Professional Documents
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SUBSOIL EXPLORATION
Usually, the proper program of soil investigation for a given project depends on the type
and importance of structure; nature of the subsoil involved; type of equipment available; ground
water condition; and the budget allocated for the exploration. At present, site investigation
drilling and testing are carried out in a routine way, with the absence of any significant plan. This
may result in a significant loss of money and time, since the work is carried out without reference
to the special requirements of the project.
If previous site investigation reports exist for construction in the same soil, this allows the
geotechnical engineer to judge the likely performance of the ground under and around the
proposed development. In any case, geological maps coupled with experience will give a
considerable amount of information of great value in the initial stages of design. At this stage,
there should also be interaction between the client and all his design professionals. Thus, the
design should be modified to reduce possible geotechnical problems. For example, if a large site
is to be developed as a business park, the buildings might be re-aligned with their long sides
parallel to the contours; this will reduce the amount of cut and fill, thus keeping the cost of
foundations and retaining structures to a minimum, while also reducing the risks of slope
instability.
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
From the knowledge of probable ground, groundwater conditions at and around the site, and
the required structural form(s), the geotechnical engineer can predict the types of foundations and
earth-retaining structures required for the project, and any possible problems (such as slope
instability, chemical attack on foundation concrete and construction difficulties) which may
therefore require further investigation.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Mainly, subsoil exploration involves three phases; reconnaissance phase, preliminary site
investigation phase, and detailed site investigation phase.
Advantages:
Inexpensive.
Provide detailed information of stratigraphy.
Large quantities of disturbed soils can be obtained for testing.
Large blocks of undisturbed samples can be carved out from the pits, and
Field tests can be conducted at the bottom of the pit.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Disadvantages:
Depth limited to about 6m.
Deep pits are uneconomical as in the case of investigation that involves basement
construction.
Excavation below groundwater (high water table) and into rock is difficult and costly.
Too many pits may scar site and require backfill soils.
When the soil is unstable and has a tendency to collapse, this prevents the engineer from
entering the pit and accompanied by certain risks, and
Unsuitable in granular soils below water level or when the standard penetration resistance
test (N-value) is required.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Advantages:
Inexpensive.
Simple to operate and maintain.
Not dependent on terrain.
Portable.
Used in uncased holes, and
Groundwater location can easily be identified and measured.
Disadvantages:
Slow compared with other methods.
Depth limited to about 6m.
Labor intensive.
Undisturbed samples can be taken only for soft clay deposit, and
Cannot be used in rock, stiff clays, dry sand, or caliches soils.
a. Helical (worm types) Augers b. Short flight Auger c. Iwan (posthole) Auger
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Advantages:
Used in clay or sand or silt soils.
Quick.
Used in uncased holes, therefore no need for using drilling mud.
Undisturbed samples can be obtained quite easily, and
Groundwater location can easily be identified and measured.
Disadvantages:
Depth limited to about 15m. At greater depth, drilling becomes expensive, and
Site must be accessible to motorized vehicle.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Water is pumped to bottom of borehole and soil washings are returned to surface. A drill bit
is rotated and dropped to produce a chopping action (see Fig.(2.5)).
Method: Water is pumped down the center of the drill-rods, emerging as a jet. It then
returns up the borehole or drill-pipe bringing with it cuttings and debris. The washing and
cutting of the formation is helped by rotation, and by the up-and-down motion of the drill-
string. A foot-powered treadle pump or a small internal-combustion pump is equally suitable.
Method: A hollow pipe of steel is moved up and down in the borehole while a one-way
valve can be used to improvise successfully and provide a pumping action. Water flows
down the borehole annulus (ring) and back up the drill pipe, bringing debris with it. A small
reservoir is needed at the top of the borehole for recirculation. Simple teeth at the bottom of
the drill-pipe, preferably made of metal, help cutting efficiency.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Advantages:
The equipment can be made from local, low-cost materials, and it is simple to use.
Possible above and below the water-table.
Suitable for clay to silt clay, silt soils and unconsolidated rocks, and
Used in uncased holes.
Disadvantages:
Slow drilling through stiff clays and gravels.
Undisturbed soil samples cannot be obtained.
Water is required for pumping.
Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.
Boulders can prevent further drilling, and
Depth is limited to about 30m.
Method: A drill-pipe and bit are rotated to cut the rock. Air, water, or drilling mud is
pumped down the drill-pipe to flush out the debris. The velocity of the flush in the borehole
annulus must be sufficient to lift the cuttings (see Fig.(2.6)).
Advantages:
Quick.
Can drill any type of soil or rock.
Possible to drill to depths of over 40 meters.
Operation is possible above and below the water-table.
Undisturbed soil samples or rock cores can easily be recovered.
Water and mud support unstable formations, and
Possible to use compressed air flush.
Disadvantages:
Expensive equipment.
Terrain must be accessible to motorized vehicle.
Water is required for pumping.
Difficulty in obtaining accurate location of groundwater level.
There can be problems with boulders, and
Rig requires careful operation and maintenance (additional time required for setup and
cleanup).
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Advantages:
Drills hard rocks.
Possible to penetrate gravel.
Fast, and
Operation is possible above and below the water-table.
Disadvantages:
Higher tool cost than other tools illustrated here.
Air compressor required, and
Experience needed to operate and maintain.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Method: The lifting and dropping of a heavy (+ 50 kg) cutting tool will chip and
excavate material from a hole. The tool may be fixed to rigid drill-rods, a rope or a cable.
With a mechanical winch, depths of hundreds of meters can be reached.
Advantages:
Simple to operate and maintain.
Suitable for a wide variety of rocks.
Operation is possible above and below the water-table.
It is possible to drill to considerable depths, and
Can be used for boring observation wells.
Disadvantages:
Slow, compared with other methods.
Problems can occur with unstable rock formations.
Water is needed for dry holes to help remove cuttings, and
Due to high disturbance of soil, the obtained samples cannot be used for testing.
1. Drilling holes begins with installing a pipe called casing from the surface through
soils and sealed into bedrock.
2. Diamond core drilling uses a diamond bit, which rotates at the end of drill rod (or
pipe) inside the casing.
3. The opening at the end of the diamond bit allows a solid column of rock to move up
into the drill pipe and be recovered at the surface.
4. Most drill rods are 3m long. After the first 3m drilling, a new section of pipe is
screwed into the top end, so the combination of pipes can be drilled deeper into the
ground.
5. The diamond bit is rotated with gentle pressure while being lubricated with water and
drilling fluid to prevent overheating.
6. The driller adjusts rotation speed, pressure and water circulation for different rock
types and drilling conditions.
7. Inside the drill pipe is a core tube, which has a latching mechanism attached to a
cable. At the end of each 3m run, the cable is lowered to winch the core tube
containing the new rock core to the surface where it can be recovered.
8. The drill core is stored in specially designed core boxes containing compartments to
hold sections of the core, and
9. The drill core is then logged and analyzed by a geologist.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
In subsoil investigation, the seismic methods are most frequently used. These methods are
based on the variation of the wave velocity in different earth materials. They involve in
generating a sound wave in the rock or soil, using a sledgehammer, a falling weight, or a small
explosive charge, and then recording its reception at a series of geophones located at various
distances from the shot point, as shown in Fig.(2.7). The time of the refracted sound arrival at
each geophone is noted from a continuous reader. Typical Pwave velocity in various soils and
rocks in (m/sec) are shown in Table (2.2).
Note: Whenever possible, seismic data should be verified by one or two borings before
definite conclusions can be reached.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Table (2.2): Typical P wave velocity in various soils and rocks (after Das ,2007).
Pwave Velocity
Type of soil or rock
(m/ sec)
Soil:
Sand, dry silt, and fine grained topsoil 200 -1000
Alluvium 500 - 2000
Compacted clays, clayey gravel, and dense clayey sand 1000 - 2500
Loess 250 - 750
Rock:
Slate and shale 2500 - 5000
Sandstone 1500 - 5000
Granite 4000 - 6000
Sound limestone 5000 -10000
2.5 SAMPLING
During the boring, three types of representative soil samples should be collected which are
valuable to geotechnical engineers; these are as follows:
(a) The disturbed samples (D): which were collected from auger cuttings at specified
depths?
(b) The undisturbed samples (U): which were obtained using a thin Shelby tubes of
100mm in diameter and (400-450)mm in length, and
(c) The (SS) samples: which were taken from standard split spoon sampler used in a
standard penetration test (S.P.T.) that performed at different intervals depending on soil
stratification.
All these samples are then sealed tightly in plastic bags to retain their in situ moisture
content, labeled and transported to the soil mechanics laboratory, to perform the required
tests.
Disturbed samples can be collected during the drilling process from the auger cuttings at
certain intervals and/or each different stratum. In test pit excavation, large samples will
sometimes be required in order to fulfill the laboratory testing requirements. Such samples should
be at least (30 cm x 30cm) in size, wrapped in wax paper, and carefully transported to the
laboratory.
Representative samples can also be obtained by driving into the ground an open-ended
cylinder known as Split Spoon. Spoons with an inside diameter of about 5 cm consists of four
parts: a cutting shoe at the bottom; a barrel consisting of a length of pipe split into one half; and a
coupling at the top for connection to the drill rod.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
A summary of different sampler types which can be used to obtain disturbed or undisturbed
samples of each type of soil are listed in Table (2.3).
Fig.(2.8): Details of commonly used samplers for insitu testing (after Moore, 1980).
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Table (2.3): Types of samplers used for taking soil and rock samples from test holes.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Do Di
Ci x100 ..(2.2)
Di
where, Ci inside clearance = (0.30.4)% and not more than 1%.
4. Effect of the way in which the force is applied to the spoon: that means by pushing
or driving or by constant rate of penetration.
2.7 TESTING
The tests performed on each type of the three different soil samples are as follows:
As a rule, undisturbed samples (U) can be tested for strength and compressibility to determine the
stress strain characteristics of the material, in addition to classification and chemical tests.
Whereas, disturbed (D) or (SS) samples as available were mainly used for physical and
geotechnical analysis of soil as well as chemical tests.
1. Classification Tests:
Sieve and hydrometer analysis, natural water content, Atterberge limits, specific gravity,
and wet and dry unit weights.
2. Compaction Test:
Modified Procter compaction test must be carried out on some soil samples to obtain the
maximum dry density ( dmax . ) and the relevant optimum moisture content (OMC).
4. Chemical Tests:
Sulphate Content (SO3-2)%, Total Soluble Salts (T.S.S.), Organic Matter Content
(ORG.)%, PH- value, Carbonate Content (CO3-2), Chlorides Content (Cl-1)% , and
Gypsum content %.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
45m
15m B-3
Field Depth of
'N'- Value
Samples Sampling (m) Visual Description of Soil
No. Type From To 6 6 6
1 D 0.0 2.0 Black and grey moist fill,
2 U 2.0 4.0 Black peat.
3 S.S 4.5 5.0 11 14 6 Sandy clay and silt mixture.
4 D 5.0 7.0 Sandy silt and clay mixture.
5 U 7.0 9.0 Silt with fine gravel and traces of fine sand.
6 S.S 9.5 10.0 4 8 3 Sandy clay and silt mixture.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
2 Sandy clay
and Sandy clay
silt mixture and
silt mixture
4
Depth (m)
Sandy clay
and
6 E.O.B.
silt mixture
Sandy silt
and
8 clay mixture
10 Sandy clay
and
silt mixture
12
E.O.B. E.O.B.
Fig.(2.12): Log of borings for 1st. stage of garden city housing project
Tanahi District / Duhok city.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Table (2.6): Number and spacing of boreholes according to the type of project
(after Hvorslev 1949, and Road Research Laboratory 1952).
Table (2.7): Number of borings for medium to heavy weight buildings, tanks, and other
similar structures on shallow foundations (after Sowers, 1979).
Subsurface Conditions Structure Footprint Area for Each Exploratory Boring (m2)
Poor quality and / or erratic 100 300
Average 200 400
High quality and uniform 300 1000
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Geotechnical
Minimum number of borings
feature
Provide at least 1 boring per substructure unit 30 m width,
Provide at least 2 borings per substructure unit > 30 m width,
Shallow Foundations
Provide additional borings in areas where erratic subsurface conditions are
encountered.
Provide at least 1 boring per bridge pier location for driven piles,
Provide at least 1 boring per drilled shaft location, unless the shaft is part of
Deep Foundations a group in which case a single boring per group is sufficient,
Provide additional borings in areas where erratic subsurface conditions are
encountered, especially for shafts socketed into bedrock.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
For rough guidelines, the following criteria can be used for minimum depths, from
considerations of stress distribution or seepage,:
1. Foundations:
All borings should extend below all deposits such as top soils, organic silts, peat,
artificial fills, very soft and compressible clay layers;
Boring should be sufficiently deep for checking the possibility of a weaker soil at greater
depth which may settle under the applied load;
Deeper than any strong layer at the surface checking for a weaker layer of soil under it
which may cause a failure (see Fig.(2.13a));
The depth at which the net increase in stress due to the foundation or building load is less
than 5% of the effective overburden pressure;
The depth at which the net vertical total stress increases because the foundation or
building load is less than 10% of the stress applied at foundation level (contact pressure);
For isolated spread footings or raft foundations, explore to a depth equal 1.5B (B = least
width of the footing or the raft) (see Fig.(2.13b));
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
For group of interfering footings, explore to a depth equal 1.5B (where, B = width of
interfering footings) (see Fig.(2.14));
For heavy structures (pressure 200 kPa), the depth of borings should be extended to
2B (width of footing);
L
For strip footings, explore to not less than 3B (width of footing) for B 6m and 10 .
B
For multistory buildings, explore to:
(i) D Df 3.S0.7 (in meter). for light steel or narrow concrete buildings,
(ii) D Df 6.S0.7 (in meter) ... for heavy steel or wide concrete buildings.
where, D = Depth of boring, D f = Depth of footing, and S = Number of stories.
2
If piled foundation is expected, the borehole depth D =( + 3 L+ 1.5B) or D = (L + 3m)
into the bearing stratum (see Fig.(2.15a));
3. Dams: Because the critical factor is the safety against seepage and foundation failure,
boreholes should penetrate not only soft or unstable soils, but also permeable soils to such a
depth that seepage patterns can be predicted. Thus, it is recommended:-
For earth structures, explore soil to 1.5 times the base width of the dam, and
For concrete structures, explore to a depth 1.52.0 times the height of the dam, and for
any case, the depth of boring must be checked with (1.52.0) of the water head.
4. Roads, highways, and air fields: the minimum depth is 5m below the finished road level,
provided that vertical alignment is fixed but should extend below artificial fill. In practice,
some realignment often occurs in cuttings, and side drains may be dug up to 6m deep or to
bore to at least 1.5 times the embankment height in fill areas, and to at least 5m below
finished road level in cut.
6. Canals, deep cut and fill sections on side hills: Explore at least to:
(i) 3m below the finished level in cut, or
(ii) B when B H , or
(iii) H when B H (see Figs.(2.16a and 2.16b)).
7. Embankments: The depth of exploration should be at least equal to the height of the
embankment and should ideally penetrate all soft soils if stability is to be investigated. If
settlements are critical then soil may be significantly stressed to depths below the bottom of
the embankment equal to the embankment width (see Fig.(2.16c)).
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
G.S.
Borehole
Strong layer
Weak layer
B S B
LB
Column
Footing
Plan
P1 P2 P
Section
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
W
B S B S B
L=W B
P1 P2 P3
G.S.
S S Df
Borehole depth
(D f 1.5B) B B B
P1 P2 P3
G.S.
S S Df
Borehole depth
B B B
(Df D)
D = 1.5B when S 4B
= 3.0B when S 4B..and..S 2B
= 4.5B when S 2B
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
G.S.
B
Df Pile cap
2 Borehole depth
L
3 2
L (D f L 1.5B)
3
(a) Piles
G.S.
Backfill Soil
H
G.S.
B
Base Soil
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Fill
H
Cut
B
= B when B H or
= H when B > H
Fill
Side hill
Fill
Cut
Fig.(2.16): Depth of borings for cuts and fills, canals, and embankments.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
G.S.
Df B
2.5 B 2.5 B
If it is specified that three sizes of plates are to be used for the test, the pit should be large
enough so that, there is an available spacing between tests of 3 times the diameter (D) of the
largest plate. This is useful for studying the size effect of footings.
G.S.
300mm D = 750mm 450mm
Df
2.5 B 3D 3D 2.5 B
(2) A square loading plate 2.5cm thick and (30 x 30)cm is placed on the surface of the soil at
the bottom of the pit. There should not be any surcharge load placed on the soil within a
distance of (60cm) from around the plate.
(3) A vertical load is placed on the plate in increments and settlements are recorded as an
average from at least three dial gauges accurate to (0.025mm) attracted to an independent
suspension system. Load increment should be approximately 1/10 of the estimated
allowable soil pressure. For each load increment, settlement readings should be taken at
regular intervals of not less than (1 hr.) until there is no further settlement. The same time
duration should be used for all the loading increments.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
(4) The test is continued until a settlement of 25mm is observed or until the load increments
reached 1.5 times the estimated allowable soil pressure.
(5) If the load is released, the elastic rebound of the soil should be recorded for periods of time
equal to the same time durations of each applied load increment.
(6) The result of each test can be represented graphically as follows (see Fig.2.17):-
(a) Settlement versus log time curve (for each load increment),
(b) Load-settlement curve (for all increments) from which qult . is obtained.
q ult .
Settlement
Settlement
(mm)
(mm)
b
settl.
c
a
Bf
qf qp B
p
2 .................................................................(2.4)
s s 2B f
f p
Bp Bf
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
where, s f and s p are settlements of footing and plate, B f and B p are their respective widths;
Bf
provided that B p = 1.0 ft for 5 as well as the footing and plate carry the same
Bp
intensity of load, and (n) is an exponent that depends on soil type; with some of its values
are:
Type of soil n
Clay 0.03 - 0.50
Sandy clay 0.08 - 0.10
Dense sand 0.40 - 0.50
Medium sand 0.25 - 0.35
Loose sand 0.20 - 0.25
For c soils (bearing capacity from two-plate load tests; after Housel, 1929):
Note: The SPT- value is rejected or halted in any one of the following cases:
(a) if 50 blows are required for any 150mm increment, or
(b) if 100 blows are obtained, or
(c) if 10 successive blows produce no advancement.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
The number of blows (N) can be correlated with the relative density ( D r ) of cohesionless
soil (sand) and with the consistency of cohesive soil (clay) as shown in Tables (2.9, 2.10 and
2.11).
Relative density
SPT- value emax einsitu
N/30cm Dr x100
emax emin
0-4 0 -15 Very loose 28
4 - 10 15 - 35 Loose 28 - 30
10 - 30 35 - 65 Medium 30 - 36
30 - 50 65 - 85 Dense 36 - 41
> 50 85 - 100 Very dense > 41
Table (2.11): Empirical values for ,..Dr , and of granular soils based
on the SPT at about 6 m depth and normally consolidated.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
where,
N70 corrected (N) using the subscript for the energy ratio E rb and ( ' ) to indicate it
has been adjusted or corrected,
C N = adjustment for overburden pressure for p 25.(kPa) and can be calculated from
the following formula:
2000
C N 0.77 log .......(2.10)
Po
If p 25.(kPa) , no need for overburden pressure correction.
where,
p o overburden pressure in ( kPa ),
i : factors obtained from (Table 2.12) as:
1 hammer correction = (average energy ratio)/(drill rig energy) = E r / E rb ;
2 rod length correction;
3 sampling method correction; and
4 borehole diameter correction.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Hammer correction 1
60 -120 mm 4 = 1.00
Hole diameter 150 mm = 1.05 N is too small for oversize hole
200 mm = 1.15
Notes:
1. It is evident that all i =1.0 for the case of a small borehole, no sampler liner, length of
drill rod > 10 m and the given drill rig has E r 70 . In this case, the only adjustment is
for overburden pressure (i.e., Ncorr . Nfield .CN ).
E
2. Large values of E r decrease the blow count (N) linearly (i.e., N 2 r1 ..N1 ). This
E r2
equation is used to convert any energy ratio to any other base.
30
3. If N field 10...blows / 10cm , then Ncorr . 10. 30...blows / 30cm.
10
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Fig.(2.18b) shows the operations sequence of a mechanical cone as: in position (1) the cone
is seated; position (2) advances the cone tip to measure q c ; position (3) advances the friction
sleeve to measure q s ; and position (4) advances both tip and sleeve to measure q t = q c + q s .
Therefore, at any required depth, the tip and sleeve friction resistances q c and q s are measured
and then used to compute a friction ratio f R as:
q
f R (%) s x100 ; f R < 1% for sands; f R > 5 or 6% for clays and peat.
qc
The data collected from the CPT can be correlated to establish the undrained shear strength
S u of cohesive soils, allowable bearing capacity of piles, to classify soils; and to estimate ,..Dr
for sands. A typical data set is shown in Fig.(2.19b).
CPT Correlations
1. The cone resistance q c is related to the undrained shear strength S u of cohesive soils as:
q po
Su c .(2.11)
Nk
where, p o .z = overburden pressure at point where q c is measured., and
N k = cone factor computed from Fig.(2.20).
2. The q c and f R results are used to classify soils from Fig.(2.21) for standard electronic cone.
3. The cone resistance q c can be related to the pore pressure as:
q po
Su T ..(2.12)
N kT
where, q T q c u.(1 a ) ,
a = area ratio depends on the cone type,
u = measured pore water pressure, and NkT 13 (5.5.Ip / 50) .
For normally consolidated clays of low sensitivity (S t 4) and I p 30 a value of N k
about 18 and N kT of 14 may be satisfactory (see Figs. (2.18) to (2.25)).
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
(a) Dutch cone modified to measure both (b) Positions of the Dutch cone during (c) Typical output.
point resistance q c and skin friction q f a pressure record.
.
Fig.(2.18): Mechanical (or Dutch) cone, operations sequence, and tip resistance data.
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
(a) Cone bearing vs. relationship. (b) Correlation between peak friction angle and q c
for uncemented, quartz sands (after Robertson
and Campanella, 1983).
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Procedure:
1. The equipment is installed in place properly either at the ground surface without a hole
(case 1) or at the bottom of a borehole (case 2) and then the vane is pushed into the
soil layer to the required depth; (see Fig.(2.27)).
2. A torque is applied at a uniform rate of 0.1o per sec. or (1o-6o per minute).
3. Readings are taken every minute interval until failure happens.
T
T
T
t G.S. H
S H
S
S
H
S
S D S
4t
a 11%
.D Case 1
S D
where, t = thickness of plate, and
S D D = diameter of vane.
Case 2
Calculation:
(i) Case (1): In this case, the vane is not embedded in soil, so that only the bottom end
takes pant in shearing. If the soil is isotropic and homogenous, then:
(a) Total shear resistance at failure developed along cylindrical surface = .D.H.S
(b) Total resistance of bottom ends, considering a ring of radius r and thickness dr
D/2
= (2.r.dr ).S
0
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Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
D D/2
(c) The torque T at failure will then equal: T (.D.H.S) (2.r.dr ).S.r
2 0
.D2Su D
or T (H ) .....(2.13)
2 6
(ii) Case (2): If the top end of the vane is also embedded in soil, so shearing takes place
on top and bottom ends:
.D2Su D
or T (H ) .....(2.14)
2 3
Notes:
Use consistent units, such as: T in (kg-cm); S u in (kg/cm2); and H and D in (cm).
It is found that the S u values obtained by vane shear test are too large for design.
Therefore, Bjerrum's (1972) proposed a reduction factor using the following formula:
S u , design ..S u , field .....(2.15)
where, is a correction factor depends on plasticity index I p and obtained from Fig.(2.28a);
Also, Aas et al. (1986) proposed another charts (see Fig.(2.28b)) taking into account the
effects of aging and OCR (Overconsolidation ratio).
Ip , %
(a) Bjerrum correction factor for vane-shear test. (b) Reinterpretation of the Bjerrum chart of part a by
[(Bjerrum, 1972) and Ladd et al., 1977)]. (Aas et al. (1986) to include effects of aging and OCR ).
57
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem (2.1): A thin-walled tube (OD = 76.2mm, ID = 73mm) was pushed into a soft clay at
the bottom of a borehole a distance of 600mm. When the sampler was recovered a
measurement done inside the tube indicated a recovered sample length of 575mm.
Calculate the recovery and area ratios.
Solution:
575
Recovery ratio: L r 0.958
600
(76.2) 2 (73) 2
Area ratio: Ar x100 8.96%
(73) 2
Problem (2.2): A three story steel frame office building will be built on a site where the soils are
expected to be of average quality and uniformity. The building will have a (30m x 40m)
footprint and is expected to be supported on spread footing foundations located about (1m)
below the ground surface. The site appears to be in its natural condition, with no evidence
of previous grading. Bedrock is several hundred feet below the ground surface. Determine
the required number and depth of the borings.
Solution:
Number of borings:
From Table (2.7), one boring will be needed for every 200 to 400 m2 of footprint area.
Since the total footprint area is 30 x 40 =1200 m2, use (4) four borings.
Depth of borings:
For subsurface condition of average quality, the minimum depth is: 4.
4.5.S0.7 Df 4.5(3) 0.7 1 11m.
However, it would be good to drill at least one of the borings to a slightly greater depth to
check lower strata. In summary, the exploration plan will be 4 borings with, 3 borings to
11 m, and 1 boring to 15 m.
58
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Solution:
Depth of borings:
(a) d 1.5(16) 24 m
(b) 10% of contact pressure:
16.(1000) 24(16)(16)(1)
q contact ( net ) (3)(16) 38.5..kPa
(16)(16)
38.5(16)(16)
0.1.(38.5) , . .....d = 34.6 m
(16 d) 2
(c) 5% of overburden pressure:
38.5(16)(16)
0.05.[16(6) (d 3)(20 10)] , ...d = 15.5 m
(16 d) 2
From (b and c) take the lower d = 15.5 m
Problem (2.4): A wide strip footing applying net pressure of 35 kPa is to be constructed 1.0 m
below the surface of uniform soil having unit weight of 19 kN/m 3. The footing is 5.0 m wide
and the water table is at ground surface. Is 12 m depth of boring (measured from ground
surface) sufficient for subsoil exploration program.
Solution:
(a) d 3( B) 3(5) 15 m
(35)(5)(1)
(b) 10% of contact pressure: 0.1.(35) ,....................... d = 4.3 m
(5 d)(1 d)
(35)(5)(1)
(c) 5% of overburden pressure: 0.05(9 9d) ,................ d = 5.2 m
(5 d)(1 d)
From (b and c) take the lower d = 4.3 m
59
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
From (15 m, and 4.3 m) take the highest d = 15 m, and so the depth from ground
surface D 15 1 16 m, 12 m is not sufficient.
Problem (2.5): A standard penetration test was performed on dense sand soil. If Nfield = 20,
rod length = 12m, hole diameter = 150mm, po 205...kPa , determine N60 and N70 for
each of the following conditions:
a. Use safety hammer with E r 80, and no liner.
b. Use safety hammer with E r 60, and with sample liner.
c. po 100.kPa , 205 mm hollow stem auger, hole depth = 6m, use safety hammer with
E r 55, and no liner.
Solution:
2000 2000
(a) Since po 205...kPa 25 kPa C N 0.77. log10 0.77. log10 0.76
po (kPa) 205
From (Table 2.12):
1 E r / E rb 80 / 70 1.14
2 = 1.00 (for L = 12m (rod length 10m)),
3 = 1.00 (for no liner),
4 = 1.05 (for B.H. diameter = 150mm),
and
70
N60..Er 60 N70.. Er 70 , or N60 (18) 21
60
(b) C N 0.76
From (Table 2.12):
1 Er / Erb 60 / 70 0.86
2 = 1.00 (for L = 12m (rod length) 10m),
3 = 0.80 (dense sand with liner),
4 = 1.05 (for B.H. diameter = 150mm),
and
70
N60..Er 60 N70.. Er 70 , or N60 (10) 11
60
60
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
2000
(c) Since po 100...kPa 25 kPa C N 0.77. log10 1.00
100
From (Table 2.12):
1 Er / Erb 55 / 70 0.79
2 = 0.95 (for L 6m (rod length) 10m),
3 = 1.00 (for no liner),
4 = 1.00 (for 205mm hollow stem auger),
and
70
N60..Er 60 N70.. Er 70 , or N60 (15) 17
60
Problem (2.6): A standard penetration test SPT has been conducted in a coarse sand to a
depth of 4.8 m below the ground surface. The blow counts obtained in the field were as
follows: 0 6 in: 4 blows; 6 -12 in: 6 blows; 12 -18 in: 8 blows. The test was conducted
using a USA-style donut hammer in a 150mm diameter boring with a standard sampler and
liner. If the vertical effective stress at the test depth was 70 kN/m2, determine N60 ?
Solution:
Problem (2.7): A standard penetration test was carried out in sand at 5m depth below the
ground surface gave (N = 28) as shown in the figure below. Find the corrected N-value?
Solution: G.S.
Overburden correction:
Po = 2(18) + 3(20 9.81) = 66.57 kPa 25 kPa
2000 2000
C N 0.77 log = 0.77 log 1.14
Po 66.57
Ncorr . N..CN = 21(1.14) = 23 blows
Problem (2.8): A standard penetration test was carried out at a depth of (10m) in a saturated
fine sand yielded a blow count of (N = 41). If the saturated unit weight of the sand equals
(19 kN/m3), find the corrected value of (N).
Solution:
Water table correction:
Overburden correction:
Po = 10 (19 9.81) = 91.9 kPa 25 kPa
2000 2000
C N 0.77 log = 0.77 log 1.03
Po 91.9
Ncorr . N..CN = 28(1.03) = 28.8, say 28 blows
Problem (2.9): It is proposed to construct a spread wall footing of (3m width) in sand at (1.5m)
below the ground surface to support a load of 12 Ton/m. The SPT results from a soil boring
are as shown below. If the water table is located at 0.9m from G.S. and soil(sat .) 17.6
kN/m3, determine the average corrected N-value required for design?
Solution:
Find Po at each depth and correct Nfield values up to at least a depth B below the base of
foundation according to the magnitude of overburden pressure in comparison with 25 kPa.
2000
Overburden pressure correction: C N 0.77 log
Po
62
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Find the average corrected N-value as a cumulative average down to the depth indicated,
and then, choose the N-value for design as the lowest average N-value.
SPT
sample Po CN N avg
.
Nfield N CN .Nfield N 15 0.5( N 15)
depth (kN/m ) 2
(m)
1.5 31 20.5 1.00 31 23 23
2.25 25 26.3 1.45 36 25 24
3.0 22 32.2 1.38 30 22 23
3.75 20 38.0 1.32 26 20 22
4.5 28 43.9 1.28 35 25 23
Problem (2.10): Given: qc 300.(kg / cm 2 ) at depth z = 8m in sand with 11.15 (kN/ m3).
Required: estimate angle of internal friction ( ).
Solution:
po 8(11.15) 89.2...kPa
q 300(100)
qc Vb .po , Vb (bearing capacity factor) c 336
po 89.2
1. Using Fig.(2.22) with qc 300.(kg / cm ) and p o 89.2.kPa , the intersection is above
2
D r 100% ; with D r 100% and using Fig.(2.23) obtain = 42 to 46, say = 44o,
63
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
2. From Fig.(2.24a) at Vb =336 project to curves and down to obtain: = 34.5 to 39.5 ,
say =37o,
300.(98.07)
3. From Fig.(2.24b) and q c = 29.4.MPa , obtain = 46o.
1000
(37 44 46)
A better estimate might be obtained by taking an average value: 42 o
3
but this value is still, high, because it is recommended to use not over (40o).
Problem (2.11): Classify the soil of Fig.(2.19b) at (10-12)m depth. Also, estimate the
undrained shear strength S u if the average =19.65 kN / m 3 for the entire depth of CPT. It
is known that the profile is entirely in cohesive soil.
Solution:
Problem (2.12): Load-settlement data obtained from load test of square plate of size (1.0 ft)
are as shown below. If a square footing of size (7.0 ft) settles (0.75 inch), what is the
allowable soil pressure of the footing? Consider sandy soil.
Load (Tsf) 2 5 8 10 14 16 19
Settlement (inch) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Solution:
Bf
qf qp B
p 0.75 0.75
For cohesionless soil:
2 , sp 0.25
2
s s 2B f 2x 7 3.05
f p 1 7
Bp Bf
Now by drawing the given data and for s p 0.25 , Pressure (Tsf)
Bp 1
(inch)
64
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
Problem (2.13): Use Housels method to determine the size of square footing required to carry
a column load P = 45 tons if the two plate loading tests results are as given below:-
plate size (1) = 35 x 35 cms, corresponding load = 5.6 tons; relative to 1.0 cm settlement.
plate size (2) = 50 x 50 cms, corresponding load = 10 tons; relative to 1.0 cm settlement.
Solution:
From Housel's method (Eq. 2.6): V = A. q + P. s
5.6 = 0.123 q + 1.4 s
10 = 0.25 q + 2 s
Solving the two equations, gives: q = 26.9 and s = 1.63.
Again from Eq.(2.6) shown above, the footing area required to carry 45 tons load is
calculated as:
45 = B2 q + 4B s
45 = B2 (26.9) + 4B (1.63)
26.9 B2 + 6.52 B 45 = 0
B2 + 0.24 B 1.67 = 0
Problem (2.14): A vane tester with a diameter d = 9.1cms and a height h = 18.2 cms requires
a torque of 110 N-m to shear a clay soil sample, with a plasticity index of 48%. Find the soil
un-drained cohesion Su ?
Solution:
For CASE (2) with top and bottom vane ends embedded in soil, the torque is given by:
.D2.Su ,field D
T (H )
2 3
T 0.110
or S u , field 40 kN/m2
2 2
.D D .(0.091) 0.091
(H ) 0.182
2 3 2 3
From Fig.(2.28a) for a plasticity index of 48%, Bjerrum's correction factor = 0.80, and
Therefore, Su ,design ..Su ,field 0.8(40) 32 kPa
65
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
PROBLEMS
P2.1 Name several sources for information and preliminary evaluation of a building site.
P2.2 Explain briefly the difference between preliminary exploration and detailed exploration.
P2.4 Give factors that are relevant to planning for a well-balanced exploration program.
P2.5 How does someone select the depth of boring, boring layout, and type of samples?
P2.6 What is a test pit? Give few negative and positive aspects of it.
P2.7 What is a test boring? How does it differ from a test pit?.
P2.8 What are disturbed and undisturbed soil samples? How do you obtain each of them?.
P2.9 Describe Shelby-tube sampler features. How does it differ from split-spoon sampler?
P2.10 What is a core sample? How is it obtained? What sort of information can be obtained
after evaluation.
P2.13 Can a split-spoon sampler penetrate a typical rock formation? Can a fight auger
penetrate a rock formation? Explain briefly.
P2.14 Shelby tubes are usually pushed into a strata. However, some practitioners regard
driving the tube an acceptable approach. How might the disturbance be affected by the
two methods for each type listed below? (a) Very soft clay, and (b) Hard clay.
P2.15 a- List general rules of estimating the number and depth of soil investigation boreholes.
b- What are the different types of samplers you may use to obtain undisturbed samples
of cohesive soil?
P2.16 a- The load-settlement data obtained from load test of a square plate of size (1ft X1ft) are
as shown below. If a square footing of size (7ft X 7ft) settles 0.75 inch, what is the
allowable soil pressure (consider the soil is a cohesionless soil)?
Load (Tsf) 2 5 8 10 14 16 19
Settlement (inch) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
b- Compute the area ratio (Ar) of the standard split spoon dimensions (OD = 51 mm and
ID = 38mm). Then, what ID would be required to give Ar = 10%?
66
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
P2.17 For cone penetration records shown in the table below, plot the CPT data including f R
and then estimate Su and at a depth of 5.6m if I P = 30. Take av = 16.5 kN/m3 up to
ground water table (GWT) at depth of 3m and = 19.81 kN/m3 for soil below the GWT.
P2.18 For the cone penetration records of clay soil shown in the figure below, if LL = 45 and PL
= 20% estimate Su and at the 78 m depth. Assume avg. = 16.5 kN/m3 for soil above
the GWT and = 19.81 kN/m3 below it.
Depth z , meters
Depth z , meters
67
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
P2.19 In the soil profile shown in the figure below, if the cone penetration resistance ( q c ) at
point (x) as determined by an electric friction cone penetrometer is 0.80 MN/m2 find:
(a) the over-consolidation ratio, OCR ,
(b) the un-drained cohesion C u .
1.01
q o C
Use: OCR 0.37 c ; and OCR . u.field where, 22.( PI) 0.48
o o
G.S.
2m W.T. Clay
= 18 KN/m3
4m
sat = 20 KN/m3
x
P2.20 For a vane shear data shown in the figure below, estimate Su ,.v and Su,.remolded if 100
mm diameter vane is used with H/ D =2 (rectangular). Also estimate if I p = 40 and Po
=125 kPa.
200
200 -
Total torque, N-m
150 -
T for Su,v
Friction
100 -
50 - Tremolded
16.7
0-
Rotation,
P2.21 Vane shear tests were conducted in a layer of clay. The vane dimensions were 63.5 mm
(D) x 127mm (H). At certain depth, the torque required to cause failure was 0.051 N-m.
The liquid limit of the clay was 46 and the plastic limit was 21. Estimate the undrained
cohesion of the clay to be used in design by applying Bjerrum's relationship:
68
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
OD ID Length
(inch) (inch) (inch)
3.0 2.875 24
3.5 3.375 24
Required: What is the area ratio of each of these two sample tubes? and what kind of
sample disturbance is obtained?
P2.23 For the soil profile shown in the figure below, along with the standard penetration
numbers in the clay layer, determine the variation of C u ..and..OCR with depth.
0.689
2 N
Use: Cu.(kN/m ) 29N060.72 ;
and OCR 0.193 60
o
where, o = effective vertical stresses in (MN/m2).
G.S.
2.0m W.T. Dry sand = 17 KN/m3
P2.24 For the soil profile shown in the figure below, along with the standard penetration
numbers in sand layers, calculate the corrected N-values and then estimate an average
peak soil friction angle using: 1. .(deg .) 27.1 0.3.N 60 0.00054.( N 60 )2
2. .(deg .) tan1 ( N 60 / 12.2 20.3( o ))0.34
100
G.S. N 60
1.5m 6
W.T. 4.5m 9
6.0m 8
69
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
P2.25 For the log of boring shown the in figure below, make reasonable estimates of the
relative density D r ..and.. for the sand both above and below the GWT. Assume that
E r 60 for the N-values shown, the unit weight of sand increases linearly from (15 to
18.1) kN/m3 close to the ground surface up to water table level and sat 19.75 kN/m3
below GWT. Also, estimate the N-value you would use for a square footing of (2m x 2m)
located at -2m depth?
Nvalues G.S.
0.0
Top soil
- 0.3
-6
Sand
-10
- 4.0 -8 W.T.
Depth (m)
-7
sat 19.75 kN/m3
- 6.0 -9
-11
q u 50.kPa
- 8.0 -15
q u 60.kPa
-14
Sandy clay
70
Foundation Engineering for Civil Engineers Chapter 2: Subsoil Exploration
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71