Module 1.1 (Maths) Final

PIA Training Centre Module 1 MATHEMATICS
Category A/B1/B2
MODULE 1
Sub Module 1.1 ARITHMETIC
Sub Module 1.2 ALGEBRA

Sub Module 1.3 LOGARITHMS
Sub Module 1.4 GEOMETRY

Sub Module 1.5 INTRODUCTION TO
STATISTICS
ISO 9001-2008 Approved For Training Purpose Only

PTC/CM/COMMON/M1/01 Rev. 00
1.1 - 1 MAR, 2014
Category A/B1/B2
Sub Module Rev. No.

1.1 Arithmatics 00
1.2 Algebra 00
1.3 Logrithms & Antilogrithms 00
1.4 Geometry 00
1.5 Introduction To Statistics 00

1.1 - 2 MAR, 2014
Category A/B1/B2 Sub Module 1.1 Arithmetics
MODULE 1
Sub Module 1.1
ARITHMETIC

1.1 - 3 MAR, 2014
Contents
ARITHMETICAL TERMS AND SIGNS......................1

Rational and Irrational Numbers..............................1
Absolute Value of a Number.....................................2
PRACTICE QUESTIONS........................................2
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS..................................3
The Laws of Signs....................................................3
The Use of Symbols.................................................4
The Commutative, Associative and Distributive Laws5
Long Multiplication...................................................6
Sequence of Arithmetical Operations......................7
FACTORS AND MULTIPLES...................................8
Factors & Multiples...................................................8
Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)............................8
Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.)..............................8
FRACTIONS.......................................................9
Vulgar Fractions.......................................................9
Types of Fractions..................................................10
Lowest Common Denominator...............................11
Addition of Fractions..............................................11
1.1 - 4 MAR, 2014
Subtraction of Fractions.........................................12
Multiplication of Fractions......................................13
Cancellation of Fractions........................................13
Division of Fractions...............................................13
Operations with Fractions......................................14
PRACTICE QUESTIONS......................................15
DECIMALS.......................................................16
The Decimal System..............................................16
Fraction to Decimal Conversion.............................16
Conversion of Decimals to Fractions......................17
Operations of Decimal Numbers............................17
Powers of Ten.........................................................17
Estimation Techniques...........................................19
WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND CONVERSION FACTORS21
The International System of Units..........................21
Factors of Multiples & Sub-multiples:.....................21
Space & Time:........................................................21
Mechanics:.............................................................21
Heat:......................................................................21
Expressing SI Units................................................22
Conversion Factors.................................................22
RATIO AND PROPORTION..................................23

1.1 - 5 MAR, 2014
Ratio......................................................................23
Proportional Parts...................................................24
Direct Proportion....................................................24
Inverse Proportion..................................................25
AVERAGES.......................................................27
PERCENTAGES.................................................28
Percentage of a Quantity.......................................29
AREAS AND VOLUMES......................................31
Areas......................................................................31
Volumes.................................................................34
SQUARES, CUBES AND SQUARE & CUBE ROOTS..37
Squares..................................................................37
Cubes.....................................................................37
Square Roots..........................................................37
Cube Roots.............................................................37

1.1 - 6 MAR, 2014
ARITHMETICAL TERMS AND SIGNS
Rational and Irrational Numbers
It is generally believed that our present number system began The natural numbers are positive integers, but suppose we wish
with the use of the natural numbers, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . to subtract a larger natural number from a smaller natural
These whole numbers, known as the positive integers, were number, e.g. 10 subtracted from 7, we obviously obtain a
used primarily for counting. However, as time went on, it number which is less than zero, i.e. 7 10 3 . So our idea of
became apparent that whole numbers could not be used for numbers must be enlarged to include numbers less than zero
defining certain mathematical quantities. For example, a period called negative numbers. The number zero (0) is unique, it is
in time might be between 3 and 4 days or the area of a field not a natural number because all natural numbers represent
might be between 2 and 3 acres (or whatever unit of measure positive integer values, i.e. numbers above zero and quite
was used at the time). So the positive fractions were introduced, clearly from what has been said, it is not a negative number
either. It sits uniquely on its own and must be added to our
number collection.
So to the natural numbers (positive integers) we have added

1 1 3 negative integers, the concept of zero, positive rational numbers
e.g. 2 , 4 and 4 . These two groups of numbers, the positive and negative natural numbers. What about numbers like 2 ?
integers and the positive fractions, constitute what we call the This is not a rational number because it cannot be represented
positive rational numbers. Thus, 317 is an integer or whole by the quotient of two integers. So yet another class of number
1 needs to be included, the irrational or non-rational numbers.
3 Together all, the above kinds of numbers constitute the broad
number, is a positive fraction and 4 is a rational number. class of numbers known as real numbers.
In fact a rational number is any number that can be expressed
as the quotient of two integers, i.e. any number that can be
a
written in the form b where a and b represent any integers.
4 7
Thus 5 , 9 and 1 are all rational numbers.

1.1 - 7 MAR, 2014
Absolute Value of a Number PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Although we have mentioned negative numbers, we have not 1. 6, 7, 9, 15 are ___________ numbers.
considered their arithmetic manipulation. All positive and 8 1 7
negative numbers are referred to as signed numbers and they
obey the arithmetic laws of sign. Before we consider these laws, 2. 5 , 4 and 64 are ___________ numbers.
let us first consider what we mean by signed numbers. a
Conventional representation of signed numbers is shown below, 3. Rewrite the numbers 5, 13, 16 in the form b ,
with zero at the midpoint. Positive numbers are conventionally
where b 6 .
shown to the right of zero and negative numbers to the left:
4. Express the negative integers 4, 7, 12 in the
, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, a
form b , where b 4 .
The number of units a point is from zero, regardless of its
direction, is called the absolute value of the number 5. 16 can be expressed as a positive
corresponding to the point on the above number system when ___________. It is ___________.
points are drawn to scale. Thus the absolute value of a positive
number, or of zero, is the number itself. While the absolute
6. 10 cannot be expressed as a/an ___________
value of a negative number is the number with its sign changed. number; however, it is a/an ___________.
For example, the absolute value of +10 is 10 and the absolute
value of 10 is also 10. Now the absolute value of any number n
is represented by the symbol |n|. Thus |+24| means the absolute
value of +24. Which is larger, |+3| or |14|? The answer is |14|
because its absolute value is 14, while that of |+3| is 3 and of
course 14 is larger than 3.

1.1 - 8 MAR, 2014
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS
Fourth law: To multiply (or divide) one signed number by
The Laws of Signs another, multiply (or divide) their absolute values; then, if the
numbers have like signs, prefix the plus sign to the result; if they
First law: To add two numbers with like signs, add their absolute have unlike signs, prefix the minus sign to the result.
values and prefix their common sign to the result.
Therefore, applying this rule to the multiplication of two positive
This law works for ordinary arithmetic numbers and simply numbers, e.g. 3 4 12 ; 7 9 63 and so on, which of
defines what we have always done in arithmetic addition. For course, is simple arithmetic! Now applying the rule to the
example: ( 3) ( 4) 7 ; (-7) (-5) -12 and so on. multiplication of mixed sign numbers we get e.g.
( 8) (-3) -24 ; - 5 7 -35 and so on.
Second law: To add two signed numbers with unlike signs,
subtract the smaller absolute value
from the larger and prefix the sign of the number with the larger
absolute value to the results.
So following this rule, we get for example: ( 5) (-2) 3 ;

(-10) ( 6) -4 and so on.
Third law: To subtract one signed number from another, change

the sign of the number to be subtracted and follow the rules for
addition.
For example, if we subtract 5 from -3, we get

(-3) ( 5) ( 3) ( 5) -8 .
Now what about the multiplication and division of negative and

positive numbers, so as not to labour the point the rules for
these operations are combined in our fourth and final law.

1.1 - 9 MAR, 2014
defined in mathematics. This is because there is no such
The Use of Symbols quotient that meets the conditions required of quotients.
We have introduced earlier the concept of symbols to represent For example, you know that to check the accuracy of a division
numbers when we defined rational numbers where the letters a problem, you can multiply the quotient by the divisor to get the
and b were used to represent any integer. Look at the symbols dividend. For example, if 21/7 = 3, then 7 is the divisor, 21 is the
below, do they represent the same number? dividend and 3 is the quotient and so 3 7 = 21, as expected.
So, if 17/0 were equal to 17, then 17 0 should again equal 17
but it does not! Or, if 17/0 were equal to zero, then 0 0 should
IX; 9; nine; 81 equal 17 but again it does not. Any number multiplied by zero is
always zero. Therefore, division of any number by zero (as well
The answer is yes, since each expression is a perfectly valid as zero divided by zero) is excluded from mathematics. If b=0,
way of representing the positive integer 9. In algebra we use or if both a and b are zero, then a/b is meaningless.
letters to represent Arabic numerals such numbers are called
general numbers or literal numbers, as distinguished from When multiplying literal numbers together we try to avoid the
explicit numbers like 1, 2, 3, etc. Thus a literal number is simply multiplication sign ( ), this is because it can be easily mistaken
a number represented by a letter, instead of a numeral. Literal for the letter x .
numbers are used to state algebraic rules, laws and formulae;
these statements being made in mathematical sentences called Thus, instead of writing a b for the product of two general
equations.
numbers, we write a.b (the dot notation for multiplication) or
a more usually just ab to indicate the product of two general
If a is a positive integer and b is 1 , what isb ? Ofcourse numbers a and b . We can also write (a)(b)
a a a a
b . Any number divided by 1 is always itself. Thus 1 ,
c c 7 7
1 , 1 and so on.
Suppose a is again any positive integer, but b is 0 . What is the

value of a/b? What we are asking is, what is the value of any
positive integer divided by zero? Well the answer is that we
really do not know! The value of the quotient a/b, if b=0, is not

1.1 - 10 MAR, 2014
The Commutative, Associative and Distributive Laws
We all know that 6 5 30 and 5 6 30 , so is it true that The above laws are valid no matter whether or not the number
when multiplying any two numbers together, the result is the is positive or negative. So, for example, 8 (16 5) 3 and
same no matter what the order? The answer is yes. The above ( 8 16) 5 3 .
relationship may be stated as: The product of two real numbers
is the same no matter in what order they are multiplied. That is,
ab ba ; this is known as the commutative law of multiplication. In order to complete our laws we need to consider the following
problem: 4(5 6) ? We may solve this problem in one of two
If three or more real numbers are multiplied together, the order ways, firstly by adding the numbers inside the brackets and then
in which they are multiplied still makes no difference to the multiplying the result by 4, this gives: 4(11) 44 . Alternatively,
product. For example, 2 3 4 24 and 4 2 3 24 . This we may multiply out the bracket as follows:
relationship may be stated formally as: The product of three or (4 5) (4 6) 20 24 44 . Thus, whichever method we
more numbers is the same no matter in what manner they are
choose, the arithmetic result is the same. This result is true in all
grouped. That is, a (bc ) (ab)c ; this is known as the associative cases, no matter how many numbers are contained within the
law of multiplication. brackets! So in general, using literal numbers we have:
a (b c) ab ac . This is the distributive law.
These laws may seem ridiculously simple, yet they form the
basis of many algebraic techniques, which we will be using
Remember that the distributive law is valid no matter how many
later! We also have commutative and associative laws for
numbers are contained in the brackets, and no matter whether
addition of numbers, which by now will be quite obvious to us,
the sign connecting them is a plus or minus. As we will see later,
here they are:
this law is one of the most useful and convenient rules for
manipulating formulae and solving algebraic expressions and
The sum of two numbers is the same no matter in what order
equations.
they are added. That is, a b b a . This is known as the
commutative law of addition.
The sum of three or more numbers is the same no matter in

what manner they are grouped. That is, (a b) c a (b c)
. This is known as the associative law of addition.
1.1 - 11 MAR, 2014
35
24
700
Long Multiplication
Suppose we wish to multiply 35 by 24, i.e. 24 35 . The

35 4 units by 35 . That is 4 5 20 put down
We now multiply the
numbers are first set out, one under the other, like this: 24 the nought carry 2 into the ten column, then multiply the 4
where the right-hand integers 5 and 4 are the units and the units by the 3 tens or, 4 3 12 and add to it the 2 we carried
left-hand integers are the tens, i.e. 3 10 and 2 10 . We to give 140 , i.e.:
multiply the tens on the bottom row by the tens and units on the 35
top row. So to start this process, we place a nought in the units
24
column underneath the bottom row, then multiply the 2 by 5 to
700
get 1 10 , carry the 1 into the tens column and add it to the 140
product 2 3 ; i.e.: All that remains for us to do now is add 700 to 140 to get the
35 result by long multiplication, i.e.:
24 35
0 24
then multiply the 2 5 10 , put in the nought of the ten and 700
carry the one 140
35 840
24
1
00
now multiply 2 3 6 (the tens) and add the carried ten to it, to
give 7 , then

1.1 - 12 MAR, 2014
5 4 - 12 3 + 7 = 20 - 4 + 7 = 27 - 4 =
23
So far we have used the standard operations of add, subtract,

multiply and divide.
Sequence of Arithmetical Operations
Numbers are often combined in a series of arithmetical

operations. When this happens a definite sequence must be
observed. Practice Questions
1. Brackets are used if there is any danger of 1. Find the value of:
ambiguity. The contents of the bracket must be
a. a (b c d ) , where a 3 , b 4 , c 6 and
evaluated before performing any other operation. d 1 .
Thus:
b. (21 6 7)3
2 (7 + 4) = 2 11 = 22 c. 6 4 5 3
15 - (8 - 3) = 15 - 5 = 10 d. 2 2 2
2. Multiplication and division must be done before 2. Which of the following has the largest absolute
addition and subtraction. Thus: value: 7, 3, 15, 25, 31?
5 8 + 7 = 40 + 7 = 47 (not 5 15) 3. 16 (4) (3) 28 ?

8 4 + 9 = 2 + 9 = 11 (not 8 13)
4. Find the absolute value of 4 (14 38) ( 82) ?

1.1 - 13 MAR, 2014
15 12 14 1 and n are considered trivial factors and when asked to find
1 the factors of an explicit or literal number, we will exclude the
5. What is: (a) 3 ; (b) 2 ; (c) 2 .
number itself and 1. If a number has no other factors apart from
these, it is said to be prime number. Thus 2, 3, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19
6. What is: (a) (3)( 2)( 5) ; (b) 3 2(15) . and so on are all prime numbers.
Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)

7. Evaluate 2a (b 2c 3d ) , when a 4 , b 8 , c 2
and d 2 . The L.C.M. of a set of numbers is the smallest number into
which each of the given numbers will divide. Thus the L.C.M. of
8. Use long multiplication to find the products of the 3, 4 and 8 is 24 because 24 is the smallest number into which
following: the numbers 3, 4 and 8 will divide exactly.
a. 234 82 The L.C.M. of a set of numbers can usually be found by
b. 1824 236 inspection.
FACTORS AND MULTIPLES

Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.)
Factors & Multiples
The H.C.F. of a set of numbers is the greatest number which is
If one number divides exactly into a second number the first a factor of each of the numbers. Thus 12 is the H.C.F. of 24, 36
number is said to be a factor of the second. Thus: and 60. Also 20 is the H.C.F. of 40, 60 and 80.
35 = 5 7 .5 is a factor of 35 and so is 7. Example: Find the LCM and HCF of 12 and 18.
240 = 3 8 10 .3, 8 and 10 are all factors of
240. The multiples of 12 are 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, and so on;
whereas the multiples of 18 are 18, 36, 54, 72, 90, and so on.
Therefore the LCM of 12 and 18 is 36.
63 = 3 21 = 7 9.. 63 is said to be a multiple
of any of the numbers 3, 7, 9 and 21 because each of them
The factors of 12 are 2, 3, 4 and 6; whereas the factors of 18
divides 63 exactly.
are 2, 3, 6, and 9. Therefore the HCF of 12 and 18 is 6.
Finally, it is to remember that any number n multiplied by 1 is
Practice Questions
itself, or n 1 = n . So every number has itself and 1 as factors;
1.1 - 14 MAR, 2014
1. What numbers are factors of: One question arises, why do we need to use fractions at all?
(a) 24 (b) 56 (c) 42 Why not use only decimal fractions? Well, one very valid reason
is that fractions provide exact relationships between numbers.
2. Which of the following numbers are factors of 12: 2, For example, the fraction 1/3 is exact, but the decimal fraction
3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 18 and 24? equivalent has to be an approximation, to a given number of
decimals 0.3333, is corrected to four decimal places. Thus, 1/3
+ 1/3 + 1/3 = 1 but 0.3333 + 0.3333 + 0.3333 = 0.9999, not
3. Write down all the multiples of 3 between 10 and
quite 1.
40.
Vulgar Fractions
4. Find the L.C.M. of the following set of numbers:
(a) 8 and 12 (b) 3, 4 and 5(c) 2, 6 and 12 The circle in the diagram below has been divided into eight
equal parts. Each part is called one-eighth of the circle and
5. Find the H.C.F. of each of the following sets of written as . If five of the eight equal parts are taken then we
numbers: have taken of the circle.
a) 8 and 12 (b) 24 and 36 (c) 10, 15
and 30
FRACTIONS
A fraction is a division of one number by another. Thus, the

fraction 2/3 means two divided by three. The fraction x/y means
the literal number x divided by y. The number above the line is
called the numerator; the number below the line is the
denominator, as you learnt before. Thus, fractions are
represented as:
numerator
denominato r

1.1 - 15 MAR, 2014
From what has been said above we see that a fraction is always Example: Reduce to its lowest terms.
a part of something. The number below the line (the = (by dividing top and bottom by 2)
denominator) gives the fraction its name and tells us the = (by dividing top and bottom by 3)
number of equal parts into which the whole has been divided. = (by dividing top and bottom by 7)
The top number (the numerator) tells us the number of these Hence, reduced to its lowest terms is .
equal parts that are to be taken. For example the fraction
means that the whole has been divided into four equal parts and
that three of these parts are to be taken.
Types of Fractions
The value of a fraction is unchanged if we multiply or divide both
its numerator and denominator by the same amount. If the numerator of a fraction is less than its denominator, the
fraction is called a proper fraction. Thus, , and are all proper
(by multiplying the numerator and denominator fractions. Note that a proper fraction has a value which is less
by 4) than 1.
(by multiplying the numerator and denominator
by 5) If the numerator of a fraction is greater than its denominator, the
fraction is called an improper fraction or a top heavy fraction.
Thus , and are improper fractions. Note that all improper
(by dividing the numerator and denominator by 4) fractions have a value which is greater than 1.
(by dividing the numerator and denominator by Every improper fraction can be expressed as a whole number
16) and a proper fraction. These are sometimes called mixed
numbers. Thus, 1, 5 and 9 are all mixed numbers. In order to
Example: Write down the fraction with a denominator (bottom convert an improper fraction into a mixed number it must be
number) of 28. remembered that:
In order to make the denominator 28, we must multiply the top number
top number bottom number
original denominator of 7 by 4 because 7 4 = 28. bottom number
Remembering that to leave the value of the fraction unchanged
we must multiply both numerator and denominator by the same
amount, then

1.1 - 16 MAR, 2014
Example: Arrange the fractions , , and in order of size starting

with the smallest.
The lowest common denominator of 4, 8, 10 and 20 is 40.

Example: Express as a mixed number. Expressing each of the given fractions with a bottom number of
(Because 15 8 = 1 and remainder 7). 40 gives:
From the above example we see that we convert an improper

fraction into a mixed number by dividing the bottom number into
the top number. Notice that the remainder becomes the
numerator in the fractional part of the mixed number. To change Therefore the order is or .
a mixed number into an improper fraction we multiply the whole
number by the denominator of the fractional part. To this we add Addition of Fractions
the numerator of the fractional part and this sum then becomes
the numerator of the improper fraction. Its denominator is the The steps when adding fractions are as follows:
same as the bottom number of the fractional part of the mixed
number. 1. Find the lowest common denominator of the
fractions to be added.
Example: Express 3 as a top heavy (improper) fraction. 2. Express each of the fractions with this common
denominator.
3. Add the numerators of the new fractions to give the
Lowest Common Denominator
numerator of the answer. The denominator of the
When we wish to compare the values of two or more fractions answer is the lowest common denominator found in
the easiest way is to express the fractions with the same bottom first step.
number. This common denominator should be the L.C.M. of the
denominators of the fractions to be compared and it is called the
lowest common denominator. Example: Find the sum of .
First find the lowest common denominator (this is the L.C.M. of

7 and 4). It is 28. Now express with a bottom number of 28.

1.1 - 17 MAR, 2014
Adding the top numbers of the new fractions: Example: Simplify
The L.C.M. of the bottom numbers is 40.

A better way of setting out the work is as follows:
When mixed numbers have to be subtracted the best way is to

Example:Simplify . turn the mixed numbers into improper fractions and then
proceed in the way shown in Example 9.
The L.C.M. of the bottom numbers 4, 3 and 10 is 60.
Example: Simplify
=
=
=
Multiplication of Fractions
Example: Add together
When multiplying together two or more fractions we first multiply
First add the whole numbers together, 5 + 2 + 3 = 10. Then all the numerators together and then we multiply all the
add the fractional parts in the usual way. The L.C.M. of 2, 3 and denominators together. Mixed numbers must always be
5 is 30. converted into improper fractions before multiplication. Similarly,
if the answer is an improper fraction, this can be finally
converted into the corresponding mixed number.
= 10 +
= 10 + Sometimes in calculations with fractions the word 'of' appears. It
= 11 should always be taken as meaning multiply. Thus:
Subtraction of Fractions =
The method is similar to that in addition. Find the common Example: Simplify
denominator of the fractions and after expressing each fraction
with this common denominator, subtract.
1.1 - 18 MAR, 2014
The sequence of operations when dealing with fractions is the

same as those used with whole numbers. They are, in order:
Example: Simplify
1st Work out brackets;
2 2 2 11 2 11 22 7 2nd Multiply and divide;
3 1 3rd Add and subtract.
5 3 5 3 5 3 15 15
Cancellation of Fractions Example: Simplify
16 7 35
=
Example: Simplify 20 8 4
Example: Simplify

1 6 21 7 3 5 7 1 7 7 49 9
4
2 5 5 8 1 4 2 5 1 2 10 10 With problems of this kind it is best to work in stages as shown
below.
Division of Fractions
To divide by a fraction, all we have to do is to invert it (i.e. turn it

upside down) and multiply. Thus:
Example: Divide
Operations with Fractions

1.1 - 19 MAR, 2014

1.1 - 20 MAR, 2014
1 5 2 7 3 5 3 13
Practice Questions
(a) 2 , 6 , 3 , 12 (b) 4 , 8 , 5 , 20
1. Write down the following fractions with the
denominator (bottom number) stated. 7. Simplify:
(a) with denominator 28
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(b) with denominator 20
(e) (f) (g)
(c) with denominator 30 (h) of 140 (i)
(d) with denominator 63 (j) (k)
2. Reduce the following fractions to their lowest terms:

(a) (b) (c)
3. Express each of the following as a mixed number:

(a) (b) (c)
4. Express each of the following as top heavy

(improper) fractions:
(a) (b) (c)
5. Arrange the following sets of fractions in order of

size, beginning with the smallest:
1 5 2 7 3 5 3 13
(a) 2 , 6 , 3 , 12 (b) 4 , 8 , 5 , 20
6. Arrange the following sets of fractions in order of

size, beginning with the smallest:

1.1 - 21 MAR, 2014
When there are no whole numbers it is usual to insert a zero in
DECIMALS front of the decimal point so that, for instance, .35 would be
written 0.35.
The Decimal System
Fraction to Decimal Conversion
The decimal system is an extension of our ordinary number
system. When we write the number 666 we mean 600 + 60 + 6. We found, when doing fractions, that the line separating the
Reading from left to right each figure 6 is ten times the value of numerator and the denominator of a fraction takes the place of
the next one. a division sign. Thus is the same as 17 80.
We now have to decide how to deal with fractional quantities, Therefore to convert a fraction into a decimal we divide the
that is, quantities whose values are less than one. If we regard denominator into the numerator.
666.666 as meaning 600 + 60 + 6 + then the dot, called the
decimal point, separates the whole numbers from the fractional Example: Convert to decimal number.
parts. Notice that with the fractional or decimal parts, e.g. 0.666,
each figure 6 is ten times the value of the following one, reading = 27 32
from left to right. Thus is ten times as great as , and is ten
times as great as , and so on.
Decimals then are fractions, which have denominators of 10,

100, 1000 and so on, according to the position of the figure after
the decimal point.
If we have to write six hundred and five we write 605; the zero
keeps the place for the missing tens. In the same way if we
want to write we write 0.305; the zero keeps the place for the
missing hundredths. Also would be written
0.067; the zero in this case keeps the place for the missing
tenths.

1.1 - 22 MAR, 2014
The basic operations (that is addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division) of decimals is same as of integers. However, in
addition and subtraction of decimals, the decimal points of each
number are aligned vertically. For the multiplication and division
of decimal numbers, the numbers are first converted into
fractions and then simplified, and then the result is finally
converted into decimal number.
Powers of Ten
Decimal numbers may be expressed in index form, using the

powers of ten. For example:
1,000,000 = 1 106
100,000 = 1 105
10,000 = 1 104
1000 = 1 103
100 = 1 102
Sometimes a fraction will not divide out exactly. For example, = 10 = 1 101
0.333 0 = 1 100
1/10 = 0.1 = 1 10-1
Conversion of Decimals to Fractions 1/100 = 0.01 = 1 10-2
1/1000 = 0.001 = 1 10-3
We know that decimals are fractions with denominators 10, 100, 1/10,000 = 0.0001 = 1 10-4
1000, etc. Using this fact we can always convert a decimal to a 1/100,000 = 0.00001 = 1 10-5
fraction. 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 1 10-6
Example: Convert 0.32 to a fraction. We show the number one million (1,000,000) as 1106, i.e. 1
multiplied by 10, six times. The exponent (index) of 10 is 6, thus
0.32 = the number is in exponent or exponential form.
Operations of Decimal Numbers

1.1 - 23 MAR, 2014
Note that we multiply all the numbers, represented in this
manner by the number 1. This is because we are representing
one million, one hundred thousand, one tenth, etc.
When representing decimal numbers in index (exponent) form,

the multiplier is always a number which is 1.0 or <10; i.e. a
number greater than or equal to (1.0) one or less than (<10)
ten.
So, for example, the decimal number is 8762.0 = 8.762 103 in

index form. Note that with this number, greater than 1.0, we
displace the decimal point three (3) places to the left; i.e. three
powers of ten. Numbers rearranged in this way, using powers of
ten, are said to be in index form or exponent form or standard
form.
Now consider the decimal number 0.000245? In order to obtain

a multiplier that is greater than or equal to one and less than 10,
we need to displace the decimal point four (4) places to the
right. Note that the zero in front of the decimal point is placed
there to indicate that a whole number has not been omitted.
Therefore, the number in index form now becomes 2.45 104.
Notice that for numbers less than 1.0, we use a negative index.
In other words, all decimal fractions represented in index form
have a negative index and all numbers greater than 1.0,
represented in this way, have a positive index.

1.1 - 24 MAR, 2014
(ii)(a) For the number 8762.87412355, the two required
Estimation Techniques significant figures are to the left of the decimal place. So we are
concerned with the whole number 8762 and the first two figures
In most areas of engineering, there is little need to work to so
many places of decimals. If we have so many decimal places are of primary concern again to find our approximation we need
accuracy in a number, this is unlikely to be needed, unless we to first consider the three figures 876, again since 6 is above
are dealing with a subject like rocket science or astrophysics! halfway between 1 and 10, then we round up to give the
So this leads us into the very important skill of being able to required answer 8800. Note that we had to add two zeros to the
provide approximations or estimates to a stated degree of left of the decimal point. This should be obvious when you
accuracy. consider that all we have been asked to do is approximate the
number 8762 to within two significant figures.
Example: For the numbers (a) 8762.87412355 and (b)
0.0000000234876; (b) For the number 0.0000000234876 the significant figures are
any integers to theright of the decimal point and the zeros. So,
1. Convert these numbers into standard form with in this case, the number to the required number of significant
three decimal place accuracy. figures is 0.000000023.
2. Write down these numbers in decimal form, correct

to two significant figures.
(i)(a) By converting the given number in the standard form we

get 8.76287412355 103. Now looking at the decimal places
for the stated accuracy we must consider the first four places
8.7628 and since the last significant figure is 8, in this case
(greater than 5) we round up to give the required answer as
8.763 103.
(b) 0.0000000234876 = 2.34876 108 and now following the

same argument as above, this number is to three decimal
places = 2.349 108.

1.1 - 25 MAR, 2014
7. Round-off the following numbers correct to three
Practice Questions significant figures:
(a) 2.713; (b) 0.0001267; (c) 5.435 104
1. Read off as decimals:
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(e)
2. Convert the following to decimals correcting the

answers, where necessary, to 4 decimal places:
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
3. Convert the following to fractions in their lowest

terms:
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.312 5 (c) 0.007 5
(d) 0.45 (e) 2.55 (f) 2.125
4. Evaluate the following:

(a) 2.375 + 0.625 (b) 12.48 - 8.36
(c) 3.196 + 2.475 + 18.369 (d) 2.42 8
(e) 3.35 2.5 (f) 2.05 1.5
5. Express the following numbers in normal decimal

notation:
(a) 3 101 + 5 102 + 8 102
(b) 5 103 + 81 100
6. Express the following numbers in standard form:

(a) 318.62; (b) 0.00004702;
(c) 51,292,000,000; (d) 0.00041045

1.1 - 26 MAR, 2014
WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND CONVERSION FACTORS Space & Time:
The International System of Units Quantity Unit Symbol
Together with major metric countries, Britain has adapted the Area square metre m2
International System of Units known worldwide as the S.I. Volume cubic metre m3
(System International) Units. The effect of this system is to Velocity metre per second m/s
introduce standard units for many of the quantities for which a Acceleration metre per second squared m/s2
multitude of units exist as present. Angular Velocity radian per second rad/s
Angular Acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2
S I Base Units: Frequency Hertz Hz
Quantity Unit Symbol Mechanics:
Length metre m Quantity Unit Symbol

Mass kilogram kg
Time second s Density Kilogram per cubic metrekg/m3
Electric Current Ampere A Momentum Kilogram metre per second
kg m/s
Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K Force Newton N =
Plain Angle Radians Rad kg.m/s2
Luminous Intensity candela cd. Torque or Moment Newton metre N m
Energy, work Joule J = Nm
Factors of Multiples & Sub-multiples: Power Watt W = J/s
Pressure & Stress Newton per square metre N/m2 = Pa
Multiple Prefix Symbol or Pascal
106 Mega M Heat:

103 kilo k
10-3 milli m Quantity Unit Symbol
10-6 micro
10-9 nano n Celsius Degrees Celsius C
10-12 pico p temperature

1.1 - 27 MAR, 2014
0.000 000 001 s = 1ns (nanosecond).
Leave a small space between figures and symbols.
Expressing SI Units
Conversion Factors
The symbol for SI units and the conventions which govern their
use should be strictly followed. The units which it is thought most likely you will be required to
Use the correct symbols used in the foregoing lists. know are set out below with appropriate conversion factors.
Never use a prefix without a unit either in writing or
speech, e.g. kilogram or kilometre not kilo, or To go from the first quantity into the second multiply by the
millimetre or millilitre not mil. number given.
Always put a zero before a decimal quantity less
Inches Millimetres 25.4
than Unit, e.g. 0.705 m. m Inches 39.37
When two units are multiplied together use a small Knot km/hr 1.852
space between the symbols as the multiplier, e.g. Pounds Kilograms 0.4536
o Kilogram metresquared kg m2. Kilograms Pounds 2.205
o Newton metre N m. Imp. Galls Liters 4.546
bar p.s.i. 14.5
When dividing, use an oblique stroke to separate
p.s.i. Pa (Pascal) 6895
the numerator and denominator. bar Pa 105
metre per second m/s N/m2 Pa 1
Joule per second J/s 1bf N (Newton) 4.45
Use a space as a thousands marker not the horsepower W (Watt) 746
B.T.U. KJ 1.055
comma. The comma is used as a decimal marker in
ft 1bf J (Joule) 1.356
most countries using the metric system and its use
as a thousand marker will cause confusion. Up to
four figures may be blocked together but five or
more figures should be grouped in threes, e.g.
1000 mm = 1m
1 000 000 J = 1 MJ (MegaJoule)
1.1 - 28 MAR, 2014
RATIO AND PROPORTION The second length = of the first length

= 120 = 75 meters.
Ratio
A ratio is a comparison between two similar quantities. If the

length of a certain aircraft is 20 metres and a model of it is 1
metre long then the length of the model is th of the length of the
aircraft. In making the model the dimensions of the aircraft are
all reduced in the ratio of 1 to 20. The ratio 1 to 20 is usually
written 1 : 20.
As indicated above a ratio may be expressed as a fraction and

all ratios may be looked upon as fractions. Thus the ratio 2 : 5 =
. The two terms of a ratio may be multiplied or divided without
altering the value of the ratio. Hence 6:36 = 1:6 = . Again,
1:5 = 0.20.
Before a ratio can be stated the units must be the same. We

can state the ratio between 7 paisa and Rs.2 provided both
sums of money are brought to the same units. Thus if we
convert Rs.2 to 200 paisa the ratio between the two amounts of
money is 7 : 200.
Example: Express the ratio 20p to Rs.4 in its simplest form.
Rs.4 = 4 100p = 400p

20 : 400 = =
Example: Two lengths are in the ratio 8:5. If the first length is
120 meters, what is the second length?
1.1 - 29 MAR, 2014
Proportional Parts Example: Divide Rs.1100 into two parts in the ratio 7:3.
The following diagram shows a line AB whose length is 16 Total number of parts = 7 + 3 = 10
centimeters divided into two parts in the ratio 3 : 5. As can be Amount of each part = = Rs.110
seen in the diagram the line has been divided into a total of 8 Amount of first part = 7 110 = Rs.770
parts. Amount of second part = 3 110 = Rs.330
Example: An aircraft carries 2880 liters of fuel distributed in

three tanks in the ratio 3 : 5 : 4. Find the quantity in each
tank.
Total number of parts = 3 + 5 + 4 = 12.

Amount of each part = = 240 liters.
Amount of 3 parts = 3 240 = 720 liters.
Amount of 4 parts = 4 240 = 960 liters.
The length AC contains 3 parts and the length BC contains 5 Amount of 5 parts = 5 240 = 1200 liters.
parts. The three tanks contain 720, 1200 and 960 liters.
Each part is Direct Proportion
= 2 centimeters long; hence AC is Two quantities are said to vary directly, or be in direct
3 2 = 6 centimeters long, and BC is proportion, if they increase or decrease at the same rate. Thus
5 2 = 10 centimeters long. the quantity of fuel used and the distance travelled by an aircraft
are in direct proportion.
We could tackle the problem in this way:
In solving problems on direct proportion we can use either the
Total number of parts = 3 + 5 = 8 parts. unitary method or the fractional method.
Length of each parts = = 2 centimeters.
Length of AC = 3 2 = 6 centimeters.
Length of BC = 5 2 = 10 centimeters.
1.1 - 30 MAR, 2014
Example: If 25 kilograms of dry powder fire extinguishant cost = 16 days.
Rs.1700, how much does 8 kilograms cost?
1. Using the unitary method:

25 kilograms cost Rs.1700.
1 kilograms cost = Rs.68.
8 kilograms cost 8 68
= Rs.544.
2. Using the fractional method:

Cost of 8 kilograms.
= 1700 =
= Rs.544
Inverse Proportion
Two quantities are said to vary inversely, or be in inverse

proportion, if one quantity increases on decreasing the other
quantity and vice versa. Suppose that 8 fitters working on an
aircraft 'C' check takes 10 days to complete it. If we double the
number of men then we should halve the time taken. If we halve
the number of men then the job will probably take twice as long.
This is an example of inverse proportion.
Example: 20 men working at a company produce 3000

components in 12 working days. How long will it take 15 men to
produce the 3000 components.
The number of men is reduced in the ratio . Practice Questions
Since this is an example of inverse proportion the number of 1. Express the following ratios as fractions in their
days required must be increased in the ratio . lowest terms:
Number of days required = 12. (a) 8 : 3 (b) 9 : 15 (c) 12 : 4
1.1 - 31 MAR, 2014
11. Two gear wheels mesh together. One has 40 teeth
2. Express the ratio of 30p to Rs.2 as a fraction in its and the other has 25 teeth. If the larger wheel
lowest terms. makes 100 revolutions per minute how many
revolutions per minute does the smaller wheel
3. Express the ratio Rs.5 : 80p as a fraction in its make?
lowest terms. 12. 4 men can do a piece of work in 30 hours. How
many men would be required to do the work in 6
4. Divide Rs.800 in the ratio 5 : 3. hours?
5. A sum of money is divided into two parts in the ratio
5 : 7. If the smaller amount is Rs.200, find the
larger amount.
6. A alloy consists of copper, zinc and tin in the ratios

2 : 3 : 5. Find the amount of each metal in 75
kilograms of the alloy.
7. If 7 kilograms of silica gel cost Rs.280, how much

do 12 kilograms cost?
8. If 40 rivets cost Rs.3500, how much does 1 cost?

What is the cost of 55 rivets?
9. An aircraft flies 2000 kilometres in 4 hours. How

long will it take to complete a journey of 3500
kilometres?
10. 10 men produce 500 composite panels in a week.

How long would it take 15 men to produce the same
amount?

1.1 - 32 MAR, 2014
AVERAGES Practice Questions
To find the average of a set of quantities, add the quantities 1. Find the average of the following readings: 22.3
together and divide by the number of quantities in the set. mm, 22.5 mm, 22.6 mm, 21.8 mm and 22.0 mm.
Thus,
2. A train travels 300 km in 4 hours. What is its
Average = average speed?
Example: A student falls asleep in every lesson, the following
number of times: 8, 20, 3, 0, 5, 9, 15 and 12. What is his 3. If a car travels for 5 hours at an average speed of
average per lesson? 70 km/h how far has it gone?
Average score = 4. If an aircraft flies a four-hour flight at the rate of 550

= = 9 km/h and then two-hour flight at the rate of 450
km/h, what is the average speed of the whole
Example (Weighted Average): A light aircraft is loaded with 22 journey?
boxes. If nineboxes have a mass of 12 kg, eight boxes have a
mass of 14 kg and five boxes have a mass of 14.5 kg. What is
the total mass of the boxes and the average mass per box?
By finding the total mass of all 22 boxes, we can then find the
average mass per box. So we have:
9 12 = 108 kg
8 14 = 112 kg
5 15.5 = 77.5kg
Total mass = 297.5kg
Then average mass of all 22 boxes is 297.5 22

= 13.52 kg
1.1 - 33 MAR, 2014
To convert a percentage into a fraction we divide by 100. For
PERCENTAGES example,
When comparing fractions it is often convenient to express them 45% = = 0.45

with a denominator of a hundred. Thus:
3.9% = = 0.039
Note that all we have done is to move the decimal point 2

places to the left.
Fractions with a denominator of 100 are called percentages.
Thus:
= 25 percent
= 30 percent
The sign % is usually used instead of the words per cent.
To convert a fraction into a percentage we multiply it by 100. For

example:
100 = 75
100 = 85
Decimal numbers may be converted into percentages by using

the same rule. Thus:
0.3 = 100 = 30%
The same rule result is produced if we omit the intermediate

step of turning 0.3 into vulgar fraction and just multiply 0.3 by
100. Thus:
0.3 = 0.3 100 = 30

1.1 - 34 MAR, 2014
22% of the length = 55 cm
Percentage of a Quantity Complete length = 55
= = 250 cm
It is easy to find the percentage of a quantity if we first express
the percentage as a fraction. 4. What percentage is 37 of 264? Give the answer correct
to 5 significant figures.
Examples:
Percentage = 100
1. What is 10% of 40? =
= 14.015%
Expressing 10% as a fraction it is and the problem then
becomes:
What is of 40?
10% of 40 = 40 = 4
2. What is 25% of 50?
25% of 50 = 50 = 12.50
3. 22% of a certain length is 55 cm. What is the complete

length?
1% of the length = cm = 2.5 cm

Practice Questions
Now the complete length will be 100%, hence:
1. Convert the following fractions to percentages:
(a) (b) (c)
Complete length = 100 2.5 cm = 250 cm
2. Convert the following decimal numbers into
Alternatively, percentages:

1.1 - 35 MAR, 2014
(a) 0.7 (b) 0.68 (c) 0.819
3. Convert the following percentages into decimal

fractions:
(a) 32% (b) 31.5% (c) 3.95%
4. What is:
(a) 20% of 50 (b) 12% of 20 (c) 3.7% of
68
5. What percentage is:

(a) 25 of 200 (b) 29 of 178 (c) 15 of 33
6. If 20% of a length is 23 cm, what is the complete

length?

1.1 - 36 MAR, 2014
AREAS AND VOLUMES

Example: An office 8.5m by 6.3m is to be fitted with a carpet, so
Areas as to leave surround 600mm wide around the carpet. What is
the area of the surround?
We are already familiar with the concept of length, e.g. the
distance between two points, we express length in some With a problem like this, it is often helpful to sketch a diagram.
chosen unit, e.g. in meters; but if we wish to fit a carpet to the
room floor, the length of the room is insufficient. We obviously
need to know the width as well. This 2-dimensional concept of
size is termed Area.
The area of the surround = office area - carpet area.
= (8.5 x 6.3) - (8.5 - 2 x 0.6) (6.3 - 2 x 0.6)

= 53.55 - (7.3) (5.1)
= 53.55 - 37.23
= 16.32 m2
Consider a room 4m by 3m as shown above. Clearly it can be
divided up into 12 equal squares, each measuring 1m by 1m. Note that 600mm had to be converted to 0.6m. Don't forget to
Each square has an area of 1 square meter. Hence, the total include units in the answer e.g. m2.
area is 12 square meters (usually written as 12m2 for
convenience). So, to calculate the area of a rectangle, multiply The following table shows the formulae for the more common
length of 1 side by the length of the other side. shapes.
Note: 4 m x 3 m = 12 m2 (Don't forget the m2).

1.1 - 37 MAR, 2014

1.1 - 38 MAR, 2014
Example: The cross section of a block of metal is shown. Find Example: A hollow shaft has an outside diameter of 2.5cm.
its area. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the shaft.
Area of trapezoid Area of cross-section

= x 40 x (30 + 50) = area of outside circle area of inside circle
= x 40 x 80 = x 1.626 - x 1.25
= 1600 mm = (1.625 - 1.25)
= 3.142 x (2.640 1.563)
= 3.142 x 1.077
= 3.388 cm

1.1 - 39 MAR, 2014
12 x 2 = 24m3.
Example: Calculate the length of arc of a circle whose radius is
8m and which subtends an angle of 56 at the centre. Basically, therefore, when calculating volume, it is necessary to
look for 3 dimensions, at 90 to each other, and then multiply
0 them together. For a box-type shape, multiplying length x width
Length of arc = 2r x 360 x height = volume.
56
The volume of a solid figure is measured by seeing how many
= 2 x x 8 x 360 cubic units it contains. A cubic meter is the volume inside a cube
= 31.28 m which has a side of 1 meter. Similarly a cubic centimeter is the
volume inside a cube which has a side of 1 centimeter. The
Volumes standard abbreviations for units of volume are:
The concept and calculation of volume is the logical extension Cubic meter m
of length and area. Cubic centimeter cm
Instead of squares, we now consider cubes. This is a three- Cubic millimeter mm
dimensional concept and the typical units of volume are cubic
meters (m3). Example: How many cubic centimeters are contained in 1 cubic
meter?
If we have a box, length 4m, width 3m and height 2m, we see
that the total volume = 24 cubic meters (24m3). 1m = 10 cm
6
1m = (10 cm) = 10 cm
= 1 000 000 cm
Each
layer The following table gives volumes of some simple solids
contains
4 x 3 =
12 cubes.
There are
2 layers.
Hence the
volume is

1.1 - 40 MAR, 2014
Practice Questions
1. The area of a rectangle is 220mm. If its width is

25mm find its length.
2. A sheet metal plate has a length of 147.5mm and a

width of 86.5mm find its length to the nearest four
decimal places.
3. Find the area of a triangle whose base is 7.5cm and

whose altitude is 5.9cm.
4. Find the area of a trapezium whose parallel sides

are 75mm and 82mm long respectively and whose
vertical height is 39mm.
5. The parallel sides of a trapezium are 12cm and

16cm long. If its area is 220cm, what is its altitude?
6. Find the areas of the shaded portions in the

diagram.

1.1 - 41 MAR, 2014
13. A block of lead 2.0 m x 1m x 0.72m is hammered

out to make a square sheet 10mm thick. What are
the dimensions of the square?
14. The volume of a small cylinder is 180 cm. If the

radius of the cross-section is 25mm, find its height.
15. A cone has a diameter of 28mm and a height of

66mm. What is its volume?
7. Find the circumference of a circle whose radii are:
(a) 3.5mm (b) 13.8mm (c) 4.2cm 16. Calculate the diameter of a cylinder whose height is
the same as its diameter and whose volume is 220
8. Find the diameter of a circle whose circumference is cm.
34.4mm.
9. How many revolutions will a wheel make in

travelling 2km if its diameter is 700mm?
10. If r is the radius and 0 is the angle subtended at the

centre by an arc find the length of arc when: r =
2cm, 0 =30
11. Convert the following volumes into the units stated:

(a) 5 m into cm (b) 0.08 m into mm
(c) 830 000 cm into m (d) 850 000 mm into m
12. A steel ingot whose volume is 2 m is rolled into a

plate 15mm thick and 1.75m wide. Calculate the
length of the plate in m.
1.1 - 42 MAR, 2014
SQUARES, CUBES AND SQUARE & CUBE ROOTS 3 3 3 = 27, it is usual to write it as 33 or 3 cubed.
Squares
Square Roots
When a number is multiplied by itself the result is called the
square of the number. The square of 9 is 9 9 = 81. Instead The square root of a number is the number whose square
of writing 9 9, it is usual to write 92 which is read as the equals the given number. Since 52 = 25, the square root of
square of 9. Thus: 25 = 5.
122 = 12 12 = 144 25 5 The sign is used to denote a square root and

(1.3)2 = 1.3 1.3 = 1.69 hence we write
Example: Find (168.8)2. 81 9 Similarly, since 92 = 81, so .
(168.8)2 = 168.8 168.8 Cube Roots

= 28,480
The cubed root of a number is the number which cubed equals
2 the number. For example, the cubed root of 64 = 4.
0.9
3
64 4 3 The sign is used to denote a cubed root and
Example: Find the value of 0.15 .
hence we write .
2
0.9 Practice Questions
6 2 36
0.15
1. Find the square of the following numbers:
(a) 1.5 (b) 23 (c) 3.15
Cubes 2. Find the cube of the following numbers:

(a) 7 (b) 1.5
When a number is multiplied by itself, i.e. 3 3 = 9, it is usual
to write it as 32 or 3 squared. We can take this a stage further 3. Find the value of (3.142)2 correct to 2 places of
and multiply by another 3, i.e. decimal.
1.1 - 43 MAR, 2014

1.1 - 44 MAR, 2014

Module 1.1 (Maths) Final

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PIA Training Centre Module 1 MATHEMATICS

Sub Module 1.2 ALGEBRA

Sub Module 1.4 GEOMETRY

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Sub Module Rev. No.

1.3 Logrithms & Antilogrithms 00

1.5 Introduction To Statistics 00

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ARITHMETICAL TERMS AND SIGNS......................1

RATIO AND PROPORTION..................................23

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ARITHMETICAL TERMS AND SIGNS

Rational and Irrational Numbers

So to the natural numbers (positive integers) we have added

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Absolute Value of a Number PRACTICE QUESTIONS

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So following this rule, we get for example: ( 5) (-2) 3 ;

Third law: To subtract one signed number from another, change

For example, if we subtract 5 from -3, we get

Now what about the multiplication and division of negative and

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Suppose a is again any positive integer, but b is 0 . What is the

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The Commutative, Associative and Distributive Laws

The sum of three or more numbers is the same no matter in

Suppose we wish to multiply 35 by 24, i.e. 24 35 . The

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So far we have used the standard operations of add, subtract,

Sequence of Arithmetical Operations

Numbers are often combined in a series of arithmetical

5 8 + 7 = 40 + 7 = 47 (not 5 15) 3. 16 (4) (3) 28 ?

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Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)

FACTORS AND MULTIPLES

A fraction is a division of one number by another. Thus, the

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Example: Arrange the fractions , , and in order of size starting

The lowest common denominator of 4, 8, 10 and 20 is 40.

From the above example we see that we convert an improper

First find the lowest common denominator (this is the L.C.M. of

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Adding the top numbers of the new fractions: Example: Simplify

The L.C.M. of the bottom numbers is 40.

When mixed numbers have to be subtracted the best way is to

The sequence of operations when dealing with fractions is the

Cancellation of Fractions Example: Simplify

To divide by a fraction, all we have to do is to invert it (i.e. turn it

Operations with Fractions

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2. Reduce the following fractions to their lowest terms:

3. Express each of the following as a mixed number:

4. Express each of the following as top heavy

5. Arrange the following sets of fractions in order of

6. Arrange the following sets of fractions in order of

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Decimals then are fractions, which have denominators of 10,

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Decimal numbers may be expressed in index form, using the

Operations of Decimal Numbers

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When representing decimal numbers in index (exponent) form,