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To cite this article: Sylvain Moreno (2009) Can Music Influence Language and Cognition?,
Contemporary Music Review, 28:3, 329-345, DOI: 10.1080/07494460903404410
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Contemporary Music Review
Vol. 28, No. 3, June 2009, pp. 329345
Evidence has suggested that music can improve behavioural performance in several
domains, including intelligence. Scientists have also discovered that music can modify the
brain at both functional and structural levels. Such neural changes can impact several
domains, but one domain seems to be particularly influenced by musicnamely,
language. Music and language seem to share special features that allow music to improve
and shape language processing. This review will first discuss neuroimaging findings
related to music training or musical expertise. Then, the influence of music on language
processing outcomes will be considered. Finally, we will look into several future directions
at the theoretical level, focusing on the relationship between music and language. Also, it
will be argued that there are plausible applications for such findings, in particular when
considering music as a rehabilitation tool.
listening to Mozart), and several alternative hypotheses have been proposed, such as a
mood or arousal effects (Thompson et al., 2001). Nonetheless, this study inspired
several other researchers to pursue research pertaining to this question using a variety
of differently controlled experimental designs. Several studies have now reported
evidence indicating a positive transfer (e.g., improvements in performance) from
musical experience to other cognitive domains such as language (Chan et al., 1998;
see below for a development), mathematics (Costa-Giomi, 2004; Gardiner et al.,
1996; Graziano et al., 1999; but see Vaughn, 2000), symbolic and spatio-temporal
reasoning (Hetland, 2000; Rauscher et al., 1995, 1997, but see Hassler et al., 1985),
visuo-spatial abilities (Brochard et al., 2004; Gromko & Poorman, 1998), verbal
memory (Chan et al., 1998; Ho et al., 2003), self-esteem (Costa-Giomi, 2004) and
general intelligence (Schellenberg, 2004, 2006).
All these studies have related musical experience of some kind to improvements in
cognitive skills. However, many of the studies are correlational, which means that
causation cannot be inferred. This restricts the ability to provide definitive answers to
questions pertaining to the transfer of skills between music and other activities. These
studies have also brought to mind another question: if musical expertise or training
improves behaviour in cognitive skills, what are the consequences for the brain? The
following discussion will analyse and discuss a range of research related to this topic
by reviewing the link between musical expertise or training and other areas of
cognitive ability. The discussion will begin with the relevant neuroimaging findings of
music on cognition in order to introduce the central point of this article, which is the
link between music and language. Finally, we will end this review by looking at the
possible outcomes of this type of research and by proposing several future directions.
finding, Schlaug et al. (1995b) concluded that early and intensive training in
keyboard and string players may facilitate increased and faster communication
between the brains hemispheres in order to perform complex bi-manual movements.
Several further studies have also demonstrated structural differences between
musicians and non-musicians brains, finding significant differences in the planum
temporale (related to verbal memory processing and absolute pitch; Keenan et al.,
2001; Luders et al., 2004; Schlaug et al., 1995a; Zatorre et al., 1998), the posterior
band of the precentral gyrus (related to motor processing; Amunts et al., 1997), the
corpus callosum (related to cross-hemisphere communication; Schmithorst & Wilke,
2002), the anterior-medial part of the Heschl gyrus (related to auditory processing;
Schneider et al., 2002), the inferior frontal gyrus (related to executive functions such
as attention and language), the inferior lateral temporal lobe (related to auditory
processing; Gaser & Schlaug, 2003; Luders et al., 2004) and parts of the cerebellum
(related to motor processing; Hutchinson et al., 2003) (for a review, see Schlaug,
2003). All the brain areas cited above are involved in behavioural skills related to
instrument use and music processing. These findings pose the question: What
influences these brain areasearly and intensive training or biological brain
predispositions?
Two findings support the interpretation of an influence of nurture. Schneider et al.
(2002) showed a link between anatomical and functional modifications from
experience. They compared the processing of sinusoidal tones in the auditory cortex
of 12 non-musicians, 12 professional musicians and 13 amateur musicians. In their
first task, participants listened passively to these sounds while watching a silent
movie, and then had to detect deviant sounds while their brain magnetic activity was
being recorded. Results showed modifications in brain magnetic activity: the
amplitudes of N19m and P30m components (i.e., early components of auditory brain
waves) were 102% larger in professional musicians than in non-musicians, and 37%
larger in amateur musicians than in non-musicians (the professional musicians
dipole amplitude was significantly greater in the right hemisphere than in the left
hemisphere, but these differences were not significant for non-musicians). In
addition, the grey matter volume in the anterior-medial part of Heschls gyrus was
130% larger in professional musicians than in non-musicians. The crucial result was a
strong correlation (r 0.87) between neurophysiological data (the amplitude of early
332 S. Moreno
auditory evoked activity: N19m-P30m), anatomical data (gray matter volume in the
anterior-medial part of Heschls gyrus) and musical expertise. These results are
crucial because they suggest that the functional differences reported in many studies
may be directly associated with anatomical differences, and that these functional
differences are proportional to the amount of musical training. Furthermore, Hyde
et al. (2009) have reported structural brain changes after only 15 months of musical
training in children, which were found to correlate with improvements in musically
relevant motor and auditory skills. These findings extend the previous study
because they suggest that structural brain differences in adult musicians could be
due to training-induced brain plasticity rather than to biological brain predisposi-
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tions.
The other approach to this question is by direct analysis of brain activity such as
ERPs and MEG. In this literature, musicians and non-musicians are often asked to
perform various motor, perceptual or cognitive tasks, such as typing with their
fingers, or listening to or storing/memorising music, in order to discriminate between
sounds, or to perceive harmonic, melodic or rhythmic changes (for a review, see
Patel, 2008). This huge literature will not be described in detail but instead emphasis
will be placed on the studies which focused on the effects of music expertise or
training. More specifically related to our music training theme, the results of several
studies have shown perceptual auditory processes (reflected by N1 and P2 ERP
components) to be modified by musical expertise or training. In this field, cognitive
processes are observed through the product of neuronal activity: electricity. Electrical
brain responses have positive (P) and negative (N) electric amplitudes occurring at
specific points in the processing time (e.g., at a designated time after processing
begins). Therefore, the first negative waveform emitted after processing begins is
called an N1, the second one is called N2 and so on. Trainor et al. (2003) conducted
studies with adults and children, in which they recorded ERPs and found
modification in these waveforms after music training.
It has also been shown that the amplitude of the P2 component increases when
non-musicians are trained to make an auditory discrimination (Tremblay et al.,
2001). Shahin et al. (2003) compared the amplitude of these components among
professional musicians, violinists and pianists, and among non-musicians who
listened passively (while reading the newspaper) to the sounds of violin, piano or
pure tones. The results showed that the amplitude of P2 and N1 components
(in response to three different timbres) was higher among musicians than among
non-musicians. Moreover, it is important to note that the spatial source analysis of
these components showed that they were located at different places in the secondary
auditory cortex and in the superior temporal gyrus. These results suggested that
musical expertise modifies the auditory processing at both functional and structural
levels.
Another experiment by the Trainor group studied the same components with
children. Trainor et al. (2003) compared children aged 45 years who were or were
not trained with the Suzuki method of music teaching. The results of this study
Contemporary Music Review 333
showed that the P1, N1 and P2 components were enhanced in children who had
musical experience and the amplitude of the P2 component increased according
to the musical instrument (piano) played by the children. Finally, Fujioka et al.
(2006) tested 46-year-old children having Suzuki music lessons, four times over a
one-year period using the MEG method. They found that a magnetic component,
the N250m, elicited by violin tones was enhanced in musically trained children as
compared to untrained children. This study suggests that music training can
modify auditory brain processing very quickly, over a one-year period. However,
because some factors were not controlled for in this experiment, the authors
concluded that pre-existing differences between children, as well as differences in
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cognitive stimulation and motivation between groups, might still account for this
finding.
Other studies have found additional aspects of auditory processing to be modified
by music expertise or training (Shahin et al., 2007). Notably, Lappe et al. (2008)
extended these findings by showing that music training can influence the
simultaneous perception of several sensory modalities: auditory, visual, somatosen-
sory, as well as the motor system. They tested the hypothesis that music training
involves multimodal brain plasticity by using musically elicited mismatch negativity
(MMN) from magnetoencephalographic measurements before and after music
training. The mismatch negativity is a brain process that occurs after an infrequent
change in a sequence of identical sounds (e.g., an oddball sequence). For example, a
rare deviant (BOP) sound can be interspersed among a series of frequent standard
(beep) sounds (e.g., beep BOP beep beep beep beep BOP beep beep beep beep beep
beep BOP beep beep BOP). The deviant sound can differ from the standards in one
or more perceptual features such as pitch, duration or loudness. Lappe et al. (2008)
trained two groups of non-musicians over a two-week period. One group
sensorimotor-auditory (SA)learned to play a musical sequence on the piano,
whereas the other groupauditory (A)listened to and made judgments about the
music that had been played by participants of the SA group. Results showed
significantly different cortical responses after training in SA and A groups.
Specifically, the SA group showed significant enlargement of MMNm after training
compared with the A group. This reflects greater enhancement of musical
representations in the auditory cortex after sensorimotor-auditory training
compared with the effects of mere auditory training. In summary, this study
showed that sensorimotor-auditory training involves brain plasticity in the auditory
cortex.
Another new method has emerged in this field to observe the influence of musical
expertise and training on the brain. Gamma frequency band (30100 Hz) studies
yield evidence that brain plasticity (training) is reflected by Gamma-band activation.
A Gamma frequency band (30100 Hz) is an oscillatory brain response that is elicited
by a stimulus. Oscillatory Gamma Band Activity (GBA, 30100 Hz) has been shown
to correlate with perceptual and cognitive phenomena including feature binding,
template matching, and learning and memory formation.
334 S. Moreno
In a very elegant study, Schulz et al. (2003) examined the plasticity of the auditory
cortex. They composed a melody of complex sounds whose fundamental frequency
was absent, and which could only be perceived on the basis of either the actual
frequency or the virtual height of the missing fundamentals. Before training,
participants were unable to perceive the virtual melody but this perception became
possible after training. The ERPs magnetic recording showed an increase of Gamma
activity after training that reflected the process of integration (i.e., coupling or
binding at the cognitive level). The cortical sources that generated these effects were
also slightly displaced after training. These results are important because they
demonstrate strong correlations between the degree of musical expertise and the
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elements, with one obvious example being that they are both auditory systems. Both
music and language rely on the same four acoustic parameters: fundamental
frequency (F0), spectral characteristics, intensity and duration. These shared acoustic
parameters give the opportunity to develop studies whose conclusions can help us
understand the connection between language and music.
Several studies in the literature have explored the prosody-melody (fundamental
frequency-pitch) relationship. The main hypothesis in these studies is that musical
expertise, by increasing sensitivity to pitch, enhances pitch detection not only in
music, but also in speech. For example, in a study by Thompson et al. (2004),
participants were asked to listen to semantically neutral utterances spoken with
emotional (i.e., happy, sad, fearful or angry) prosody, or to tone sequences that
mimicked the utterances prosody, and then identify the emotion conveyed. Results
showed that musically trained adults performed better than untrained adults,
specifically on identification of sadness, fear or neutral emotion. In their last
experiment, the effect of different types of training on emotion identification was
studied. Six-year-old children followed one year of keyboard, vocal, drama or no
lessons. Results showed that the keyboard group performed equivalently to the drama
group and better than the no-lessons group at identifying anger or fear. These
experiments revealed that music expertise and training promote sensitivity to
emotional speech prosody, and thus emphasised the possibility of a connection
between music and language.
A few years ago, two experiments (Magne et al., 2006; Schon et al., 2004)
investigated the specificity of perceptual and cognitive processing required to
perceive and understand language in adults and children, respectively. These
experiments were designed to compare the prosodic level of processing in language
directly with the melodic level of processing in music. Short musical and linguistic
phrases were presented to listeners, and the final words or notes were made
prosodically or melodically congruous or incongruous (weak or strong incongruity).
Results showed that musicians perceived pitch deviations better than non-musicians,
not only in music, but also in language. Moreover, F0 manipulations within both
music and language elicited different variations in brain electrical potentials between
musicians and non-musicians. However, most of the behavioural and neural data
supporting an association between music and language are from correlational studies,
336 S. Moreno
such as the Magne et al. (2006) study described above. These data, therefore, are
unclear as to whether behavioural and anatomo-functional differences between
musicians and non-musicians reflect predispositions for musical ability, or the effects
of extended musical practice.
On the basis of the Magne et al. (2006) findings, we designed a research
programme that included two longitudinal studies aimed at specifying causality of
the influences of musical training on language processing. This research programme
asked three main questions: Does musical training influence behavioural perfor-
mance in language processing? Does musical training influence neural processing
of language (ERP)? And finally, what are the influences of short (eight weeks) and
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children were tested individually in two sessions (separated by 45 days) that lasted
for about two hours each. In the first session, they completed the neuropsychological
assessments, and in the second session, the behavioral and ERP testing. In Phase 2,
Training, they received either music or painting training for 24 weeks. Finally, in
Phase 3, children were again tested individually in their school, in two sessions that
lasted also for around two hours each (neuropsychological testing and ERPs).
A subset of the Portuguese sentences used by Marques et al. (2007) was used, similar
to those of Magne et al. (2006). The main aim of this longitudinal study was to
determine whether six months of musical training in 8-year-old children influences
pitch perception in language. The results clearly showed positive transfer effects in the
music group, but not in the painting group. These effects were found both on
behavioural measures (pitch detection performance) and on electrophysiological
measures. Results showed enhancement of reading and pitch discrimination skills after
musical training, but not after painting. Six months of musical training thus appears to
be enough to modify behaviour and to influence brain function: there was a causal link
between musical training and language processing modifications at both the behavioural
and brain levels. These studies suggest a positive transfer from music to language and
highlight the plasticity of the human brain by showing that relatively short periods of
training have strong consequences on the functional organisation of a childs brain. This
is strong evidence for the effect of nurture on human behaviour and the brain.
Other findings support this association between musical expertise and linguistic
pitch discrimination at the cognitive level (Schellenberg & Moreno, forthcoming)
and at the subcortical level (Wong et al., 2007). Schellenberg and Moreno
(forthcoming) studied pitch processing with musicians and non-musicians. Results
showed that musical training was more strongly associated with cognitive aspects of
pitch processing than with sensory aspects. At the subcortical level, Wong et al.
(2007) used EEG to study an oscillatory neural response to sound, the Frequency-
Following Response (FFR), which is generated in the inferior colliculus of the
brainstem. Mandarin Chinese linguistic pitch patterns (syllables) were presented
aurally to musicians and non-musicians (participants had no knowledge of
Mandarin). The task was to listen to the syllables during a silent movie projection.
Results showed that musicians had a better representation of the stimulus F0
contours and more robust neural phase-locking (relation between F0 contour of the
338 S. Moreno
stimulus and the subjects response contour) than non-musicians. These findings are
particularly interesting as they suggest that musical expertise influences language
processing at both the sensory and at the cognitive level. The results provide evidence
for an interconnection between language and music, and an explanation for the often
reported higher-language learning ability of musicians. This could be directly relevant
to policies concerning the funding of music and foreign language education.
We explored this hypothesis in another study (Marques et al., 2007). The aim was
to determine whether musical expertise influences the detection of pitch variations in
a foreign language (participants did not speak or understand the foreign language).
Could music expertise improve perception skills and/or processing of a second
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training, for example, was not controlled for in this study, and the number of years of
education was not equivalent in both groups (Schellenberg, 2001).
Even if these studies have methodological issues, it seems reasonable to think that
they open the door to a very interesting path in researchnamely, the memory link
between music and language or global shared processing between music and
language. Koelsch and Jentschke (2008) recently showed a relationship between
music and memory processing. They studied working memory for verbal and tonal
information during rehearsal and articulatory suppression, using functional
neuroimaging (fMRI). Strings of four sung syllables were presented to non-musicians
with the task of remembering either the pitches (tonal information) or the syllables
(verbal information). Results showed activation in the ventrolateral premotor cortex
(encroaching Brocas area), dorsal premotor cortex, the planum temporale, inferior
parietal lobe, the anterior insula, subcortical structures (basal ganglia and thalamus),
as well as the cerebellum for rehearsal of verbal, as well as of tonal information. These
findings suggest that both the rehearsal of verbal and tonal information, as well as
storage of verbal and tonal information, relies strongly on overlapping neuronal
networks. These networks appear partly to consist of sensorimotor-related circuits,
which provide resources for the representation and maintenance of information, and
are remarkably similar for the production of speech and song.
In summary, these findings suggest a close relationship between music and language
at the sensory and cognitive levels. Music and language seem to be unique in terms of
resource sharing. A reasonable explanation for this is that resources provide a
particular processing function needed in both domains (Patel, forthcoming). More-
over, they also show the influence of music on language processing and on the brain
structures involved in language processing. These effects also allow us to qualify nurture
influences. This type of influence could have direct impact on the same cognitive skill, but
could also have indirect impact by modifying processing in other cognitive skills. However,
further studies are needed to shed light on nurture influences.
Conclusion
This review has attempted to bring together the behavioural and neuroscientific
results and conclusions found in current literature pertaining to the influence of
340 S. Moreno
musical training or expertise on cognition. As we saw in the introduction, music
seems to improve several cognitive skills, but most of the results to date have not
shown a clear causal link. However, our review of the neuroimaging literature
suggests that music expertise or musical training involves important brain
modification at the functional and structural levels. For example, our review showed
major modifications on several brain areas involved in different brain functions such
as auditory processing (e.g., Heschls gyrus, planum temporale; Keenan et al., 2001;
Luders et al., 2004) but also the frontal lobe (e.g., inferior frontal gyrus; Gaser &
Schlaug, 2003), the corpus callosum (Schlaug et al., 1995b) and parts of the cortex
that are related to motor function (e.g., primary motor cortex and cerebellum;
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Amunts et al., 1997; Hutchinson et al., 2003). Again, it must be kept in mind that
most of the studies in this literature are correlational; however, some of them show a
clear causal influence of musical training on auditory processing skills. These finding
are strengthening arguments about the effect of nurture on musical ability and the
powerful potential of this art to transfer skills to other cognitive domains. Finally,
these findings introduced the music-language relationship. The results of Bangert
et al. (2006) show that music stimulates brain areas associated with language
processing. I elaborated upon several findings clearly showing the bond between
music and language and notably demonstrating the causality of this connection
(Moreno & Besson, 2006; Moreno et al., 2009). From these findings emerge many
different questions as well as possible directions for future research. Below, there will
be a discussion of future research directions and consideration of applied possibilities
for rehabilitation or training.
There are three theoretical directions that seem interesting. One of the obvious
directions is the continuation of research on the link between music and language.
Patels (2008) book presents several pieces of evidence for relationships between
music and language, and encourages further exploration by addressing clear
hypotheses. One side of this relationship remains unfairly forgotten: it would be
interesting to study the double direction of the link between music and language.
Currently, most studies examine how music expertise or music training can influence
or modify language processing. However, it would be interesting to study how
language expertise or training can modify music processing. For example, Patel and
Daniele (2003) studied the hypothesis that the prosody of a cultures spoken language
can influence the structure of its instrumental music when comparing English and
French composers. Results showed that composers were influenced by their spoken
language: the prosody of a composers native language had an influence on the
structure of his or her music.
Another interesting direction to take would be to try to gain a deeper
understanding of the reason the link exists: is it the shared specific neuronal
resources, common general brain processing between activities (e.g., executive
functions) or both? Recently, an interesting experimental design was introduced by
Bialystok and Depape (2009) in which there was a comparison between musicians,
bilinguals and non-musician monolinguals. By comparing bilingualism and musical
Contemporary Music Review 341
life experiences, this design offers us the possibility to compare the effect of language
and music stimulation on behaviour and the brain as well as to identify specific and
common influences of these life experiences. Bialystok and Depape (2009) studied the
effect of musical expertise and bilingualism on executive function processing.
Participants completed three cognitive measures and two executive function tasks
(a Simon task and an auditory Stroop task) that were based on conflict. All
participants performed equivalently for both the cognitive measures and the control
conditions of the executive function tasks. However, performance diverged in the
conflict conditions. In a version of the Simon task involving spatial conflict between a
target cue and its position, both bilinguals and musicians outperformed
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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grant R01HD052523 from the United States National
Institutes of Health to Ellen Bialystok. I would like to thank specifically Dr Bialystok
for her support and her mentorship. I also thank Kornelia Hawrylewicz, Lorinda
Mak, Tashua Case, Dr Kathleen Peets, Dr Glenn E. Schellenberg and Dr Mireille
Besson for their precious help, as well as all the children who participated in the
studies.
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