Marine and Petroleum Geology 04 "0887# 274390

Depositional environments and oil potential of Jurassic:Cretaceous

source rocks within the Seychelles microcontinent
Phillip S[ Plummer\ Patrick R[ Joseph\ Patrick J[ Samson
Seychelles National Oil Company\ PO Box 129\ Victoria\ Mahe\ Seychelles

Received 3 December 0886^ 09 March 0887^ 29 March 0887

Abstract

The Seychelles microcontinent became isolated between the Somali\ Mascarene and Arabian basins of the Indian Ocean as a result
of the Mesozoic fragmentation of Gondwana[ Major rifting events occurred during the Triassic!Middle Jurassic and Late Cretaceous
"Cenomanian!Santonian and Maastrichtian# during which shaly source rock facies accumulated in principally marginal marine:deltaic
environments[ Between these times\ post!rift passive margin deposition within restricted to open marine environments produced
shaly source rocks during late Middle Jurassic!Early Cretaceous\ Campanian!Maastrichtian and Paleocene times[
Recent geochemical analysis of cuttings from the Seagull Shoals!l well has identi_ed an oil!prone liptinitic "Type II# coaly shale
within early Middle Jurassic abandoned deltaic deposits[ This coaly source rock is regionally developed\ having also been identi_ed
in the Majunga and Morondava basins of Madagascar[ Oil!prone Type II organic matter has also been identi_ed in the Owen Bank
A!0 well within restricted marine shales of late Middle Jurassic age[ These shales are part of a thick post!rift source rock sequence
that extends into the Early Cretaeous and is in part correlative with the proven Late Jurassic Uarandab Shale of Somalia[ Analysis
of Campanian marine shales from Reith Bank!0 well identi_ed signi_cant dilution of total organic carbon content in composite\
compared to picked\ well cuttings samples[ This _nding supports a published inference that these post!rift shales have source rock
potential[ The very limited drilling of the various Jurassic:Cretaceous source rock sequences in Seychelles "only three penetrations\
all within a 02 km radius# indicates that they span the entire maturity window and that some have generated hydrocarbons[ However\
the petroleum system associated with the Triassic!Early Cretaceous rift:drift sequence has been tested only by three invalid wells at
the western extremity of the Seychelles Plateau\ whilst that associated with the Late Cretaceous rift:drift sequence remains untested[
0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved[

Keywords] Seychelles microcontinent^ Source rocks^ Jurassic:Cretaceous^ Multiple rifting^ Oil!prone liptinitic coal^ Type II kerogen

0[ Introduction In Seychelles only four exploration wells have been

Proli_c source rocks deposited during the Jurassic and
Cretaceous periods are responsible for some 69) of the
world|s petroleum provinces "e[g[ Klemme and Ulmishek\
0880^ Klemme\ 0883#[ Along the northeastern margin of
Gondwana during these times abundant source rocks
were deposited in the predominantly carbonate environ!
ments of the Middle East as well as in siliclastic environ!
ments of the Indus Basin of Pakistan and the northwest
margin of Australia\ amongst others[ During the Early:
Middle Jurassic\ a gulf of Tethys extended southwards
between East Africa and the then conjugate margin of
Madagascar\ Seychelles and northwest India "Fig[ 0#\ yet
this area is generally perceived to have a paucity of quality
source rocks[
Corresponding author[ Tel[] 99137 114071^ fax] 99137 114066^ e!
mail] snocseychelles[net
drilled "Fig[ 1# and of these only the three at the western
extremity of the plateau penetrated the pre!Tertiary suc!
cession[ Geochemical analyses of samples from these
three wells have revealed the presence of several potential
source rock horizons ranging in age from Middle!Late
Triassic to Paleocene[ Several hydrocarbon shows from
the wells demonstrate the generative potential of at least
some of these source rock horizons "Fig[ 2#[ Although
the original analyses of source rock geochemistry have
never been published "see Appendix I#\ Plummer "0883#
summarised their main _ndings in a review of Seycelles
source rock characteristics[ This paper aims to sup!
plement that review by reporting on recent re!analysis of
selected samples from the wells\ and also on a more
detailed review of the original data from the Jurassic and
Lower Cretaceous succession[
As no new geochemical data are available for the
Middle!Late Triassic or Maastrichtian!Paleocene source

S91537061:87:,See front matter 0887 Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved
PII] S 9 1 5 3 7 0 6 1 " 8 7 # 9 9 9 0 8 0
275 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390
Fig[ 0[ Location of the Seychelles microcontinent "SM# marginal to the
Middle Jurassic Tethyan gulf developed along the rift that eventually
separated East and West Gondwana[
rock horizons\ they are not considered further except to
note that the latter horizon in Seagull Shoals!0 well "a
dark grey shale bearing 6[71) total organic carbon
"TOC# from picked cuttings between 03150325 m at a
Tmax of 331>C with Hydrogen Index "HI# of 005
mgHC:gTOC\ Oxygen Index "OI# of 08 mg CO1:gTOC\
Production Index of 9[91 and Potential Yield of 09\999
ppm\ see Fig[ 2 and Ref[ 1\ Appendix I# is a correlative of
the carbonaceous Vasai or Panna Formation of o}shore
west India[ This latter formation has generated oil found
in the Deep Continental Shelf trend "speci_cally the D!0
and D!07 structures# of the Bombay High O}shore Oil
Province "Banerjie et al[\ 0880^ Pande et al[\ 0881^ Mathur
et al[\ 0882^ Samanta and Kumar\ 0882#[ Recent apatite
_ssion track analysis and maturity modelling has shown
that this Paleocene source rock is capable of generating
hydrocarbons over portions of the Seychelles Plateau
"Geotrack and Waples\ 0886#[
1[ Geological setting
The basement of the Seychelles microcontinent com!
prises a suite of granites emplaced during Late Protero!
zoic extension within the Gondwana Supercontinent[ The
_rst Gondwanan rift phase to a}ect Seychelles took place
in the Late Palaeozoic forming a series of elongate failed
rift grabens[ The second phase of rifting\ during Triassic
to Middle Jurassic time "Fig[ 2#\ resulted in the deposition
of at least 1 km\ and possibly as much as 5 km\ of
clastic sediments along the western margin of Seychelles
"Plummer and Belle\ 0884#[ Following the subsequent
split of Gondwana\ Seychelles lay on the passive nor!
thwest margin of East Gondwana "Fig[ 3"a## upon which
more than 0 km of _ne marine clastics were deposited
as the Somali oceanic basin developed into the Early
Cretaceous[
At 019 Ma East Gondwana began to fragment[
Initially Antarctica!Australia left Madagascar!Seychelles!
India\ then at 099 Ma "mid Cretaceous# Seychelles!
India began rifting from Madagascar "Plummer and
Belle\ 0884#\ eventually separating at 74 Ma "Figs 2
and 3"b## to form the intervening Mascarene oceanic
basin[ During the subsequent northward drift of Sey!
chelles!India\ the emergence of the Deccan hotspot
at54 Ma initiated the Carlsberg Spreading Ridge of
the Arabian oceanic basin "Fig[ 3"c## and completed the
isolation of the elongate Seychelles microcontinental
sliver[ No sediments from either of these latter two rift
episodes have been drilled in optimal locations in
Seychelles\ although thin sequences of Late Cretaceous
coarse calcareous rift clastics and ensuing limestone and
shale drift deposits were encountered in the wells on
the Western Shelf of the plateau[ Maastrichtian and:or
Paleocene volcanics have been encountered in all four
wells on the Seychelles Plateau\ as well as in ODP!696
and the Saya de Malha!0 well "Fig[ 1#\ but their full
tectonic signi_cance has yet to be established[
Limited well samples indicate that source rocks
accumulated in various depostional settings during each
of the identi_able rift and drift tectonic phases that were
responsible for the isolation of the Seychelles mic!
rocontinent[ Best documented from this dataset are the
variety of depostional environments that developed
within and marginal to the paralic Tethyan gulf during
the Triassic to Middle Jurassic and its descendent Middle
Jurassic to mid Cretaceous ocean basin\ the Somali Basin[
In addition\ the very limited data available from the Late
Cretaceous sequence suggest that source rocks possibly
developed during both the Cenomanian Santonian rift
and the Campanian Maastrichtian drift of Seychelles
from Madagascar[
2[ Methods of source rock analysis
Geochemical analysis of Early Cretaceous to upper
Early Jurassic samples from 1272 to 3260 m "2 m from
TD# in the Owen Bank A!0 well "Ref[ 09\ Appendix I#
involved the screening of 8 m composite cuttings samples
for source rock richness by measuring the TOC content[
 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390
Fig[ 1[ Extent of the Seychelles Microcontinent "from Stephens et al[\ in review# showing the locations of sites and seismic lines mentioned in the text[
Following this\ approximately every fourth sample was
subjected to detailed source rock evaluation by extrac!
tion\ total extract gas chromatography "GC#\ elemental
and vitrinite re~ectance analysis[ Later analysis of the
section from 3943 to 3206 m "Ref[ 3\ Appendix I#
included gasoline analyses\ spore colouration and Rock!
Eval pyrolysis\ along with a biostratigraphical and
palaeoenvironmental analysis of the entire well "Ref[ 6\
Appendix I#[
The geochemical analyses of essentially the entire
sequence in Reith Bank!0 "0262787 m*Ref[ 0\ Appen!
dix I# and the pre!Eocene sequence in Seagull Shoals!0
"02601632 m*Ref[ 1\ Appendix I# involved the
screening of 04 m "Reith Bank!0# or 8 m "Seagull Shoals!
0# composite cuttings samples by airspace gas and TOC
analysis followed by spore colouration\ vitrinite re~ec!
tance\ Rock!Eval pyrolysis\ gasoline\ elemental and vis!
ual kerogen analysis and\ on selected samples\
fractionation and GC[ Detailed biostratigraphical and
palaeoenvironmental analyses of these two wells were
also undertaken "Refs 4\ 5\ Appendix I#[
As part of a regional hydrocarbon study of East Africa
and adjacent regions\ 031 cuttings samples "the same 8
or 04 m composites# from the three wells "42 from Owen
276
Bank A!0\ 59 from Reith Bank!0 and 18 from Seagull
Shoals!0# were screened by Rock!Eval "Ref[ 00\ Appen!
dix I#[ Of these\ 09 samples were then extracted for stan!
dard GC and GC!mass spectrometry "GC:MS# analysis[
In any discussion of source rock quality it should be
noted that\ in the presence of Type III organic matter "as
dominates the Seychelles source rock horizons#\ Rock!
Eval underestimates the source rock oil potential\ due to
limitations in de_ning kerogen type "Scott\ 0881#\ and
pyrolysis underestimates the Hydrogen Index in clastic
source rocks with low TOC contents "Peters\ 0875#[ These
e}ects have been demonstrated in the Niger and Mack!
enzie deltas where intervals indicated as having low
source potential have been found to have generated large
amounts of oil "e[g[ Brooks\ 0875^ Elkweozor and
Daukoru\ 0883#[ In Seychelles\ therefore\ source rock
quality indicated by parameters derived from these tech!
niques should be considered as likely minimum values[
3[ Early Middle Jurassic oil!prone deltaic source rock
The latest Rock!Eval analyses "Ref[ 00\ Appendix I#
identi_ed an average TOC of 6[0) with high HI of 176
277 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390

Fig[ 2[ Generalised stratigraphy and tectonic development of the Seychelles Microcontinent showing proven and potential source rock horizons and
levels of hydrocarbon shows in the wells from the Western Shelf "A] Africa\ M] Madagascar^ S] Seychelles^ I] India#[ Geochemical data from Refs 0\
1\ 09\ 00\ Appendix I[

mgHC:gTOC\ and low OI of 5 mgCO1:gTOC in the early
Middle Jurassic "late EastWest Gondwana rift# sample
from 11381147 m in the Seagull Shoals!0 well[ Close
examination revealed the sample to comprise coal in a
grey shale\ with the coal bearing oil!prone liptinitic Type
II kerogen "Figs 4 and 5#[ The equivalent deposits in
nearby Reith Bank!0 "07890894 m# also revealed coal
within a grey shale\ but this coal was composed of gas!
prone vitrinitic Type III kerogen[ Although the analyses
suggest these source rock samples to be immature to
marginally mature\ the wells were drilled high on the
~anks of fault!induced half grabens "Fig[ 6# and peak oil
maturity is predicted to occur downdip within the half
grabens between 12992949 m "0[30[64 s[ TWT#[
Abundant spores and pollen "especially Circumpolles
cf[ meyeriana[ Classopollis spp[\ Cupressacites sp[\ Deltoi!
dospora spp[ and indeterminate inaperturate grains#
dominate the palynological assemblages in both these
wells "Refs 4\ 5\ Appendix I# and indicate a dominace
of terrestrial organic matter[ However\ the presence of
rare dinocysts "e[g[ Dichado`onyaulax spp[ and inde!
terminate dino~agellates# and microforaminifera both
above and below these coaly shale horizons attest to their
deposition within a marginal marine environment\ such
as an abandoned delta:coastal plain[
According to Haszeldine "0878#\ high sulphur content
"09[54) in Seagull Shoals!0# associated with the liptinitic
Type II kerogen\ compared to a considerably lower sul!
phur content "1[34) in Reith Bank!0# associated with
the vitrinitic Type III kerogen\ indicates shoreline versus
more landward deposition under marine in~uence upon
a swampy abandoned delta:coastal plain "Fig[ 7#[ Hasz!
 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390 278

Fig[ 3[ Plate tectonic development of the Seychelles Microcontinent[ "a# Early Cretaceous following the separation of East and West Gondwana^ "b#
early Late Cretaceous during the separation of Seychelles!India from Madagascar^ "c# Paleocene during the separation of India from Seychelles^ "d#
present day[ "S] Seychelles#[

eldine "0878# also noted that sulphur contents can be
boosted by proximity to an overlying purely marine
deposit\ in this case the Middle Jurassic oolitic limestone
that is a Tethyan marker horizon "see Fig[ 5#[ Non!coaly
black shales in Owen Bank A!0\ containing abundant
miospores "especially Exesipollenites tumulus\ Classo!
pollis cf[ meyeriana\ C[ classoides and Callialasporites
spp[# along with rare microplankton "e[g[ Pareodinia spp[
and Sentusidinium spp[# and microforaminifera "Ref[ 6\
Appendix I#\ represent time equivalent deposition in a
nearshore\ restricted and or oxygen!depleted marine
environment "Fig[7#[
289 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390
Fig[ 4[ Hydrogen Index vs maximum temperature plot of early Middle
Jurassic coaly deltaic shale source rocks from Reith Bank!0 and Seagull
Shoals!0[ Data from Ref[ 00\ Appendix I[
3[0[ Evidence of hydrocarbon generation
One of the most signi_cant hydrocarbon shows encoun!
tered in the wells occurred within the shale bearing the
liptinitic coal in Seagull Shoals!0 where 57\799 ppm "85)
C0# headspace gas was recorded "some 06 times back!
ground*Ref[ 1\ Appendix I#[ Gas chromato!
graphy of a saturates extract of the shale revealed an oil!
like alkane distribution\ comparable to the GC trace of
an oil!prone Middle Jurassic coal from northern Egypt
"see Fig[ 5[#[ The dominance of C04 to C12 alkanes and
unusually low Pr:Ph "  9[61# of the Egyptian coal was
concluded by Bagge and Keeley "0883# to be due to the
presence of very _ne!grained algal organic matter of
either marine or lacustrine origin deposited in a strongly
reducing environment[ Algae derived form lakes upon
the abandoned delta:coastal plain\ or from the adjacent
restricted marine depositional environment could
account for the same C04 to C12 alkane dominance and
low Pr:Ph "  0[1# in the Seagull Shoals!0 shale[ Also\
from the same stratigraphic level between 07640789 m
in Reith Bank!0 hydrocarbons were found to comprise
70) of the extract\ 58) of which were oil!like alkanes
"Ref[ 0\ Appendix I#[ As the analysed source rock from
this well is vitrinitic and hence more gas!prone than oil!
prone\ this show was concluded to indicate the presence
of migrated oil[
This early Middle Jurassic coaly shale source rock is
recognised in other locations marginal to this Tethyan
gulf\ such as the Majunga and Morondava basins of
Madagascar "Ref[ 00\ Appendix I#[ However\ being a
marginal marine deposit with a signi_cant to dominant
component of terrestrial organic matter\ facies changes\
and hence variations in the ratio of oil!prone to gas!
prone kerogen\ must be expected[ Such variations are
common in oil provinces of Jurassic age having source
rocks dominated by terrestrial organic matter\ such as
the Eromanga Basin of Australia^ the Turpan Basin of
China^ the Western Desert area of Egypt^ and the
Haltenbanken area of the Norwegian North Sea "see
Bagge and Keeley\ 0883^ Powell and Boreham\ 0883#[
4[ Late Middle Jurassic:Early Cretaceous marine
source rock
Deep mid Cretaceous erosion following a phase of
block faulting associated with the Seychelles!Madagascar
rift phase resulted in only local preservation of the under!
lying EastWest Gondwana drift sequence "late Middle
Jurassic:Early Cretaceous# in fault!bound half grabens
beneath the Western Shelf of the Seychelles Plateau "Fig[
6#[ In Owen Bank A!0 this drift sequence comprises 0024
m of dark grey to black shales\ siltstones and occasional
limestones\ all bearing laminae of organic matter which
ranges from immature to peak oil mature "Refs 6\ 09\
Appendix I#[ The underlying 842 m of grey limestones
"Middle Jurassic# and black shales "early Middle to Early
Jurassic# also have organic laminae with maturity levels
extending from peak oil to post oil "dry gas# levels in the
well[
4[0[ Depositional environments
A 09 m core from the early Middle Jurassic section
exhibits lithological cycles 9[64[2 m thick that _ne
upwards from interlaminated grey to black siltstone\
shale and minor very _ne sandstone\ through dark grey
silty shale to very _ne dark grey to black shale[ The
siltstones and shaly siltstones are bioturbated\ contain
traces of pyrite and their basal boundaries commonly
exhibit load and slump structures\ while the shales con!
tain plant debris\ brachiopods\ cephalopods and traces
of pyrite[ Such a sequence is indicative of turbidity ~ows
into an oxygen depleted and:or restricted environment[
The abundance of large miospores "e[g[ Callialasporites
spp[#\ however\ indicates proximity to shore consistent
with the distal reaches of the abandoned delta:coastal
plain concluded for the time equivalent sequence in the
nearby Reith Bank!0 and Seagull Shoals!0 wells[
 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390 280

Fig[ 5[ Log correlation over the early Middle Jurassic between Reith Bank!0 and Seagull Shoals!0 with geochemical source rock data[ Gas
chromatogram from Seagull Shoals!0 compared to deltaic\ algae!rich coaly source rock from northern Egypt "reproduced with permission form
Bagge and Keeley\ 0883#[ Seychelles data from Refs 0\ 1\ 00\ Appendix I[

Fig[ 6[ Seismic line BS69SW from the Western Shelf "located on Fig[ 1# showing preservation of Late Jurassic Early Cretaceous "LJEC# source
rock sequence in down!faulted half!grabens[
281 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390
Fig[ 7[ Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Seychelles Western Shelf area during the early Middle Jurassic[
Microfossils from the Owen Bank A!0 well "Ref[ 6\
Appendix I# indicate the entire Early Jurassic to mid
Cretaceous succession becomes more marine up section
"Fig[ 8#[ The Early and Middle Jurassic "EastWest
Gondwana rift# are dominated below 2314 m by spores
and pollen "speci_cally common to abundant Exes!
ipollenites tumulus\ Classopollis cf[ meyeriana\ C[ clas!
soides and Callialasporites spp[\ especially C[ dampieri#[
Microplankton are present\ although very rare at these
levels "principally Pareodinia spp[\ Sentusidinium spp[ and
acanthomorph acritachs#[ Benthonic foraminifera _rst
appear at 2494 m in the late Middle Jurassic "early East
West Gondwana drift# with Lenticulina spp[ common
throughout the Late Jurassic and abundant throughout
the Early Cretaceous\ where it is accompanied by com!
mon Haplophra`moides spp[ Microplankton also become
common to abundant in the drift deposits for the Late
Jurassic "Adnatasphaeridium _lamentosum\ Gonyaula!
cysta jurassica\ Sentusidinium sp[ and {{Palaeoperidinium||
paeminosum# and Early Cretaceous "principally Obli`o!
sphaeridium complex#[ Spores and pollen are quite
common throughout\ but not dominant from the Late
Jurassic onwards\ Classopollis classoides being the prin!
cipal Late Jurassic form and bisaccates\ Conti`nisporites
fornicatus and Cicatricosisporites spp[ the principal Early
Cretaceous forms[ Such a microfossil assemblage indi!
cates the depositional environment evolved from shallow
restricted marine to very shallow restricted nearshore as
the rift phase peaked\ then to increasingly open marine
as the post!rift phase developed[ Initially this open marine
environment was nearshore\ but it evolved to inner shelf
as a consequence of the initial opening\ then widening\
of the Somali oceanic basin as East Gondwana drifted
towards the southeast[
Further evidence of the depositional environment of
this source rock is provided by the evolutionary trend
apparent in the total extract GC traces throughout the
Early Jurassic to mid Cretaceous of the well[ Figure 8
shows this evolution from a typically algal C04 to C12
alkane dominace below 2034 m \ through mixed algal
and terrestrial "secondary C14 to C24 alkane peak# to 1889
m where the algal content is lost before returning again
in lesser dominace above 1749 m[ The GC trace showing
a sole terrestrial dominace peaking at C16 "17851845 m\
Fig[ 8# is typical of oils derived from deltaic source rocks
in NE India and Indonesia "see Alexander et al[\ 0883^
Samanta et al[\ 0883^ Thompson et al[\ 0883#\ whilst the
GC traces showing an algal dominance peaking at C06
"22962242 and 28122821 m\ Fig[ 8# are typical "in the
absence of coal# of oils derived from pro!delta shales o}
 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390 282

Fig[ 8[ Lithologic column of the Jurassic to mid Cretaceous source rock sequence from Owen Bank A!0 with selected gas chromatograms showing
upward evolution from algal!\ to terrestrial!dominated organic matter despite depositional environment becoming more marine\ as indicated by
micropalaeontology[ Data from Refs 2\ 09\ Appendix I[
283 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390

NW Australia "Philp\ 0874#[ Whilst this change from
algal to terrestrial occurs within the early oil maturity
window and is accompanied by a drop in the odd:even
alkane predominance\ the e}ect is unlikely to be solely in
response to di}ering maturity levels as these two popu!
lations "algal below 2034 m and mixed to terrestrial
above# are clearly distinguishable on a van Krevelen plot
"Fig[ 09#[ The deeper "algal# population not only shows
its greater maturity\ but also a component of oil!prone
Type II organic matter "population Ib\ 20342469 m# not
evident in the shallower population "IIa\ b and c[ 1273
2034 m# that is dominated by Type II:III or Type III
organic matter[
In the light of the tectonic development over this
period\ the initial "early Middle Jurassic# Type III kero!
gen dominates at a time of rifting and high sediment
in~ux within a shallow\ restricted and oxygen depleted
marine basin[ In the absence of coaly material\ the algal
dominance evident on the GC traces from this level is
likely to be _nely disseminated algal organic matter of
marine origin\ not unlike that cited earlier from Egypt
"Bagge and Keeley\ 0883# and Seagull Shoals!0[ With the
end of rifting and decrease in the sediment in~ux in the
late Middle and early Late Jurassic\ algal Type II organic
matter dominated the still restricted marine basin[ As the
opening of the Somali ocean basin progressed through
the Late Jurassic\ restricted marine algal organic matter
was replaced by terrestrial Type III organic matter as
delta"s# developed along a passive margin coastal plain[
4[1[ Evidence of hydrocarbon generation
Core analysis revealed the organic matter contained
within this laminated to _nely interbedded shale and silt!

Fig[ 09[ Van Krevelen plot of Middle Jurassic to mid Cretaceous source rock data from Owen Bank A!0 showing more oil!prone deeper population
"I# and more gas!prone shallower population "II#[ Data form Ref[ 09\ Appendix I[
 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390 284

stone sequence is disseminated in thin shaly _lms[ Thus\
composite cuttings samples from 8 m intervals will have
mixed the organic rich shaly laminae with the less organic
rich silty laminae resulting in dilution of the higher TOC
concentrations[ Although no direct measurement of
dilution factors are available from the Owen Bank A!0
well\ they can be determined from the analyses for the
nearby Reith Bank!0 and Seagull Shoals!0 wells "Refs 0
and 1\ Appendix I# which also include analyses of
selected picked samples "Table 0#\ the latter well having
the same composite sampling interval as in Owen Bank
A!0 "i[e[ 8 m#[ Measured TOCs from the composite
samples of Owen Bank A!0 are thus likely to have an
inherent dilution factor of at least two\ and possibly as
much as eight[ Espitalie et al[\ "0879# _rst noted such
dilution and more recently Gries et al[\ "0886# noted it in
source rocks from the San Juan Sag of Colorado[ These
authors also found that source rock quality measure!
ments were underestimated in the composite samples\ a
_nding generally con_rmed by the Seychelles data for HI\
OI and potential yield "Table 1#[
In Owen Bank A!0\ the increase in organic maturity
with increasing depth is matched by a parallel decrease in
measured TOC "Fig[ 00#[ Where immature the measured
TOC is 0[4)\ but as maturity crosses the threshold
into marginal maturity at R9  9[4)\ the measured TOC
drops to just above 0)[ A steady decrease in measured
TOC to 9[5) then occurs through the early oil\ and
into the peak oil\ window to R9  0[92) at 2429 m[ The
remainder of the peak! and post!oil windows are typi_ed
by depleted measured TOC values of 9[49[7)[ Both
Amoco and Roberston Research attributed this depletion
to the generation and expulsion of hydrocarbons from
the Early and Middle Jurassic portions of this source
rock sequence "Refs 2 and 09\ Appendix I#[ This
interpretation is supported by the presence of a signi_cant
gas peak\ 00 times background of which 19) was {petrol
vapours|\ recorded whilst drilling at 0855[5 m in an imma!
ture section of the well composed of Maastrichtian vol!
canics "Ref[ 7\ Appendix I#\ clearly indicating the
presence of migrated hydrocarbons[ Minor oil was also
reported in the retrieved cuttings which showed a slow\
di}use to blooming cut with blue:white ~uorescence and
dull yellow crush cut^ the well having been drilled without
the use of hydrocarbon!based muds[ Additionally\
between 2296 and 2242 m "i[e[ the interval where
R90)#\ hydrocarbons were found to comprise 57) of
the extract\ with oil!like alkanes constituting 69) of
those hydrocarbons indicative of migrated oil "Ref[ 1\
Appendix I#[
The Late Jurassic portion of this thick\ post!rift source
rock sequence is correlative with the proven Uarandab
source rock of Somalia which Bosellini "0881\ his Fig[
09# shows to be preserved with the earlier Jurassic rift
sequence in reactivated half grabens[ This situation is
comparable to that on the Western Shelf of the Seychelles

Table 0
TOC dilution factors derived from comparison of composite and picked cuttings samples form Reith Bank!0 "04 m composite intervals# and Seagull
Shoals!0 "8 m composite intervals#[ No picked sample data available from Owen Bank A!0[ Asterisks denote low Tmax indicative of sample
contamination by lost circulation well additive "walnut shells#[ Data from Refs 0\1\ Appendix I[

Tmax ">#C Cuttings TOC ")#

Well Depth "m# Composite Picked Composite Picked Dilution factor

Reith Bank!0 04690474 * 337 9[02 9[62 4[5

04740599 * 337 9[00 9[74 6[6
05990504 339 345 9[34 1[49 4[4
05040529 * 347 9[29 0[46 4[1
05290535 * 359 9[03 1[50 07[5
29832098 328 * 9[70 9[00 "contam[#
20442069 * * 9[13 9[00 "<contam[#
23482364 * 365 1[10 5[69 2[9
24252440 385 374 9[61 1[27 2[2
24862501 * 384 9[13 9[66 2[1
26792684 * 289 9[19 9[40 "contam[#
27752787 367 373 9[75 1[66 2[1

Seagull Shoals!0 03150325 339 331 9[83 6[71 7[2

05070517 317 324 0[01 0[00 "contam[#
10771087 331 342 9[54 0[19 0[7
11051114 * 343 9[13 0[31 4[8
11321141 344 * 0[54 0[93 9[5
11411151 * 341 9[39 0[04 1[8
11811187 * 340 9[07 0[28 6[6
12241233 * 344 9[27 0[85 4[1
285 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390

Table 1
Dilution factors of source rock quality parameters from composite and picked samples from Reith Bank!0 and Seagull Shoals!0 having 0999 ppm
potential yields[ Data from Refs 0\ 1\ Appendix I[

TOC ")# HI "mg HC:gTOC# OI "mgCO1:gTOC# Potential Yield "pmm#

Dilution Dilution Dilution
Well Depth "m# Composite Picked Composite Picked factor Composite Picked factor Composite Picked factor

Reith Bank!0 05990504 9[34 1[49 20 45 0[7 79 04 4[2 099 0399 03[9
05290535 9[03 1[50 * 65 * * 00 * * 1999 *
23482364 1[10 5[69 27 84 1[4 01 6 0[6 799 5399 7[9
24252440 9[61 1[27 17 04 9[4 27 8 3[1 199 0999 4[9

Seagull Shoals!0 03150325 9[83 6[71 17 005 3[0 28 08 1[0 299 09999 22[2
11321141 0[54 0[93 55 20 9[4 2 3 9[7 0099 299 9[2

Plateau where the mid Cretaceous erosion has left the
lower\ more oil!prone Middle to Late Jurassic section
preserved in the block faulted half grabens "Fig[ 6#\ while
the upper\ more gas!prone Early Cretaceous portion of
the sequence has generally been removed by erosion[
Although the Reith Bank!0 and Seagull Shoal!0 wells
were poorly located to test the potential of this source
rock\ the correlative Uarandab Shale is reported to have
sourced the 001 BOPD produced from the Cariole!0 well
of coastal Somalia "Ref[ 8\ Appendix I#[ Recent apatite
_ssion track analysis for both basement and well samples
from Seychelles "Geotrack and Waples\ 0886# indicate
that the Deccan volcanic event at the Cretaceous:Tertiary
boundary was the principal of several heat pulses that
brought these source rocks to organic maturity\ but other
than the Owen Bank A!0 penetration at the westernmost
extremity of the Seychelles Plateau\ this mature Jurassic:
Early Cretaceous petroleum system remains untested[
5[ Late Cretaceous marine source rocks
At the beginning of the Late Cretaceous\ Seychelles!
India began rifting from Madagascar and\ as with the
earlier phase\ rifting was initiated by the formation of a
gulf from the bordering seaway\ now the Somali Basin
"Fig[ 01#[ Although well penetrations of the resultant
rift:drift sequence are limited to only thin sections in the
Western Shelf wells\ various evidence suggests that two
potential source rock horizons developed during this tec!
tonic phase[
Analysis of composite vs picked well cuttings from the
Campanian of Reith Bank!0 "05290535 m# shows a TOC
dilution factor of 07[5 "Table 0#[ The organic matter is
concentrated in dark grey shales of marine origin that
are associated with grey to black\ often argillaceous lime!
stones[ The elevated Tmax at this level "359>C# is due to
the presence of a rhyodacite dyke between 05360653 m[
In the Owen Bank A!0 and Seagull Shoals!0 wells this
Campanian sequence is a limestone grading upwards into
a grey shale that represents the post!rift phase of
Seychelles:India separating from Madagascar[ The
dilution factor evident in Reith Bank!0 supports the pub!
lished conclusion that this source rock has hydrocarbon
potential in areas east of the wells as determined from
the geochemical characteristics of a widely occurring tar
"Plummer\ 0885#\ one of four tar types identi_ed in Sey!
chelles[ This typically brownish black tar becomes
increasingly hard as weathering and biodegradation
increase and it is commonly found stranded on beaches
of a number of the Seychelles islands[ The geochemical
signature of this tar includes the presence of C29 steranes\
high diasterane content\ dominance of C12 tricyclic ter!
panes over C13 tetracyclic terpanes and C24 over C23
homohopane\ presence of minor 07a!oleanane and low
hopane:sterane ratio[ Plummer "0885# concluded deri!
vation from a partly calcareous\ though predominantly
clastic marine source rock of Late Cretaceous age and
tentatively correlated it to this shaly Campanian drift
sequence[ As the wells were poorly located to adequately
test the Campanian section\ their failure to clearly ident!
ify a source rock should not therefore be construed as
indicating that the entire Campanian sequence is of non!
source rock quality[
The second potential source rock of Late Cretaceous
age is again interpreted from local tar geochemistry[
Coetivy Island lies some 249 km southeast of the nearest
pre!Tertiary well penetration on the Western Shelf "see
Fig[ 1#\ but is the only island in Seychelles upon which a
speci_c and unique tar is known to strand[ This tar is
typi_ed by a pristane:phytane ratio generally 1\ a pref!
erence of odd over even alkanes with peak abundance
occurring at C16\ an extremely low sterane content\ domi!
nances of C29 over C18 hopane\ C23 over C24 homohopane\
C12 tricyclic over C13 tetracyclic terpane\ and the presence
of minor amounts of both 07a!oleanane and botry!
ococcane[ These characteristics led Alexander et al[\
"0883# to conclude a deltaic origin for the precursor
source rock of this tar\ supporting the environmental
 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390 286

Fig[ 00[ Vitrinite re~ectance and TOC plots through the Jurassic to mid Cretaceous source rock sequence in Owen Bank A!0 showing drop in TOC
with incoming of organic maturity[ Depleted TOC in the peak!\ to post!oil mature zones indicative of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion[ Data
from Ref[ 09\ Appendix I[
287 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390

Fig[ 01[ Palaeogeography of the Seychelles Microcontinent within East

Gondwana during mid Cretaceous time[ Note gulf of the Somali Basin
extending along the present!day southern margin of Seychelles[

interpretation from its characteristic GC trace "Fig[02#

and similarity to delta!sourced oils from NE India and
Indonesia "Samanta et al[\ 0883^ Thompson et al[\ 0883#[
Di}ering ratios of diagnostic biomarkers between the
Coetivy tar and the Indian and Indonesian delta!sourced
oils\ however\ indicates its origin from di}erent source[
The presence of only minor oleanane in the Coetivy tar
confers a Late Cretaceous age upon its deltaic source rock
"Moldowan et al[\ 0883# which Plummer "0885# suggested
developed during Cenomanian to Santonian rifting
between Seychelles and Madagascar when seismic data
indicate deltaic deposition took place[ The Late Creta!
ceous play\ which is best developed along the present!day
Seychelles southern margin and predicted to be several
kilometres thick "Fig[ 03#\ remains untested despite the
presence of possible chemosynthetic carbonate buildups
"Hovland\ 0889# and gas chimneys on seismic data "Fig[
03#\ along with waterborne gas sni}er and airborne UV
~uorescence anomalies "Plummer\ 0882#\ all of which
suggest hydrocarbon seepage along underlying faults[

6[ Conclusions
Geochemical analyses of potential source rock hor!
izons from Seychelles well cuttings have identi_ed a
mature liptinitic coaly shale source rock bearing oil!prone
Type II kerogen in the early Middle Jurassic of Seagull
Shoals!0[ This source rock was deposited in an aban!
doned delta:coastal plain during the latter stages of the
rifting that eventually split Gondwana[ The source rock
is of regional extent being correlative with comparable
source rocks developed elsewhere on the margins the
Fig[ 02[ Gas chromatograms of tars unique to Coetivy Island in Sey!
chelles "located on Fig[ 1# and of comparable deltaic source rock and
delta!derived oil from NE India "reproduced with permission from
Samanta et al[\ 0883#[
Tethyan Gulf during the Middle Jurassic\ such as in
Madagascar[
Detailed review of geochemical data from the late
Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous "EastWest Gond!
wana drift# source rock from Owen Bank A!0 has dis!
 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390 288

Fig[ 03[ Seismic line E80SC9207 from Coetivy Bank "located on Fig[1# showing thick development of Late Cretaceous mixed clastics tilted by block!
faulting[ Gas chimney above early and mid Tertiary reefs above horst structure strongly suggestive of chemosynthetic carbonate growths above
hydrocarbon seepage along underlying fault[ Timing of seepage implicit from age of reefs "Upper Paleocene and Middle Eocene#[

tinguished an oil!prone marginal marine lower portion
from a gas!prone deltaic upper portion[ This source rock
is equivalent to the proven Uarandab Shale of Somalia
and is preserved in half grabens upon the Western Shelf
of the Seychelles Plateau[ These _ndings are counter to
the generally held belief that the areas within and bor!
dering the western Indian Ocean are devoid of oil!prone
source rocks[
Additional to the above _ndings\ the recognition of a
signi_cant dilution factor in TOC measurements between
picked and composite well cuttings from shales in Reith
Bank!0 deposited during the separation of Seychelles
from Madagascar during the Campanian supports the
inference of a marine source rock previously suggested
from the geochemistry of locally stranded tar samples[
Although the presence of migrant hydrocarbons in the
Seychelles wells indicates various source rocks to be
mature\ the petroleum system associated with the
Triassic!Early Cretaceous rift:drift sequence has been
tested only at the western extremity of the Seychelles
Plateau whilst that associated with the Late Cretaceous
rift:drift sequence remains untested[
Appendix I] Unpublished\ open _le references
Space does not allow full documentation of unpub!
lished geochemical and biostratigraphical data sum!
marised in this paper[ The open _le reports containing
these full datasets are\ however\ freely available to inter!
ested parties through the Seychelles National Oil Com!
pany Ltd[
0[ Cooper\ B[ S[\ + Collins\ A[ G[ "0870#[ A geochemical
evaluation of the interval 349?01689? "T[D[# in the
Amoco Seychelles Reith Bank!0 well\ o}shore Sey!
chelles[ Robertson Research International Report
3593P:D[
1[ Cooper\ B[ S[\ + Collins\ A[ G[ "0870#[ A geochemical
evaluation of the interval 3499?7884? "T[ D[# in the
Amoco Seychelles Seagull Shoals!0 well\ o}shore
Seychelles[ Robertson Research International
Report 3526P:D[
2[ Cooper\ B[ S[\ + Collins\ A[ G[ "0871#[ A geochemical
evaluation of selected intervals of the Amoco Sey!
chelles Owen Bank A!0\ Reith Bank!0 and Seagull
399 P[S[ Plummer et al[:Marine and Petroleum Geolo`y 04 "0887# 274390
Shoals!0 wells\ o}shore Seychelles[ Robertson
Research International Report 3583P:D[
3[ Cooper\ B[ S[\ Collins\ A[ G[\ + McEwan\ J[ "0879#[
Report on the petroleum geochemistry of the Amoco
Seychelles Owen Bank A!0 well\ interval 02299?
03239?[ Robertson Research International Report
3404P:D[
4[ Croxton\ C[ A[\ Hepworth\ B[\ Hitchings\ V[ H[\
+ Marshall\ P[ R[ "0870#[ The biostratigraphy and
palaeoenvironments of the interval 0070?7884?\ with
petrography and potassium:argon age dating of
selected samples\ from the Amoco Seychelles Pet!
roleum Company Seagull Shoals!0 well\ o}shore
Seychelles[ Robertson Research International
Report 1536P:F[
5[ Croxton\ C[ A[\ Hitchings\ V[ H[\ + Marshall\ P[ R[
"0870#[ The biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironments
of the interval 0399?01689?\ with petrography\ X!
ray di}raction and potassium:argon age dating of
selected samples\ from the Amoco Seychelles Pet!
roleum Company Reith Bank!0 well\ o}shore Sey!
chelles[ Robertson Research International Report
1525P:F[
6[ Davey\ R[ J[\ Fowler\ R[ M[\ Laing\ J[ F[\ Marshall\
P[ R[\ Mitchell\ A[ W[\ Pegg\D[ G[\ + Peter\ C[ K[
"0879#[ The biostratigraphy and palaeoenvironments
of the interval 199?03239?\ with petrography of
selected _eld and cuttings samples\ from the Amoco
Seychelles Petroleum Company Owen Bank A!0 well\
o}shore Seychelles[ Robertson Research Inter!
national Report 3402P:F[
7[ Doyle\ E[\ + Pinch\ J[ "0879#[ Final well report\
Amoco Seychelles Oil Company Owen Bank 0!A\
o}shore Mahe\ Seychelles[ Exploration Logging
Overseas Ltd[
8[ Khan\ M[ H[ "0879#[ Regional geology and pet!
roleum prospects of east coast of Africa from Som!
alia to Tanzania[ Oil and Natural Gas Commission\
Institute of Petroleum Exploration\ Basin Studies
Division Report BSO 499[990[
09[ Torkelson\ B[ E[ "0879#[ Source rock analysis\
Amoco Seychelles No[ A!0 Owen Bank well\ o}shore
Seychelles[ Amoco Production Company Research
Center\ Technical Service Report 794237CH[
00[ Wielens\ J[ B[ W[\ MacKeith\ N[ J[\ Joseph\ P[ R[\ +
Samson\ P[ J[ "0886#[ The hydrocarbon potential of
the Seychelles[ Alconsult International Ltd[ and the
Seychelles National Oil Company[
Acknowledgements
First and foremost our thanks are extended to Mr
Eddie Belle\ Managing Director of the Seychelles
National Oil Company\ for permitting release of all geo!
chemical and biostratigraphical data held by SNOC and
encouraging publication[ The authors of the various
unpublished\ though open _le reports listed in Appendix
I are acknowledged for their data and interpretations[
Thanks are also due to the American Association of
Petroleum Geologists for _nancial assistance that
enabled one of us "PRJ# to present a poster display on
an early draft of this paper at the 0886 Annual AAPG
Convention in Dallas\ Texas[ Finally we thank two
anonymous referees for their various comments and
suggestions that improved the content and structure of
the paper[
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