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Leadership Styles 1 Running Head: Impact of Leadership Styles
Leadership Styles 1 Running Head: Impact of Leadership Styles
P. Parks Duncan
Abstract
ever changing climate, there are some researchers whose findings suggest
transformational theories.
Leadership Styles 3
1. Introduction
enforcement field. The use of the correct and appropriate leadership style
in all fields has long been a topic of discussion and debate by both scholars
Police leadership is often not well developed because of the police culture,
the law enforcements bureaucratic rank and file structure and the civil
different leaderships styles have evolved but many have multiple similarities
(Engel, 2001). Engel (2000) initially reported that many earlier works have
evaluate the varying influence that different supervisory styles have over
police officer behavior. Engel (2003) later reported a more recent and
influence some patrol officer behaviors, but this influence varies according
studies on police supervision are limited in scope and fail to answer many
include: co-workers, pay, job conditions, supervision, nature of the work and
performance have some degree of positive correlation and they are linked in
between job performance and job satisfaction has been the topic of
(Buchanan, 2006).
have been the most accepted and most prevalent model under the
contingency theory (Graeff, 1983). This was deemed the most effective
leadership model from the late 1960s to the early 1980s and as such, was
they were not mutually exclusive (as cited by Johnson, 2006; Chan 2005;
are expected to influence their subordinates behavior. But they may not be
(Johnson, 2006).
Leadership Styles 6
preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and various other
Reese, 1991).
Decision Theory (Vroom & Yetton, 1988), and Path-Goal Theory (House,
1971) (as cited by Butler and Reese, 1991). The Situational Leadership
Model (SLM) by Hersey and Blanchard (1977) stands out in terms of its
popularity with practitioners (Blank, Weitzel & Green, 1990). The SLM
behavior. The four styles are labeled (1) telling a high risk/low
Reese, 1991).
United States although it was widely acknowledged that most of the police
211 police supervisors, the supervisors who were rated the most effective
associated papers were written over 20 years, well before the development
Performance?
SLM, most studies have been critical for various reasons. The researchers
indicated this is particularly surprising due to the extensive use of the SLM
and its widely accepted managerial philosophy throughout the world. The
researchers note the SLM has little verifiable support. Only a few studies
have been conducted to test its validity and most were not comprehensive
which the managers who utilized the SLM rated their subordinates job
performance significantly higher than managers who did not utilize the
In addition, the SLM has been criticized for multiple reasons on theoretical
grounds for the reason that there is little academic justification for the
Basic assumptions the SLM makes also added to the critical views of
the model. According to Graeff (1983), multiple features of the SLM such
its theoretical soundness and restrict its practical use. The author concedes
that the SLM makes minor contributions to the leadership arena as the
model does correctly focus on the truly situational nature of leadership and
the need for flexibility on the leaders behalf. Blank, Weitzel & Green
(1990) supported Graeffs findings and reported the SLM focuses on only
research raises more questions than answers about SLM and indicates the
Butler & Reese (1991) conducted a study in which they examined the
reported that the data did not support the hypothesis the SLM leadership
Leadership Styles 9
styles were associated with superior sales performance. In fact, the SLM
of the study tested the four styles of the SLM. Insurance agents who
performance than the agent who preferred other styles. The researchers
suggest these findings defy the logic on which the SLM is founded. The
styles and the situations facing the leader. But the simplicity of SLM is one
term basis. Both leaders and followers focus on achieving the negotiated
Leadership Styles 10
or citations for the reason that supervisors can set clear quantitative
to higher levels of effort and performance (Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson,
leader when the follower does not meet the performance expectations
deviances and errors are corrected promptly (Bass, Avolio, Jung, and
large urban police department, Van Maanen (1983, 1985) identified two
distinct types of patrol sergeants - the station house sergeant and the
street sergeant. The first type, identified as the station house sergeant,
style. Station house sergeants spent the majority of their time in the
Rarely did they directly supervise their subordinates in the field. They
such as days off, choice assignments, and the ability to earn overtime pay.
Van Maanen (1985) found that if given a choice, patrol officers preferred to
work for the station house type of sergeant. This was because they had less
and less pressure to be proactive. The second type of sergeant, the street
leadership style and is discussed later in this paper (Van Maanen, 1983 &
two agencies, Engel (2001) identified four distinct supervisory styles among
are likely to make the decisions as they took over calls or tell the officers
community oriented policing. They are less concerned with enforcing rules,
maintain good relations with them. They may provide a buffer between their
They are more likely to praise their subordinates and are not task oriented
(Engel, 2000 & 2001). Johnson (2006) also classifies these three styles as
Performance?
this leadership style is that employees are not invested in their work and
480 senior Australian law enforcement officers was the prevalence of the
indicates that leaders of senior officers are mainly passive and focus on
police leadership support this finding, such as police leaders being after
only demonstrate basic leadership capabilities, which may reflect the lack of
with this leadership behavior. As the author noted, the relatively high
theory, the patrol officers of the Station House Sergeant (i.e., the
with rules and directives than employees of the Street Sergeant (i.e., the
2005).
styles, were found to have limited influence (Johnson, 2006). In fact, Engel
Leadership Styles 15
(2000 & 2001) suggests the active supervisor (the transformational style of
to rise above their own personal goals for the greater good of the
organization (Bass, 1985, 1996 as cited by Murphy & Drodge, 2004). Bass
subordinates sense of moral obligation and values (as cited by Chan, 2005).
the leader instills pride, faith, and respect, and has a gift for
(Johnson, 2006).
continuously show concern for their subordinates needs, treat them with
respect and utilize a flexible approach towards them. This does not
punishment or negative feedback. When these behaviors are used, they are
Leadership Styles 17
are important to the leaders of senior police officers because they can
by appealing to higher ideals and values, and moving the focus of followers
other words, the leader encourages their followers to consider their actions
Chan (2005) reports that over the last few decades, organizations have
model which offered a leadership model with five distinct practices that
styles. The five practices of exemplary leadership are: (a) challenging the
Leadership Styles 18
innovate, and improve, with the willingness to take risks and learn from
critical tasks, and providing continuous support; (d) modeling the way:
being a role model and being consistent with shared values; and (e)
accomplishments.
distinct types of patrol sergeants. The first was the station house
the field and their leading by example. Officers who worked under the street
active. As pointed out previously, the first three of these supervisory styles,
fourth leadership style labeled as active was found to have the qualities of a
Maanens (1983, 1985) street sergeants, spent most of their time in the field
work. They directly supervised officers in the field, engaged in high levels of
the correct personnel are placed in positions in which they have a strong
Leadership Styles 20
The authors found that a high degree of idealized influence existed in the
deed in order to gain the respect of the officers. Furthermore, the leaders
understood the need for a command and control style of management that
employee development.
Performance?
than transactional leadership. Their tests also suggest that leader behavior
Bass and his colleagues found that although both transactional and
transformational leadership (Bass and Avolio, 1990; Kouzes & Posner, 2003
job satisfaction (Goris, Vaught, and Pettit, 2003 as cited by Chan, 2005).
Research also found that found that trust affects job satisfaction and job
Previous research has associated trust in leaders with job satisfaction, job
performance, and innovative behavior (Simmons, Nelson, & Neal, 2001; Tan
Van Maanen found that officers preferred to work for a station house
sergeant but the majority of patrol officers had more respect for the street
Leadership Styles 22
calls and engage in pro-active patrol work. He also found that patrol officer
higher when working for a street sergeant than with a station house
leadership (Van Maanen, 1983 & 1985 as cited by Johnson, 2005). Van
sergeant as being both admired and feared by their men and therefore
Under Engels (2001) four supervisory styles theory, all four styles
influenced subordinates to some degree but the only leadership style that
active leadership style, was the most powerful motivator for the leaders
police officers. Patrol officers who worked for active style supervisors were
activity (including traffic stops) and community problem solving than patrol
officers working for the other types of supervisors. Again, this evidence
(Johnson, 2006). Engel asserts the active supervisory style has a significant
discovery that officers with active supervisors are more likely to use force is
styles would be more likely to sway their subordinates behavior. Given that
Leadership Styles 23
active supervisors are in the field with their subordinates more and have
supervisor with active leadership styles. The author also indicates these
officers have higher arrest rates which may partially explain the higher rate
suggest the active supervisors (i.e., the transformational leader) have the
leadership.
followers innovation. They also hypothesized the same would not hold true
organizations, the structure and goals are flexible, members are educated
and innovative, and the climate is warm and trusting. Bass speculated
organizations. Police forces have centralized authority, set career paths and
studied by Singer and Singer (2001). It was discovered the actual leader
style over the transactional style. The researchers results gave broad
Leadership Styles 25
Another study conducted by Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson (2003) was
leadership ratings were then used to predict the performance of the platoon
units operating in a 2-week simulation that was designed to test the units
Board (PDLP) in 2001. The PDLP has already endorsed the need for
learning and development packages for its chief officers, which take into
leadership style for the police organization, Dobby and Tuffins (2004)
attitudes to their work as well as increasing both their job satisfaction and
values (p. 46). He goes on to stress that such behaviors are important to
police leaders as they can directly influence rank and file officers and any
innovative, goals and structures are unclear, but warmth and trust are high;
goals and structures are specific and where members work are extremely
V. Conclusion
Chan, 2005). What leadership style should law enforcement leaders employ
in one theory.
It was also noted that despite the wide use of the Situational Leadership
Model (SLM) by Hersey and Blanchard (1977), most studies have been
critical of the theory. In fact, some studies have shown a lower job
Bass, Avolio, Jung and Berson (2003) reported previous research has
term in that it does not readily avail itself to allow for change which is
respond to these demands, the researcher believes that there is a need for
managers into effective and valuable leaders. Such a change can make
more crucial than ever (Ozmen, 2009). Bono and Judge (2003) concluded
2006).
transformational. There are pros and cons associated with each style. The
contingencies (as cited by Chan, 2005). The study by Bass, Avolio, Jung,
platoon performance.
Leadership Styles 31
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