Basic Principles 2.0 INTRODUCTION Ta the steady state, most power system voltages and currents are (at est appron- rately) sinusoidal functions of time al withthe same frequency. We ae therefore ‘ery intrested in sinusoidal steady-state analysis using phasor impedances adit tances and complex power, As we will in ter chapters some ofthese sinusoidal steady-state relation extend to an important clas of transient aswel ‘We assume that the reader has some famrity with the basic ideas fom cir cuitheor. In thischaper we ist review phasor representation and complex power, then introduce the theorem of conservation of complex power. Next, we consider three-phase crus balanced thre pase circuits and per phase analysis 2.4 PHASOR REPRESENTATION 9 Atthe nodes ofa power system, the voltage waveform frequently can be assumed to be purely sinusoidal and of constant frequency. The same istrue of ine currents. In ‘most ofthe analytical development in this book, we deal withthe phasor represen- tation of sinusoidal voltages and currents and we se the quantity Vand to indicate these phasors, [VI and designate the magnitudes of he phasors and y and 8 des- ‘nate their angles. ‘A phasors complex number that contains the amplitude and phase angle formation ofa sinusoidal function. The concept of phasor can be developed using Euler’ identity, which lates the exponential function tothe trigonometric functions oF = cond jsind @) ‘Equation (2.1) provides us an alternative means of expressing the cosine and sine function. The cosine function canbe represented as the real pat of the exponential Sec. 2.2 Complex Paver Supplied toa One Port 23 function, andthe sine function canbe represented asthe imaginary part ofthe ex ponenta funtion as follows cosd = Rete 22) and sind = Ime! 3) where Re represents the real prt of and Im represents he imaginary part of "A siausoial voltage function itisconentonal use the cosine function in n- alying the sinusoidal steady tate) canbe writen in te form suggested by Ey (22) 10) Voy 08 (at +8) = VeuRe(el*®} 4) avec eh} We can move the coeicient Vox inside the argument and reverse the order ofthe two exponential functions inside the argument without altering the result Hi) = Re(Vagee| es) In Eq, (25) Vaue™ isa complex number that cerres the amplitude and phase angle ofthe gven sinusoidal function. Ths complex umber isby definition he con- ventional circuit theory phasor representation ofthe gen sinusoidal function. This isthe representation used in ict theory textbooks. In power systems applications, however, e small modiicaton i always used. We define an effective phasor repre- Fane VE 06) ‘Thus the eetive phasor representation dies fromthe conventional cet theo- 1 phasor representation by the factor V2. The reas for choosing tis definition wil be presented inthe next section. Ina that follows when we se the tem pha- sor we will mean “effective phasor.” Equation (26s the polar epresentation of a phasoe, We can also obtain its rectangular representation as V = W008 By + [Voy Sin} an = IVicos dy + jIVisin Ay en 2.2 COMPLEX POWER SUPPLIED TO A ONE-PORT We continue by reviewing some additonal results fiom clementary circuit theory Using associated reference directions as shown in Figure 2, the instantaneous power supplied to aone-port Ni p(t) = ffi). We now assume that the voltage and cur- ‘ent are both sinusoids of angular frequency 0,24 Basic Principles Chap. 2 © “ ” — Figure 2.4 Power into @ one pot. = Vaus608 (ut + y) 28) (29) Vey 81d Ia ae real numbers clied the amplitudes and 6, and 6, are called the Phase ofthe voltage ad current, respectively. Sometimes it s convenient to use 2 for Ay and /1 for 6. We now calculate p() using identities from trigonometry 24) = Vea 0 (t + 4) 08 (t+ 6) Nleals(— 4) + ester oy+9y) ‘We ee that pis composed of two parts there isa constant (average) component and a sinusoidal component of requeney 2a. An example illsrating the relation- ship between p, x and iis shown in Figure 22. We note that pi zero whenever either oi) ori) i er. Thus unless v and arin phase (or 180° out of phase) thee willbe tice as many zero crossings fp) a fu) or). The component §n(210 of requeny 2s consistent wth ths observed behavior, Ta the case shown in Figure 22, the average power is positive, bat in general the average pcan be postive, negative, or zero. We next define the power factor ange: o 26-6 en) and P, the average power over one period, = 2n/u. from (2.10) we get Figure 2.2 instartaneaus power. See, 22 ConplerPover Supped toa OnePort 2 po2 loa = Pied (2.12) = 1 Veathaas 6089 In applications on is normally concerned with P rather than p() Tris frequently convenient to calculate P using the phasor representations of (0) and (). Using te (effective) phasors described in Section 2.1, {0) = Vouscos(at + 8,) 4 V =o (2.13) ‘ut) = Vin 005 (wt + By) 4 V = —E (2. : Vi Hence vf = Re Vive en) ‘We note that IVI = Vu/'V2 is the root-mean-square (rms) value of w() and hence the value read by the usual ac voltmeter. Suppose that we calculate the average power dissipated ina resistor with resistance R connected to sinusoial source of effective voltage V. . ian fp ara R ‘This isthe same formula we get with de. Thus ifthe effective voltage is 120V, we gett same average heat energy out of the esstor asf the voltage were 120V de ‘This motivates the terminology effective. A similar discussion holds fr effective cur rent through R. Thus we get the simple result win This simplcation extends to more general cases. Thus substtting (ffec- tive) phasors in (2.12), we gt P= iVpalan 0086 Vie IWiltlcos 6 Revit (213) where * designates the complex conjugate. As may be seen, the factor! which would otherwise appear in (2.15), is eliminated. Since the variable por, is so ex- tensvely used, the simplifiction is worthwhile andi universally used in power sys- tem analysis, ‘The quantity cos 6 that occurs in (2.15 is known asthe power facor (PF), Pr Leas 16= Bese Principles Chap, 2 ays ’ rH , NL |e aay fC _, | Figure 2.3. Complex poner into N, Unlike the case ofthe product of voltage and current des not give the power. To find the power we need to mulply the product of voltage and current by the power factor. Power engineers frequently use the terminology lagging ot leading power fac- tor,as inte following description, “A load draws 200 kW ata power factor of 0.707 lagging” The term lagging means that lags V. Thus we deduce that = 45° Tn 2.15) we see that P = Re VI, This raises the question of the significance oflm VI* and ofVI*itselt, Infact these quantities are just as important as P, a We wilattemp to show. Fit, let ws define complex power Sand reactive power Q: sive of inv Thus, S= VI =Wilite*= P+ 50 as) 1 (218) Sis described in both polar and rectangular forms anditis seen that /S = 6. ‘emay be helpful to summarize the results asshown in Figure 23. Using asocated reference directions for Vand Sis the complex power ito. ItV leads asshown, both Pand Q (Geivred to N) ate positive. Whats th py tens of We may ing apresition fr iat means physically by considering the following cass. We start with the case in which Nis an inductor. Example 2 ForZ = jel (©) Caeane 9 | () Caen th neasteneous power L (©) Compare, Solution (a) Using (2.18), we have S= VI © 21 = 21 jou = Ins = ou? See, 2.2 Complex Power Suppied ta @ One Port 2 (h Suppose tut caret sen f= Vito +9 hen Vi aL sin{ut + 6) a wang i) = ~Dal IE sin (we 8 cos fat + = aL sin fot +8) 6) Comping the resultsin pars a) and (b), we ind al) = -Qsindior +4) “Thus Q isthe amplitude or maxirum value of the instantaneous power into N, | In this example we seo that hough the average power P supplied to the ine ductors er, thee an instantaneous power spliced (to sustain the changing energy inthe magnetic eld) whose maximum value . | Exercise 1. Repeat Example 2Lin the case of acipacitor (Le, = Ifa). We consider next a more general example. Brample 22 CConsidet network wi driving point impedance Z. (a) Find expressions for Pand Q {) Find) in terms of Pand Q. {) Suppose tht the networkiva seis RLC. Itpet the result part (b). Solution () ReZUlP + jImZUP = P+ j0, This Ue ox ZZ Q= ka Zh = i sanz (0) 1 convenient to choose )= VE: a then of) = V2 1 cosa + £2), Using tigonometi identi, we hare 0) = oil) = AUP cos (+ 2) 008 = Zilles /2 + ew (2a * 22) = Zio 72+ cos 2at cos 2 ~ sa ut Sia 2) = PLL cos at) = sin 2 (@) In this case Z = R + jul. + I/jixC. From part (a) we find that P= & UP and Q = 0, + Qewhere Q, 4 wands 4 ~(juc) Uae the reactive power nt Land Crespecively, Ths, we ca waite ht) = PUL + oon 2a) ~ Oy sin 2 ~ Qe in DatBasic Princes Chap. 2 ‘Theft termi th insantaoous power int (withaverage vale ), Thesce- nd andthe terms ae the instantaneous ponerinto Land C,espetvely. It intresting onote that Q = Q, + Qc = Dif wLC = 1(Le,inthecase where | te inductive and capacive reactance anc) ee Suppose that we have a more general RLC network. We find, a in Example 2.2), thatthe complex power supplied tothe network at its terminal equals the sum of complex powers consumed bythe individual elements ofthe network. Anex- tension of this idea wil be discasedin Section 2.3, ‘We turn nex othe importance of Q. Power system planners and operators axe interested in Q, 2s wel as P, generation, and flow. The reactive power compo- nent of customer’ load aswell asthe average power must be supplied, and there isa cost associeted with this supply. From Figure 23 we can see that fora given IV anc P, increases with Ql. Inreasd | means increased heating loses in genet- ators transformers and transmission lines, and also ineressed cst of equipment ca- pable of supplying the higher curents. There is also a cost associated with the maintenance of voltage within acceptable limits atthe terminal of transmission lines upping relatively large IQ. We wil retum to this matter in Chapter 4 In addition tits importance in system planning ané operation the variable Q ‘sessential in power systems analysis. In circuits we deal primarily with the complex numbers V and I. In power systems, whose function sto deliver power at acceptable ‘voltages we deal instead withthe complex numbers Vand. Finally, we consider terminology and descriptive unit (Table 2.1) It should be noted ha, strietly speaking the units in each case are wats. However, itreduces «confusion and is extremely convenient to use the desriptve unit to designate the ‘quantity. For example we speak of supplying a load of 10 KW or 15 MVA. By this ‘wemean thet P = 10KW orlsi = 15 MVA. Note tha the expression “aload draws or absorbs 200 kW ata power feta of 0.707 lagging” completly specifies S, since we deduce that P = 200 kW and @ = 45%; thus S = 200 4 j200KVA. “The term lads also wsed to indicate the connec device. For example, we speak ofa motor oad or aload Z = 1.0 + j20. coo Quantity ‘Terminology Descriptive unit s ‘Complex power ‘Voltamperes:VA, EVA, MVA, is “Apparent power Voltamperes: VA, kVA, MVA P ‘Average orealloractve power Watts WW, MW 2 Reactive power Voltanperes reactive: VAR AVAL, ‘MVAr Sec. 2.2 Gomplex Power Suppied toa OnaPart 29 Equation (2.18) has several useful variations. These variations arise from the representation ofa load as impedance elements. In power system analysis, we commonly switch between specification of loads in terms of real and reactive power or in terms of impedance quantities. In order to demonstrat these vari- ations, we rst replace the circuit in the box in Figure 23 by an equivalent im- pedance Z such that Zz 219) Substituting (2.19) into (2.18) yields sezir WZ UPR + 1X) oe TER + jUEX =P + jQ ‘rom which P=ueR 22) snd o=rx 02) In 222), Xs the reactance of either the equivalent inductance or the equivalent ca- pacitance of the ctcut its positive for inductive circuits and negative for capacitive circuits Another useful variation of (2.18) is obtained by replacing the curent with the valtage divided by the impedance: set see es If Zis a purely resistive element, (24) andi Zisa purely reactive element; Q (225) In 225), X's positive for an inductor and negative for a capacitor.30 Basic Principles Chap. 2 ‘Thre loads are connected in paral aerss a 80 V (rms) ine as shown in Fig. re E23. Load I absorbs 12kW apd 6.657 VAT. Load absorbs 4RVA at 196 PF leading, Load absorbs 1SEW at uit power factor. Find he impedance hats euiy- lento the tne paral loads aves 0] 2] G : Figure E2. S\= 12+ 666TKVA 5, = $096) ~ Asin (cos (096) kVA = 384 — jL12 BVA Sy= 15+ JORVA Shas" 5, 45,4 5,= 3088 + jSSHTEVA ‘The equivalent impedance canbe found asa series combination of Rand Xo asapar- alle combination of Rand X. Series Combination of and X in Impedance From Eq. 023), 0 x10" oa + 55H 728 - jane “Therefore Z = 7257 + j130160. Paral! Combination of and Xi mpedarce 2 _ ar a pen om xo cassa 2 = 74708 jatSi5 | ne 2.3 CONSERVATION OF COMPLEX POWER In working with eomplex power, we make extensive use ofthe theorem of conserva- tion of complex power. A statement ofthe theorem follows, Sec, 2.3 Conservation of Complex Power a” Theorem of Conservation of Complex Power. Foca network supple by in- dependent sources alla the same frequency. the sum ofthe complex power soplied by the independent sources equals the sum ofthe complex power received byall the ober branches ofthe network Impliitin the preeding statement isthe assumption that all the voltages and current are sinusoids Fora single source with elements in series, the proof ofthe theorem isimme- diate by using Kirchhot's voltage law (KVL). The same is true for eementsinpar- allel by use of Kirchoft’s current law (KCL), In the general case the most direct proof uses Tellegen’s theorem and may be found in circuit theory textbooks. We em- phasize thatthe theorem states that conservation applies to reactive power aswell as toactve power. Tn applying the theorem we frequently find it convenient to replace part of the network by an equivalent independent source. Forexample, in Figure 24, assuming ro coupling between N, and N; except through the terminals a shown, we replace 1N; by source. The source i iter the voltage Vor the current fat the terminal interface. Thea, applying the theorem to Np, we get St +5233, 024) ‘where on the right side of (2.26) we sum ll the complex powers delivered tothe in- lividual branches inside N, ‘This replacement of a network or branch by source equal to eitter the voltage or current the network or branch supplies is physically very reasonable (under the conditions assumed). In circuit theory textbooks the replacenient is ‘the subject ofthe so-celled substitution theorem, endit willbe convenient tp refer tit by that name. Figure 2.4 Application ofean- servation of complex power.tr i 32 Basic Principles Chap. 2 Sec. 2.3 Conservation of Complex Power oa | Example 24 Now using V3) = IM), we ind | Forthe circuit shown in Figure E244, find S; in terms of $,,C, and V. u* Ut Joists r+ ot= at ap so ae 5, _ Figure £2.4 where of reactive power! Solution Using the theorem ofonseration of complex power, We have | Wenote that @; > Qj itis reasonable and convenient to consider Cs source ree | SSS Sy 2Vi= Vee = jee SS, jecive nar 2,=0,+ oc? Tas Erample 25 Conia hi somin Fe 2S, Aa t= 17a s Gels 0 % : ry : sah nas 7 Figure £2.85 Solon Using te theorem of complex power, the complex power nto the inductor is S.+S:9VI = jolt aPi=0 2+ 0)= obit Exercise 2, Whatifthe inductor Lis replaced by amore genera two-termina re- active network? Is the result in Example 25 stil rue? ———c— Inthe next example we show one form of one-ine diagram showing generators, Joads end transmission lines and the points of interconnection, called buses. Some ofthe complex powers are specified others are to be determined. We use a double- subscript notation S, to indicate complex power leaving bus and entering the tans- mission line connected to bus j. Sq, and Spare the complex powers from the i generator and othe ith load, respectively. Example 26 In Figure E24, assume that S, = ~Sp. This is consistent with modeling the trans isin ines as inductors asin Erample25. Find S.,S S2Sua0d Soy eens oan se.208+ 5 Led sil err34 Basic Principles Chap. 2 Solution Considering each bus sa network wth nonteral ranches, we gt com plex power balance for each bus. Thus, the complex powers at each bus sty KCL. Weget Sy= (+ ~~ j1)~ (05+ j02) s+ js as + js Sinilly, Sq = (05+ j05)~ (1+ j1=(-05+ j02)= Sa= 707 Finally Sex (05 + j1g)~ j07~ fiw 0s+ joa Example 27 Calelate the complex power S transferred from No N;sssuming thatthe only cou ‘lings throve the terminals as shown in Figure E2.7(). eunaoie Figure E2.7(0) Solution Pick any datum node ia i and le theV; be the voltages with respect otis ‘node, In the spirt of he substition theorem we replace te soutesin Figure EZ). Using the theorem of conservation of complex powers cea hat se Suir Figure £2.7(b) Seo, 2.4 Balanced ThreePhese 5 [ Exampte28 In Figure £28,calealatan expression forthe comple power trsered t0N;. | 4 Solution Any node in Njcan be used asa datum node, If we pick sth datum | Figure £2.8 | pode then using te resltin Earp 27 eget 5 Vogl + Vol + Vel? volt Vall nthe te kandi we ick asthe dtu ode ge 5 | ‘This attr resus the bas forthe “two-wartmeter method” for reading tree phate poner. The reader may check thatthe two expression for yield ientcal esl, 2.4 BALANCED THREE-PHASE Pover is supplied by three-phase generators, [ts then transfered and distributed inthe form of three-phase power excep at the lowest voltage levels of the distribu tion system, where single phase is used Figure E28 illustrates a three-phase (3) ict. The cits balanced 39 circuit if the impedances are equal and the ree voltae source phasors differ only in their angles, with 120" angle fferences between any pai. ‘There ate a numberof reasons forthe popular of (balance) three-phase oversinglephase supply. Among these we note tha three-phase equipmentis more efficent and makes more effective use of material (conductors andor iron), and hence costs ess than single-phase equipment of the same total powerhandlng &- pobilty, Asan illustration we ean cnsier the saving in conductor material na 36 transmission fines compared with an equivalent set of thee 14 transmission lines. ‘Three Id circuits are shown in Figure 25, Six conductors are required to cary the current. Suppose now that Vas Vand V_form a balanced 36 set. In this case fs {,,and I, will aso bea balanced 34 set with , +I, + 1c = Oand there isa way 1038 Basic Principles Chap. 2 A 4 he E Figure 2.8 Balanced tres phase and singe phase compared, climinae the return wires. We connect pint ab’, and (to @“eutral” point) the sources ar said tobe connected in wye. We also connect the impedances in Wye "The return wires are now in parallel carrying acurent, + I, + 1, = 0. Since they sre carrying no curtet they are redundant and may be removed. We now have a38 ‘wanssin ine with he same current-handing capacity but with only half as many conductors asin the original configuration of 16 circuits, The seving in FR lin loss- «esshould abo be noted, An additional advantage of 36 over Id supply willbe noted inSection 26, Let us conser next a more general balanced three-phase sytem. For sim- plity we will considera mode consisting only of impedances and ideal sources. A balanced three-phase system s made up of balanced three-phase sources ofthe same phase sequence and a network with three-phase symmetry. A three-phase sources balanced fits composed of thre individual sourcesin dye o dela configuration and the source voltages (or currents) differ only in their angles with 120° angle di- ference between any pat. For example, in Figure 26, cas | ine-neutral voltages Eqy=1 (0° Eig = 1/120" and Ey = 1 /120 ate a balanced three-phase source. 1 case I, inedling voltages Ey= 100 /10, Fy, =100 /-t10', and E, 100 /130" are also a balanced three-phase source. Note that if one observes the instantaneous line-neutral voltages associated withthe phasors then forthe choice of phasors in case Ithe voltage reach their max- imum values inthe order abe; incase I the line-ine voltages ¢(), (0, 88d €4() also reach their maximum values inthe order abc. Tn ether cas, we sy the phase Sequence is an abc o positive sequence Balanced volagesmay aso have a phase sequence acb or egaive sequence. For example, in case 1, the voltages may be Ey = 10°, E,,= 1/120", and Eq, = 1 £=120 Itisimportant that all the soures connected tothe same network Seo, 2.4 Balonced ThreePhase a7 Figure 2.8 Viye and deta sources, have the same phase sequence, and special care i taken when connecting @ new source to an existing network to match the phase sequence. Given an actual system, whether the Sequence is abc o acb depends on noth: ing more than how one labels te wires. To avoid confusion ness stated to the con- teary, we wil always assume a labeling such that under the balanced conditions we are describing the sequence is abc or positive sequence We point out thatthe connection of ideal sources shown in Figure 2.6, case I, isclearly inappropriate unless asin the balanced case, Eu + Exe ~ Bx, = 0. This is because with zero series resistance (as implied inthe figure) the czcuating current would be infinite, Inthe case shown, with Ey, + Ey, + E,, = 0,although the crcu- lating currents indeterminate (Le, 010), we will assume thats zero. ‘A symmetric three-phase network shown in Figure 27. We have labeled the phases a,b and c, but because ofthe symmetry the labeling s purely arbitrary. The Py 2 Figure 2.7. Syrmenic threeghass netars38 Bast Principles Chap, 2 ‘srouping of elements in phases, and c into triples of equal impedances isthe im- portant feature, From the point of vew of analysis balanced three-phase has a desirable feature: Itis possible to cary ou the analysis using « much simpler “per phase” circuit with ‘one-third or fewer elements than inthe orginal circuit. ‘Asa preliminary to introducing per phase analysis consider Example 29, ‘Example 29° Calculation of Neural Neural Voltage Given the balanced cic shown in Figure E29, cal Vj. Figure £2.9 Solution Using the admittance Y = 1/2, we have = V(Ew~ Ys) I= YlEw ~ Ya) L=Y(Ex~ Yo) ‘Adding the equations, we have Tot I+ [c= YE + Ene + Ee) ~ 37, Now applying KCL to node nor n'ywe get, + Jy + 1, = 0, Since Ey Ey and Ey sea balanced set of soures they sum to zeta. Therefore, Vy, = 0 Nowe1: The condition Ey + By + x= Ois stringent than the assumed con tons ewe do not require Ex Ey and Eto be balanced). [Now2 With Ve, * Owecancaleulte/, ® YEq 15 = YE ad J, = YE. This the pases are completely decoupled Example 210 ‘Repeat Example 29 when there ian impedance Z, connected between neutrals x and. Assume that Z, + Z/3 # 0. Geo. 2.4 Balanced Three Phase 39 ‘Solation 1fZ, = 0 then obviously Vs, = 0. 122, # Owe cancaleulae¥, = 1/2, and we can repeat the clelation in Example 29s follows, We get Eas ~ Ve) WEie — Vox) 1 = WE ~ Ve) Vie he ‘where fy the curent into the node. Adding the four equations and using KCL atnode we pt O=-GY + Yer ‘Thos since 3Y + Y, # 0, Yop =0 and oe = 0 Note Sine the result hls for 2, = coandZ, = Owe can replace Z, by at open ict or short cuit scone Usually, we ws e shor ect since it makes expt th useful condition Va = 0 ‘Suppose that we consider amore complicated balanced 34 network:forexam- ple, the one in Figure 28. I ssi true thatthe ceutrals are atthe same potential, with zero neutral currents and that we may replace Z, and Z, by short crcuts. We vill show this by an alternative tothe direct calculation used in Examples 9 and 210, In Figure 28 assume that LE TR + B90 2, The network has three-phase symmetry ‘We will now show that Vg = Vir, = O (ie, all the neutral points are atthe same voltage), Proof, The circuit in Figure 2.8 has Ey, = Ey, Eyy = Ey, and Bog = Ey. AS sume that with this 36 input the calculated voltage is V,, = Vo- Next, shit the sources Ey, Ey, and ES0 that Eyy = Ey, Beg = Evan Eyg = Ey. With his 3b input oc ¢ 2 Figure 2.8. Ssianced three phase netaork.40 Basic Principles Chap. 2 ‘Figure 2.8 Phase a crout. ‘and taking into account the three-phase network symmetry, we get the same values ‘ofvoltages and curent inthe network a before but shifted with espct to the phas- es. However, the neutral voltages donot change. We sil get Vj, = K.. Next let Eq, E;, Eq = Ez, Eye = Es,and once again V,, = Ve. Finale the 39 input be the sum ofthe previous thre 3 inputs (i, yy = Eye = Eq = Ey + Ey + Eby ‘assumption 1 this inputiszera, Considering the previous results by application of the ‘ricipeof superposition We get Va, = 3% But since the 36 input is ero, we know that Vy = Oin this case. Tous Vs = Oand the calculated voltage V, fr the given et ofsouresis Ve, = K = 0. Clearly the same argument shows that V,, = aswel ‘Wenote that with ll neutrels at the same potential the solution ofthe network ‘sreaty simplified, For example in Figure 28 we can sole for, by considering only phase a quantities, This is showa in Figure 29. 1, end J, may be found by consider- ing similar phase b and phase ccircuits. The three crus are effectively deoonpled the only connection between them i theic common neutral, where the phase, b and e neutral curent contributions sum to ero. We noe finally that we can beef ficient about calculating f and J, once fis known. IfE, E,, and Ey are a postive (negative) sequence set, then I, , and [have the same propery. Note that in Figure 28th sources and load are wye connected. Ifthe Z,loads ‘were connected in deta,n and would stil bea the same potential but the decou- pling (asin Figure 29) would not ocour. The same problem arises ifthe sources were connected in delta ¢ Fortunately, we can replace the deltas by equivalent wyes. Consier first the delts-wye transformation of loads which replaces a given delta bya wy thats equi- alent inits terminal behavior. Delta-Wye Load Transformation (Symmetrical Case), Given a delta with impedances Z,, 2 wye with impedances Z, = Z,/3 bs the same terminal behavior. Proof See Figure 210, Because of symmetry. it sulces to show the equivalence for J, interms of Vg and V.. Forth deta, Ya ez) See 2.4 Balanced ThresPhase a Figure 2.10 4: transformation Va = Zille~ bh) Voc = 2illy ~ be) Vag + Vee = ZiQde ~ (Mh + 1)) But KCL at node n gives 1, = ~{0y + J, shence 2h (228) Comparing (2.27) and (2.28), we find that Z, = Z, Vag + Ve Note 1: The equivalence ofthe deta andthe wy is only external tothe terminals a,b, and c. I internal behavior is of interest, one mast not forget to go back tothe delta to complete the calculation. Note 2: We emphasize that the relationship Z, symmetric case the case we are considering n0¥, 3 only holds in the We nest develop the relationship between line-nevtal and lineine voltages inbalanced ystems, Ths wil permit us to replace deta-conneted line-ine) sources with equivalent ye connected (ine-neutral) sources. Since the reals apply to gen «al voltages (nous soure valages), we wil use the V notation rather then the E notation. Delta Wye Source Transformation. Starting withthe general relationship be- ‘ween line-netural and tineslne vollage,we have Vos = Van ~ Vow (229)a Baie Principles, Chap. 2 Figure 2.14. Unenectral vot © ages in arms of inane votages. itwenow introduc th constant that Va Vand Vat postive sequence st, then, for arbitrary Vjq, We get Vig = Vine™?” and Vo, = Vene"*". Substituting in (228). we ind tht Vy Vand ar aoa postveseqtnce se Wecan relate theleadiag terms Vand Vy. Wee Vg= =e Neg= Vid Ve 0x) ‘The transformation also works in the other diestion if Yip, Vand Vg are postive sequence, so ate Vs Vn a Vy With ve Spemmy, eat yo @31) and we cn thus ind the equivalent wye voltages. “The relationship (229) to (231) can also be expressed graphically. Draw the linetine voltage phasors Vi. Vj, and Vin an equilateral triangle as shown in Fig- ure 211, Label the vertices , bande. Findthe center ofthe triangle and abet Draw the inscribed set fline-neutral voltage Ve, Ve 204 Va 85 shown Ifthe voltages are negative sequenc, the relationship is found tobe Va = Vie™Ve, 02) a AL any, ox) yo : Note 1: In cir te postive sequence or egntvesequnce ct, the nine volage maps te nese ine neal valle magus ‘Note 2: The term line voltage instead of line line voltages also used, The term phase voltae instead of line neutral voltages also wed, Example 211 | suppose tat there are a set of (balanced) postive-sequene Hine voltages with Vg™ 1 2°. ind Vo Vos Vy Solution The relationship between balanced ln and phase voltages is shown in Fi. we 211, We then find that ec. 2.5 Par Phase Anais a3 Exercise 3. Suppose that in (229), Vs, Vi, and V, are a (balanced) posiive- ‘sequence set and We try to solve for Vx, Vi, ad Vg Without the constraint that they also are a (balanced) postive sequence set. What goes wrong mathematically? How do you interpret the difcuty physically? 2.5 PER PHASE ANALYSIS ‘The stage has now been set to introduce the powerful method of per phase analysis. ‘The justification fo the method follows directly from the following theorem. Balanced Three-Phase Theorem, Assume that we are given a 1 balanced three-phase (connected) system with 2. allloads and sources wye connected, and 3; inthe cieuit model there is no mvtual inductance between phases Then (a) al the neutrals are at the same potential, (b) the phases are completely decoupled, and (6) alleorresponding network variables occur in balanced ses ofthe same sequence asthe sources, Outine of Proof The fact that the neutrals ae atthe same potential and the network phases ae decoupled fll jus asin the ase diced following Fig ure 28 sing superponiton, te number of sures canbe abitary. Without mut alindutance between the phases they are completely decoupled and with balanced (postive sequence) sources iis lear that the responses in phases b and lg the corresponding sponses in phase aby 120" and 240 reapectvel, The net sult tha corresponding responses scrin balanced (posve-sequence) sets, The same ide old inthe ease of negative sequence sures4 Basic Principles Chap. 2 Method: Per Phase Analysis, We nex turn othe method of per phase analy- sis, Given a balanced three-phase (connected) network with o mutual indutance bermeen phases, 1. Converall dets-connectd soures and oasinto equivalent wy connections. 2 Solve for the desired phase a variables sing the phate acre with ll neutrals ‘comected. 4 The phase and phase variables can then be determined by inspection sub- tract 120° and 240° respectively, from the phase angles found in step 2, inthe usual case of postive sequence sources. Add 120" and 240° in the case of negative Sequence soures. 4. necessary go back to the orignal circuit to fnd lne-ine verables or vari- ables internal to delta connections. Note: In using per phase analysis, we always pick the neutral as datum, In this cae itis simpler to use a singl-subsript notation for phase voltages. We wil use rather than Vy, Example 212 Given the Balanced three-phase sytem shown in Figure E2.12(a),fnd (andi). ‘ pl ‘ 7 ‘Sec. 2.5 Per Phase Anahsis aa 0 Figure £2.12(6) | The phasor ¥ represents the sinusoid) = 368 cos (at + 4S". From the orginal | circuit we ee that to find), we need o find Vy. Ths | | Moe Yon = Viele =o a The. wingth inpda ofthe pair, ed hat 30 by = 8 pss yes nd itfolows tat the corresponding snusidl function x {= 319 cos (ar + 165) In the next example we consider a balanced three-phase system in which one ‘of the 3 loads is described in terms of impedance and two of the 36 loeds are de- scribed in terms of complex power absorbed, Figure £2. Solution Replace delta by the equivalent wye,Z, = —j2/3. Using per phase analy. sis we consider the per phase (phase a cizcuit shown in Figure E212(0). Note that, ‘while V, appears th pr phate cre, has ben suppresed inthe proces ofthe 4s Caring ott ton oi Ve note that heals | parallel impedance fom ato’ is~ 2. Using the vlog divider law, Example 213 ‘Aire pas ln asa impedance of 06 + 00/6. The ne feds thee tl anced thee phase lads that are cones ia parallel The fst od is absorbing a ‘total of 156 RW and 117 kVAr magnetizing voliamperes. The second load is & con- | nected and bas animpedanc of 164 ~ 20. The rd loadisIISEVA a 08°F leading. The line oneal wage at the aed end ofthe ine 240 V. Whats th magnitude ofthe ne voltage athe sure end ofthe ine? Seton | 2+ java s2at0— j39000 | yA |46 Basic Penciples. Chap. 2 ‘Converting the A load to an equivalent V.conneted lad, 4a {015 06 ~ /115sn (co (06) = 23 ~ j2066TRVA ‘Not thatthe negative ign accounts forthe leading power factor, aan — [30667 760 ‘The total erent drawn bs the three parallel oasis given by [p= 1+ [y+ l= 18.766 ~ j12235 8 ‘The voltage at the sending endo he ines given by 00 /AP + (78.765 ~ 12.235) 06 + /30) = 168896 + j22895 = 269371487 V Tae magitude ofthe lneto-ine voltage a the sending ends tben Wad = V3(2695.71) = 4665.64.V 8846 ~ j11795 2.6 BALANCED THREE-PHASE POWER ‘One of the important advantages of balanced three-phase operation is thatthe in- stantaneous power delivered toa load isa constant. We wil show this in a moment. Fint, refering to Example 28 wth the neutral point as the datgge, we gt, using our single-subscript notation, + vue Vdd (34) , |. occur in balanced sets, we can Ss Since we are assuming that V, Vj, Vand f, ‘ite forthe positive sequence case, Sym Vat VerMPIge? + Ve Tse BP (235) Say = 3Val? = 38 (236) where Sis the per phase complex power. The negative-sequeace case gives the same result. Thus to caleulate the total three-phase power we can find the phase « power (by per phase analysis) and simply multiply by 3. Next, we calculate the instanta- neous three-phase power, using (210) and (2.11), Sec, 2.7 Summary a Prot) = vdidide) + mdse) + vet) IWilN {cos + cos(2or + JV + £1) smite + cos(au + 2¥ + 2 ufo ars 2 3IVIMcos @ 3P ‘The easiest way to check thatthe double-requency terms cance sto add the phae sor representations, ‘The fact that the instantaneous power delivered to the load i constant should be contrasted withthe case of single-phase power illustrated in Figure 2.2. An ad- ‘vantage of constant power for supplying ac motors is tha itis consistent with constant speed and torque. With single-phase motors there are torque pulsations accompa: tying the power pulsation tat can be troublesome in some applications. Thus we have yet another advantage of 36 supply over Id supply, ‘The basic objective ofthis chapter was o give the reader an appreciation for com= plex power as a variable and develop some essential analytical tool. The material covered included the definitions of instantaneous power, complex, active, and reae- tive power;and the relations between them, Etfestive phasors were introduced and ‘wed tocalculate complex power. Reactive power was related to peak instantanzous power into the reactive elements and thereby a physical interpretation was provid- ed. The theorem of conservation of complex power was given with some applications. The capacitor a a source of reactive power was described, An expression fot the complex power delivered to an nport was derived. Balanced three-phase power systems were defined and some advantages of their use were indicated. Per phase analysis asa simplifying tol was introduced. Delta-wye transformations of balanced three-phase sources and symmetric loads were derived. Problems 2, tn Figure 2.1, 40) = V3 x 120.08 (ut + 30°}il) = V2 x 10-08 (ot ~ 30) (a) Find tS, P, and Q int the network, (©) Find a simpe (two-lement series circuit consistent with the prescribed terminal behavior as described in hs problem,48 Basic Princes Chap. 2 222. Wit V1 = 100 the iastantancous power intoa network Nas maximum value 1707 Wand «minimum vale ~293 W. (e) Find a possible series RL rut equivalent oN. (0) Find S = P + jQint0N. (c) Find the maximum instantaneous power into Land compare with Q. 123, A certain 1g load draws 5 MW at 07 power factor lagging. Determine the reactive ower required from a parallel capacitor to bring the power factor ofthe parallel com- bination upto 03 ‘2A, A 36 Jad dams 200 KW ata PF of 0907 ageing from a 40-V line, Inparalelis 38 ‘capacitor bank tht supplies SORVAr. Find the resultant power factor and current (og- nitude) ato the parallel combination, 2, 1d ond draws 10 RW fom a 416-V ine at a power factor of 0. aging. (@ Fads =P + JO. (0) Find it (@) Astune that /1 = 0 snd Gnd pi) 226, The system shown in Figure P26isbalanced (and postive sequence). Assume that z= Ls 28 /-108 why Land Sy he Find Vs Vo Vay Hay Yn oo! Fine pas 27, In Figure PL find the total complex power delivered to thefbad. Assume that Zen ~j02 Z,= joa Problems 43 28 In the system shown in Figure P2S, fn, and kif @) Z,=Z,= 7102, = j09 ) Z,=2,=2Z,= jlo ‘Hin "Use per pase analysis in pat (b) Figure P2.8 29. The system shown in Figure P29 is balanced 4, Use pt phase analysis to find Joy doy Loy and Ty. Note: We need to find a “sar” equivalent for the set of vokages, ny at Figure P2. 2210. The system shown ia Fig P21Dis balanced. Assume that c=0F 4 Wal = 200 onde FindIVy4 land Sie Hin: Use per phase analysis.50 Basic Principles «Chap. 2 Figure 2.10 ‘241 The stem showa in Figure P21 isbalanoed. Find Ve ys Vow and Vow mt nda ae a Figure P2.14 ‘LIL The pystem shown in Figure P212isbelanced. Assume that load inductors, 2, lest Figure P2.12, Problems co ‘LIB Refer to Figure PS and sue that sof —____] co Figure P2.13 z= 10 for v= 208 (a) lth cout is balanced postive sequence (abe find Ve Vale fad (b) lf the circuit is balanced negative sequence (act, find Wal a 244, Thesystem shown ia Figure P24 balanced. Specify Zo that Weyl > al Hine Use per phase analysis and experiment withthe element Za resistance, as nduetance or & capacitance eer Figure P2.14 208 Tn Figure P25, sume tat B= Vis BL F=1 Ast heat dw82 Basic Principles Chap. 2 Figure P2-15 ‘The load is symmetrical and Zino given. The soures are not balanced, bat we note that E, + B, + E,=0. Find Si © Transmission-Line Parameters 3,0 INTRODUCTION In Chapters 3 and we consider the modeling ofrensmisson lines and develop use ful lamped-crcuit models In these models a line is characterized by four distri uted parameters: series resistance, eres inductance, shunt conductance, and shunt capacitance, The series inductance and shuat capitan represent the effects of the magnetic and electric fields around the conductors, The shunt conductance ac counts for leakage currents along insulator strings and ionized pathways in thea this leakage is usually a small effect and is frequent ignored, The remaining parame- ters however, are needed to develop a useful transnission-ine model for tse in gen- eta power system studies. ‘We are interested in two kinds of questions The first is descriptive: How are the parameters, particularly inductance and capacitance, related to line geometry (ce, wite size and configuration)? Systems designers have some choice inthe selec tion of his geometry. One way the selection affects system performance i through the parameter values. Weare, therefore,nterestedin how inductance and capacitance depend on the tne geometry. ‘A second question concerns modeling. In Chapter 2 the advantages of per phase analysis of balanced three-phase circuits were emphasize, the expectation being that this useful tol would be applicable o practical systems including tree phase transmission lines. This implies that in the circuit model there is no mutual inductance between phases. If one considers the prjsicl three-phase transmission line, there clearly is magnetic coupling between the phases. Hov, thea, does one get rid ofthe mutual inductance in the circuit model? Similar questions can be asked about the shunt capacitances. For the reader who hes studied transmission lines solely from a feld point of view, we note that he circuits approach we wll adopts equivalent for a lossless line For the practical case of lines with small losses ané operating at low frequencies the use of the circuits approach is completely justifiable. In the following section we derive expressions for inductance and capacitance of three-phase lines in terms of lie geometry. 53