 2
Emax = + V (11.8)
 2 1

p2=0 V2 =0
p2 V2
E Emax

E Emax
11.5

11.4.2

(head)
(specic speed)

( 60 m)
(60-350 m) ( 350 m)

(H ) (P )
278

(N )
p
N P
Ns = (11.9)
H 5=4
N (rpm) P kW H
m 4 1100


11.8

11.8:

100%
11.9

(pro-
peller) (xed-blade)

11.4.3

(runaway speed)
11.5 279

11.9:

11.10 (turbine governing system)

(speed governor)
(electro-hydraulic governor)
(speed sensor) -
-
(actuator)
( )
( )
(runner)

11.5

(11.5) E Emax
(11.8) p2
V2
280

11.10:

11.11
z 1
2 3


1 3

E=
p1

p3
+ 12 V12 V32


(11.10)

p3 =0

(V3  ) 0
E Emax E z

11.11:
11.5 281

2 3

p2 V22 V2

+ 2 + gz = 3
2 
p2 =
1
gz +  V 2
V 2


(11.11)
2 2 3

(11.11) p2 z V2
V3 E p2
p2
(cavitation)

(vapor pressure)
(101.3 kPa)
100 C
27 C
3.54 kPa
27 C


7000 atm

p2 pv patm pv patm
(11.11) p2

282

11.6

11.12

-

100%

11.12

(pump-turbine)
(motor-generator)

(centrifugal pump)
-


-


11.6 283

11.12:

-
620-660 m
350 m
250 MW 4
284

1.

2.

3. 100 m
3 6 10
:  5 kg/h

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14. 60 m

15.

16.

17.

18.
11.6 285

19.

20.
286
 12

12.1

(nu-
cleus)
(nucleon)

(mn ) 1.008665 amu -
(mp ) 1.007277 amu (me ) 0.0005486 amu
amu atomic mass unit :  1 66 10 27
kg

H 1 He
2 C 12
(atomic number Z ) (mass number
A) (A Z ) -
(nuclear symbol) A Z X X
11 H 42 He -
126 C
01 e
-1 -
10 n 1
288

(neutrino) 
(isotope)
(11 H) 1
(21 H)
(tritium) (31 H) 1
2 X-Z
X
(periodical table)
He-3 32 He U-235 235 92 U

D T
-
U-235
99.282%, U-238 0.712% U-234 0.006%

3
U-227 U-240
(H2 O) (D2 O)
1 3200


H2 O D2 O

D2 O H2 O

12.2

C + O ! CO
2 2
12.2 289

C O2
-
(valence electron)

A
Z 1 K Z 2 L Z 3 M Z 4 N
1 A2 A3 A4

A1 K
Z1 +AZ 2
2 L !AZ 3
3 M A +
Z4 N
4

Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4
A1 + A2 = A3 + A4

27
13 Al + 4
2 He ! 30
14 Si + ZX
A

13 + 2 = 14 + Z
Z=1
27 + 4 = 30 + A
A=1

1 1 11 H
11 H 11 p
290

12.3

(mass defect) AZ X

m = (A Z )mn + Z (mp + me ) mX (12.1)

(Einsteins law)

E =
m 2
(12.2)

m kg :  8 3 00 10


m/s E (binding energy)


1 amu = : 1 66 10 27
kg 1 amu
1.494  10 11
J 931 MeV

2 He
4
4.00277 amu
m 0.03037


amu E = 27.1 MeV 2 He 4
4

6.78 MeV 12.1

40

Fe, Co
Ni
7.5 MeV
7.5 MeV
1 H 1 H
1 1

42 He (fu-
sion)
11 H

(ssion)
12.4 291

12.1:

12.4



(radioactive matter)
-
-

1. (gamma ray)
-
(excited state)
(ground state)
A X
 ! AX +
Z Z
292

2. (beta ray)

-
1

60
27 Co ! 60
28 Ni + 0
1 e ++

3. (alpha ray)

239
94 Pu ! 235
92 U + 4
2 He +

N t ()
t
dN
dt
= N (12.3)

 (decay constant) s 1

(12.3)

N (t) = N (0)e t
(12.4)

N (0)
(half-life)
-
(12.4) t t1=2 =
N (t1=2 ) = 0:5N0
0:5N = N (0)et
0
1=2
12.4 293

=) t = = 0:6931
1 2

(12.5)

 t1=2 12.1

12.1:

(MeV)
C-14 5715 0.156
N-16 7.13 , 4.24 (), 6.129 ()
P-32 14.28 1.170
K-40 1.25  9
10
1.312
Co-60 5.271 , 0.315 (), 1.332 ()
Sr-90 29.1 0.546
I-131 8.021 , 0.606 (), 0.364 ()
Xe-135 9.10 , 0.910 (), 0.250 ()
Cs-137 30.2 , 0.514 (), 0.662 ()
Rn-222 3.823 , 5.490 (), 0.510 ()
U-235 10
7.40  8 4.152
U-238 10
4.47  9 4.040
Pu-239 10
2.41  4 5.055

Co-60 3
1000

12.1 t1=2 Co-60 5.271 
(12.5)

=
0:6931
t1=2
294

 (12.4)

N (t) = N (0) exp
0:6931t 
t1=2

= 1000  exp 0:6931  3 
5:271
= 674

12.5
-
U-235, U-238, Pu-239 Th-232
2-3 -
(ssion)
AX
Z + 1
0 n ! A1
Z1 F1 + A2
Z2 F2 +m n
1
0

A1 A2
AZ X Z1 F1 Z2 F2
m
235
92 U U-235

U-235
U-
235
235
92 U + 1
0 n ! 140
54 Xe + 94
38 Sr +2 n
0
1

U-235 75
160


(delay process)
U-235
U-236 U-236
235
92 U + 1
0 n ! 236
92 U
12.5 295

U-236 -
2 34 10
:  7 U-236
14%
U-235 86%

235
92 U + 1
0 n ! 137
56 Ba + 97
36 Kr +2 n
1
0

235.0439 + 1.00867 = 236.0526 amu

138.9061 + 96.9212 + 2(1.00867) = 235.8446 amu
0.208 amu 193.6 MeV

200 MeV -
12.2 190
MeV 10 MeV

12.2: U-235

(MeV)
166
14
10
5
5
200

U-235 1 MW

296

1 U-235 0.86 0.14

1 U-235

E 0 = 0:86  190  1:60  10 13

= 2:61  10 11 J
U-235 235 g 6:02  10 23

1 g U-235

E=
1  6:02  10  E 023

235
= 6:69  10 J 10

86400 U-235 1 g

P=
6:69  10 = 0:774 MW
10

86400
1 MW U-235 1.3 g

12.6

U-235


(chain reaction)
2-3
-
12.2

U-235

U-235

12.6 297

U-235
U-235 U-236

U-235
U-235

U-235 -
86%
U-235 -
(slow neutron) (thermal neutron)
-
(fast neutron)
(prompt neutron)
U-235

(En2 )
(En1 ) A -

 2
En2 A 1
En1
= A+1
(12.6)

2%
U-238 28%
298

C-12
-

12.7

(1) (fuel
core) (2) (coolant) (3) (moderator) (4)
(control rod) (5) (reactor vessel)

-
-
(UO2 ) (UC)
(cladding material) Al, Mg,
Zr,
3

12.8 299

-
-



(shim
rod) (regulating
rod) (safety rod)
(boron
steel)

1.8 m

12.8

-

(1) (pressurized water reactor, PWR) (2)
(boiling water reactor, BWR) (3)
(advanced gas-cooled reactor, AGR) (4)
(pressurized heavy water reactor, PHWR) (5)
RBMK ( Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy
High Power Channel Reactor)

12.8.1

200-300

150-250

300

(zircaloy)
12.2

12.2:

PWR
12.2 (primary loop)

(secondary loop)

325 C
150 (pressurizer)

-
PWR
PWR
374 C 374 C

230

12.8 301

12.8.2

U-235 1.9-2.6 % 750
90-100
12.3
PWR
75 -
285 C


12.3

12.3:

-


BWR
PWR BWR
PWR
302

12.8.3

PHWR CANDU (Canadian Deuterium) -

CANDU PWR
-


-
PWR
12.4 -
(Calandria)
12-13
CANDU
(zircaloy)

300 C

12.4: CANDU

CANDU

12.8 303

CANDU

CANDU
1 3200

12.8.4

12.5
U-235 2.5-3.5%
CO2 -

CO2 650 C

AGR PWR BWR AGR
PWR BWR -

12.5:
304

12.8.5 RBMK

RBMK 12.6


290 C
BWR


.. 2529
RBMK

12.6: RBMK

12.9

-


12.9 305

(U3 O8 ) -
3.3

(27%) (17%) (15%)
(11%) (8%) (7%) (5%) (4%) -
(4%) (leaching)
(yel-
low cake) 1000 MW 200

U3 O8 (UF6 )

U-235 1%
4% U-238 85%
(depleted
uranium) U-235 (0.7%)
(gas centri-
fuge) (gas diusion)
12.7
UF6
238 92 UF6 92 UF6
235

92 UF6 UF6 235

235
92 UF6

UF6 UF6 U-235

U-235 UF6
UF6 U-235

U-235



UF6

12.8 (stage)
306

12.7:

(membrane)
UF6 238 92 UF6

235
92 UF6 92 UF6
235

235
92 UF6 UF6 92 UF6 UF6
235

92 UF6 UF6
235

U-235
UF6

12.8:

UF6
UF6
12.10 307

(UO2 )
1 cm 2 cm (fuel pellet)
60
cm 4 m

12.10

(1) (low-level waste)

(2) (intermediate-level waste)
(3) (high-level waste)

5-10





(borosilicate glass)

500
U-235 1% U-
238 93% Pu-239 0.5% 5.5%
308

U-235, U-238 Pu-239
U-235
Pu-239 U-235


Pu-239 -
U-235
Pu-239

-

12.11

-

H+ OH
-
(somatic eect)
(genetic eect)

(cosmic ray)
-





12.11 309

(radiation dose)
SI (Gy) 1 Gy
1 J 1 kg


(equivalent radiation dose)
(quality factor) (Sv)
12.3

12.3:

, , 1
2
10
10
20
20

1
4 Sv
2-6 mSv

1 kg
4 10
 3 J
310

 4 10 3
J/1 kg = 4  10 3
Gy
1  1 4  10 3
= 4 mSv

12.12
(International Atomic Energy
Agency) IAEA -


-
IAEA 3

U-
235 95%
U-235 2-3%
(reactor meltdown)



-
12.12 311

28 . . 2522 -
(Three Mile Island)
PWR

26 .. 2529 (Cher-
nobyl) ( )
RBMK





31
203

11 .. 2554 8.9
10
(Fukushima)
(Fukushima Daiichi) BWR 6

14
312

4

12.12 313

1.

2. 239
94 Pu

3.

4.

5.

6. Sr
90
38
90
39 Y

7. 360
2
6

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16. RBMK

17.

18. (U3 O8 )
314

19.

20. -

21.

22.

23.

24. 1.007277 amu 1.008665

amu 168 O 15.99491 amu 168 O
1 66 10
(1 amu = :  27
kg, 1 eV = :  1 6 10
19
3 0 10
J c = :  8 m/s)

25. U-235 200 MeV 1

20000 kJ 1 g U-235
(1 eV = : 1 6 10
19
J : 6 022 10
 23
1 mol U-235)


[1] E. A. Avallone and T. Baumeister III, Marks Standard Handbook for

Mechanical Engineers, McGraw-Hill, 1986.

[2] D. Gunn and R. Horton, Indusrial Boilers, Longman, 1989.

[3] A. F. Fraas, Heat Exchanger Design, Wiley-Interscience, 1989.

[4] British Electricity International Ltd., Modern Power Station Practice,

Vol. B: Boilers and Ancillary Plant (Third Edition), Pergamon Press,
1991.

[5] British Electricity International Ltd., Modern Power Station Practice,

Vol. C: Turbines, Generators and Associated Plant (Third Edition),
Pergamon Press, 1991.

[6] British Electricity International Ltd., Modern Power Station Practice,

Vol. E: Chemistry and Metallurgy (Third Edition), Pergamon Press,
1991.

[7] British Electricity International Ltd., Modern Power Station Practice,

Vol. F: Control and Instrumentation (Third Edition), Pergamon Press,
1991.

[8] British Electricity International Ltd., Modern Power Station Practice,

Vol. G Station Operation and Maintenance (Third Edition), Perga-
mon Press, 1991.

[9] British Electricity International Ltd., Modern Power Station Practice,

Vol. J Nuclear Power Generation (Third Edition), Pergamon Press,
1991.
316

[10] Black & Veatch, Power Plant Engineering, Chapman & Hall, 1996.

[11] P. K. Nag, Power Plant Engineering: Steam and Nuclear, Tata

McGraw-Hill, 1998.

[12] T. Kuppan, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Marcel Dekker, 2000.

[13] K. Rayaprolu, Boilers for Power and Process, CRC Press, 2009.

[14] R. L. Murray, Nuclear Energy, Elsevier, 2009.

[15] J. Cheng, Biomass to Renewable Energy Processes, CRC Press, 2010.