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Aircraft Engine Sensors

Pressure Sensors Description: measured. High overload protection is an integral part of the design. These units are
capable of sensing extremely small changes of applied pressure and are relatively insensitive to vibration, altitude
and shock. Applications: Commercial Aircraft, Military Aircraft, Brake Systems, Hydraulics

L VDT pressuresensors that detect and transmit vital information regarding fuel and oil pressures~to the Eletronic
Engine Control (EEC).The all welded construction of the sensor

Speed Sensors we can measure RPM in all turbine applications. This experience of produc.ing mallY different types
of RPM sensors can solve your speed measurement needs.

Temperature Sensors Temperature sensors provide output readings proportional to temperature for a variety of
fluid system applications. TIley also provide custom packaging to protect the sensor while allowing Hexiblc
.installation into a variety of aircraft systems. Temperature measurement can be accomplished using thermocouple
or resistance temperature device (RTD) techniques depending upon system interface. temperature, or accui'acy
considerations.

Pressure Transducers latest wIits Silicon on 1nsulator (SOl) technology that provides high accuracy and long IeI'm
stability over the widest temperature range. Pressure transducers are suitable for the tough environment found in
aircraft engines as well as more benign air frame system applications.

Fuel Flow Transmitters solid presence with true mass flow transmitters for higher flow requirements of
commercial and military aircraft with flow ranges up to the highest flows found in refueling tanker applications. For
business and UA V applications, new TurboMass'T'vf FIO\v Meter; a turbine tlow meter with buUt in digital
electronics that provides a mass Jlow output directly to the aircraft system.

Engine Harnesses thelThOCouple reliability and performance means more power when needed, longer engine life,
and lower cost of ownership.

Piezoelectric Accelerometers piezoelectric aecelerometers are available in all three modes of operation:
compression, shear and bender, to match the needs of the specitlc application. Designed for a wide range of
temperatures, environments, frequency responses and sensitivities, the accelerometers lmve high accuracy, ultra- low
cross axis sensitivity and are isolated from mounting forces and thermal transients. A vailabk in many different
contlgurations, the accelerometers employ fully-welded construction for enhanced reliability and isolation from
demanding environments.

LVDT Position Transducers Reliable and accurate position sensors for aircraft engine, t1ight control and
landing gear position monitoring applications.

Oil Level Sensors Rugged, reliable Oil Level Sensors are offered'in both potentiometric and capacitance designs.
Both types oft0r high accuracy, value, and reliability. These flexible designs are modular in nature, and oiler a wide
variety of mechanical and electrical interface options. Simple, rugged constructioIll11eans long life in aircraft
applications.

Total Air Temperature Sensors TAT Sensors also utilize experience wiih aircrafr engine air temperature
monitoring sensors. TAT Sensors create optimal How conditions to monitor total air temperature while ensuring that
icing conditions do not interfere with sensor readings.

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E 11 gi n e m 0 nit 0 r i n gin s t rum e n t s

The present day piston engine instruments used in the typical general aviation airplane are not
precision laboratory instruments.

Nevertheless, the purpose of this brief presentation is a practical approach to interpreting the
readings of your engine instruments in accomplishing a safe and efficient flight. If, for example,
you were to observe an irregular reading of one engine instrument, it calls for a cross-check on
all other instruments, and not relying on one instrument as a basis for a decision affecting flight.

Since the engine is dependent on fuel, the gasoline gauge is considered a related engine
instrument. If pilots are going to attempt to stretch their flight range close to limits, they should
be aware of the errors in the gages vs. the actual usable fueL Some modern single engine aircraft
have had the fuel gauge show several gallons remaining, when in reality the tank was empty .
Others have indicated a specific number of gallons when filled, but actually the tank held several
,. . gallons less than indicated.

Therefore, in planning for each flight, remember that general aviation engine instruments are not
precision laboratory types, so cross-check, and give yourself an extra margin for safety.

More aircraft are being fitted with digital readouts. Some digital equipment can automatically
monitor the engine functions and will sound an alarm if anything goes outside preset limits:
Digital instruments can be harder and slower to read than the traditional analogue type as the
brain must take additional steps before interpreting them. An instrument reading of whatever
type is only as good as its sender unit.

The instruments of all aircraft operate within a 'normal' range and the operator rapidly becomes
adjusted to seeing these. The pilot should be vigilant that engine functions remain within these
ranges. An abnormal indication showing on any instrument is immediate cause for concern.

Ammeter

The ammeter indicates whether the engine alternator and circuit are operationaL If a continuous
discharge is shown during normal flight, it is prudent to land as soon as possible as it would
suggest that the battery will shortly become too depleted to operate nOllllal aircraft systems.

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This is the primary indicator that all is well with the engine. A cold engine will always show a

very high oil pressure. Once hot, the pressure should remain in the green arc under nOll'lal

RPMs. A low pressure may indicate a serious problem with the oil pump or engine bearings. The

acceptable ranges of pressure are stated in the aircraft operating manual. The oil pressure will

diminish if the engine becomes overheated as the viscosity of the oil becomes too thin and begins

to break dO'W11.

Oil temperature

The oil temperature gauge is also very a important device for monitoring the wellbeing of the
engine. High power should not be used until the temperature has climbed into the operating
range as damage can occur to the engine. If the temperature climbs into the red sectof, it
indicates that a serious problem may have developed.

Vacuum gauge

This is usually a very instrument situated at the lower left of the panel. In monitors the condition
of the vacuum system which is driven from the engine. The vacuum system drives the gyros for
the attitude indicator and direction indicator,

Fuel flow

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Remember that aircraft engines will continue to operate as their ignition spark is created by
magnetos which are independent of the aircraft electrical system.

Aircraft are usually also fitted with a low voltage warning light which is placed in a prominent
position. If a problem arises with the charging circuit, it \vill begin to flicker and then show red.
The light may quite normally flicker or show dull red at very low RPM.

Cylinder temperature gauge (CHT)

Most engines are fitted with a CHT on one cylinder only. Every engine design has a cylinder that
runs slightly hotter than the rest. If the temperature climbs towards the red line it may indicate a
serious problem.

Exhaust gas temperature gauge (EGT)

The EGT the primary instrument to help the regulation ofthe fuel/air mixture. The red cursor
indicates lemperature never exceed.

Oil pressur'e

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/
.,,/
..:k\..'~~ni! ,: ::)11~Jll::nl~~' whlch I~. Un j'.J.hhrc"iation 41j" who.'l It.: in:,': '.'tinil
N(";'l~ fJ.J t).Jb ,,'nt)\ ~Tl.ilj,r.
t!~'l", Thh: rr\):~r;~mmllig Wilh nmemrmic insltudaon$ ito c31ku s Ahtl"g-di~~;
l.J r;:--
ILt""I1;I:/',' 'nflY:l':,::e IJt{/,t:rNtrWti,r:g b:.{~)U~t\ aflcr Ih(: M:'Y-:Jt:OCt ,P)4'll.w-.",Io1,
no
'-.rillen, il (,'..! imo tl:~ a'i,,,mbkr ptl)g!~'" "'hjch In.,hs Ihi'
to:t','t'r{IOli !d H',:n:h:nt cod!! and ;Is..~tmble.~ it )nIC the mcmor) !:: ~t.c
",J~c '"
"'1
'C1

mn':mN,ic codes are Mill unlike Ih" human language, .nd,o a

hiBherlccl lJnguo,!,c'programming cono::pt can be adopted in wl,ien
1.001 Cod,
~f'lt
~N.h ..

lu,tru:lions ~.rt written in II problem-oricnled or procellure-crielll<o

n()tMi(ln wit)\ each sl~temellt corresponding to !iCv~rnl I1Ilcbirn: (xle
in,truclion,. The conversion of lbe slalements to machilll: tOOt i,
done b~' a more involved computer program calltd II COfIl{lltfr. The
clIsicr the programmillg is made by bringing the machine language
I:::ij rATui~ I~JlI'\t.thOrl ~jrll

(:(n I"
closer 10 the hum~1I language, !he more complx j, !he computer
program needed 10 ConVi:1t Ihe machine language $talei1ll:OIs in ", 10
' k' 'i I " I ! .,
m:H;hine code, Once the cDllversion is available. however. it Un be " " . o ';' t 'S, ' ~ r.s ~ f!; FO

used over 31ll! over Ilgain as I\eMlIry. (III ""'1>lI1,,,,,(,/)

0&1n {~6n\':!!rsion
'rile nmjofH)' of dOl:! 10 J:.c proct:5~d b)' digital COIn\>Uttrt> (,rt. in the
I,IS! i~xt:"K<', in annloo; rQrm, and ~o in ')rder for the Cl>mpUte,,; ID
,a~1)' 'YJt tl1ci~ [nlerprcting fUnclir)Jl, 1he dala must be converu:;llo a
bil"'ry,cl)~ed !;)rm'll. In m31l~ C1!~<:S il is; also netessary for tU';i\ 10 be
(L":,:md fn:'Jr! digit.11 tf) ~1t:JJ()g rorm:l!. The (''Ollverr.ion devices 1I~<Xl
for ,~,h !"Jrp-;l5~, arc of the illleGF.ltcd logic circlIil typ<::o wd
rc'p"(nWiy;::rh,!m cmt..'I1inf; and dcc,ldil'lg fulltliolls al ,bowlI
oJ,
CO~YClla! ba$ a 'm:rrcas(~' Inlfis(er characteril'ic.
q:J~lllized into a number of Inch rorrt:.?o~d'l1g
, rcsoJulioo. The true l\n;tlQg value
wrrc,p,lt\din~ 10 ~ siven QUlpm code i~ c~mred between twO Ge(ilion
j"ds, F,)( lh~ lu~,d I)fA CDnI'er1Cr, Ihere is ~ one-10000e
l'('rrC~PQ)I(j,'n(" between inrU1 ~nd oUlpm,
(b) ,(.:'=-e
[IN\lry ~"'P!'~

.
Oat~ triln$I'"r
'1"1,,; ,r:m,l", "I' C3t;1 !Jet W"~11 Ih~ individual coml)'Jtcr syS\W\\ or ~ll considerable, particl:larl), as i:.ilviciuut wires mUH l!"n~fCI sib:' ,I.'
.,irnalt i, :.; r,,,,cssary fen lUre of in,flight oper:lIion, For Clllm;k. ddicat(:o to each of Ihc,pan:melcrs ~jng n1onilOr{;d, In 1\1;1),;:"i,,, ;:
ul!d~r :ll\li):t:~~i,(jlly'comroilcd lUght ~ondi(it'ns, An ~ulom.ltic fliGhl the uliliUtion of dillilnl '(J1r.;:'~tcr-b.lsed ~yS!C.ll'" Ihueforc, ,I 11"::,,,
,'onlw! SY,lcr\ operates in conjUIl~\iQn with an INS, ADC, FDS mcesS3ry to adopt en ~llern~,rjYe melh0J by which the e~(h~ng<~
(l1i;;11I diNch'r sy~lem) and radio navigation syslellt~. and alllht-,c in(olrnation ((luld be effected i:oy a network of ~ingJe dat.:! h'Js\cs,
involve an c:.;ch3nge of uala 10 provide appropriate rommlllld~ to 100 known as n ,10((1 highway, wiL'lil1 an air<;rafl. In OIlier IYQf(h, Ihj~ I"~
COnltoJ 5),$\('1:], IlnntJaptafiOR of ll1e data hi!;r,,,"")' con"ept that i, IItijizr.d Wilhitl
When Coowl1l;nn:1l1cchoiques lire "sed 10 iotcrl)0l1nf<;1 alllhc units digital cOrT1puter.lhemlc!vc$.
to',,!,r;,;!!S io':ivili:lal sY,lems, the (;xlcoi or fbi: cabling n:q~jred is Bach data buil c(lllsi5lS of ,hi=l,!cd' 3ml twisted (~f wite~. ;o:n,j
155 Ih~ voltage difference Il<!\\\wn (h(>m n,'cdes ~ o or binMj'
1!5 ~'

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AlIowgoing encoded data from Ihe computers lite identified by lin r\~!.>fI- '" J p.Jf.I .r>l..td, -:-0' ontu{

Bduilional binary-<:cuw word c:llJed a lobel. The label lakes lip Iht ntCfH/:RS

fir" elt'lt bits of t:lcn worlll.'lnd is octlll,cOOed. i.e. cooed 10 lhc '- ..........' .. -------.-...--.~."-~

bm8. ,
The dcsig.n3\ion of labels to pal111:;ilat fun;:lions is :manjl.ed by 1\1'\ >..dffPI,'~il ',,--:
~... lIN:
Illrl':tan manufacturer'in re\:ltion tD each cl n)e t.ptclfic s)'!>iem!. '1t!if)~"lr)t",tf
insla\l~ in the type of ~Klilfi CO'llCcrntd. and in lI~ordi>."'ce with .
\
- _ _ _ _--1
.
-....- '"
t
\
slandata specifications. A ~;pecirlcatkl1~ actt:pttli as an air \ranspott I .""'UI WIioI''U 'Str'rifb t'OIHli.IilUQ __".......__ ~

industry siandlrds reference for !he Innsfer of digital dora Is known 71lAIISI,t,TtI!A ,m: CEtI/"fJl
as ARlNe 429 (ARlNG !s Ihe ab~~Jated MIne of II US ofganlUlllc!)
AeronauLiC31 Radio IncolJlOrated'), As sCp4lrate bus sysl:ms IIrc
predictable for the dlffercnliclasse.s of aitcratlsystems. ARJNC 429
InCluOi;.S some duplicatiOn'o[b~I$\v'~rc id~known thaI the'use or
,ncommon'label oft \he"same buS' fo'r',l";;o difieitn1 purpose.~ will
occur, For c:wnple;label 315a defines 'wiJJd shear' for navigational
purposcs~ but for'l1ight control systems the -same/abcl defil1es -I~~
'stahilizer position'.
Systems providing dal. ClUlpulS (referred 10 ~s Il1lnsminers) ellen I
h~ve their own dl)ta bus connecting them to 1hc 'rcceiver'syslcms in 1;:..\ &IT ,..L.,. :lJ\~!lIT )-1 en'
need or the dau, ~s,shown In Fig. 6,4, The shielding of the: wires
cDmprising e.neh dala bus Is cDnnec1ed to ground and, in' particular, at I " I~ ~ I 3 I .. I ~ I G I 1 I B I , t,~ I " I 1" I air 'IUIJ~ ~4
..;;.\cll br&nch 10 receivers. TIll: maximum number of receivers ,h:l\ C:ln I I I ! I I I I 1 \ I I I
be connected 10 the slime bus line is 20. I I 1 1 I I I I I I I !
The digiml computers of !he difrerent llirctafi sy,tems Pf(lCCSS data
I , I I I I I I I I r I
ill Ihe form of specific messages or pz.ralld birl<.ll}' word:;, The
m<!ss:lges are converted and lronsmi,ted in seriol form, the reason for
-~,..I~(>.9CLt.f;
I I I I I I I I \ ! I \

Ihi$ being that weight of lran.~mission lines is. ~uced, and also I I ! I 1 I I I I ; I I

reliabililY is improved. The teri,,\ mCSs.1gc:s lire !hen adapted into I 1 I vI ,I 1 I 0 I 1 I D I , i , ! ;) I I I , I 0/"',1

high. and low-voltage levels, and lIansmitted along the data bus line.. DATA flIT WCOCl.:!;3 LQl'::

in lh-e form of strings of pulses, These comprise Ih.;: word strings of a

Il:I:sstlse and COlTCSPOOO to those ~pproprtate to ~1I of the ~ySlems
lIcl:siled in the ARlNe 429 specification, Each word is formed of J2
bits, ench bit being. cilher II binary 1 or a binary O. As noted cadier,
Ihe first eigh[.bits c"mprif.c the label which i~elllifics the source of
tlfl!'I~\C$~:Ie: the remaining bilS are ~ssjgned La da!~. parity .sign .ll\d
',::
.
,1:::lUS or ,'aMity, Two c;J;amples of [\ mc,s.sege are also shown in Fig,
C't:j' C, Cll,~!~t:)
6.'1; one i~ labelled 'DMS distal1Ce'.llod the olher 'R;tdio Alti1udc'.
In each case, bits 9 and 10 are llS5;igned to what is termed a Series
'1 L&.-.'-'" I
ff,1io '" ~-:_,:,~

DcstinatiQt\ Identifier .<SD1)i. this npplies when spedfic words need to

be direc led (0 a sp~cific syslem of a multi-system installation, or
when Ihe source s,'stem needs 10 b recognized from tlie word Os (ill bits J r to 29, con'?,-,F',xN':! [0 equin:l:n: dr:dm~1 1)i1.7lilc r s,

co:UenL In Ihe examptes indicated the !,'Slems ore. of course, Ihe IVhicll lndicarc that rh~ DME system CO:;lpu:er is lr.msmirrifJg c[)co(tod

DME and Rad(nAllimeler respC'Cti'iety, datil correspondir.g 10 a disamc:e of 251.S nS;!lj,:al mi!C~, w!!ik ll:e
The bi~s 11 to 298ft ,hose ~ssipv:d to \he llctu.1 data being RIIQio MtUneter com1(\ltcr i.; tt'.l.\\'.\mhur.s d,-'~"1 ,-()r;c~\'C';',\C\h\". '0 1,\\
trafl5imincd which. ill the Cli.se of our ell1I!lllies, are distanCe in attitude of 2451).5 {tel..
I'.~ut\ca\ miko;" and tadlo a\tj\ude in fee\, The ~f()UPS of binary h alld llhs :,() M~ 11 G.te l!.~~\;UecI. \0 '",h'l.t \.~ ',m';!.~d ,\;~
15B
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i
\
~ I .. '. , f,'
I
7 Air data computers
I
lv! WI); (SSM), whil:h refers 10 plus, miliUS, llorth. QUilt, Idl, righl.
ell:. of bin:l1')"'coded decim&lll1Jrnclic d31D. They abo rerer 10 the
valitJity.of data, and fanura warning.
The: detection of errors in cOOts llod their correctioll J.~ II VCI)'
ilnJ10rlnlll aspett ill ille tmns!nlssion of lllgillll d~l:l, and for this
l)urpoSC a pariry clreck. rnWlod is pro\'ided whereby a compotcr call
tc~t ",heth_r bits ill a binar), word have been accidentally changed
during transmission. The tesl is dolt,!) by autorn~lic summadon of the
hils compri~ir\g a \\,orolo oet.enl1iol' whether fhe 101,.11 number is 0011
II
or cven. and by cdlcul~ting wh~1 is lernlcd a parity bfr: this forms the
I"sl bit a word, Le. bit 32. Jf. lOf ex~mp!~. therclii all odd
11ulul.>t.r Df binary Is .ilmOIl& the first 31 bjt~, the llllrilY bit is set 10
uni!. whicb thell converts 111<! data into eleclrjc~1 signa!:; and nan'!,,'!"
'1' 10 Ilm~c the w()!d of 'e\'en parit)" . 'Odd
th~;;c through cable; or Il:ll;.; bU.SloCS I" Ih.; dc~nd~nt jllui~l:{)f5 "",1
where the p~ri:)' bit il: sellO bir..lry 0 10
sy~tem$. I\no:hcr auvanla~: ~; ~n ADC is t;rat circuitS 111:'Y ~:~
bjn~r)' h cod. This latter [')errl of pari!)' is ad:JplcdJ.n the ARJNC
integrate<! wIlh their prirn'i~ dam modules in SIJdl :1 Wily 111,,\
<129 'f":'~ific,3ti<lll.
D;II" Mi! mmsmiucd in h:llchc5 :II " $pccifled repclilion \.,r
refrc5r.:-:lcnt ralc ~long th~ approplJalc b~~scs, and at either high
"peed nOO kilobitsl",c} Ilf low spo""d 02-14.5 l;ilob~Is15CC)
"P,j~:<:
10 the frequency at which illterfAcing~Y51(mS ,~quire an
,,,,,V;<'>II".,(
inf<lrrnaltOn. This is S!:QWIl In Fig. 6.5.
A $t~lTd3rds spedfica:ion of comp,lfIlllvely recenl origin is The
I\
Afm,C 629. 11 rcl~l<;;$ to .1 <lata I:w. s),5!tm callcd Digjllli
i\!iIOI1"~II"IJS Terminal An'cs,' CVll1nllmi"'lUioflS.. DATAC._,oJ1cchcd.
by H,,~jnl~ t')r usc ill Ihe B777.. Unlike ARINC 429 it is J. tWO1I'")'
6us r,:"uidng fC",'cr wires end nnving a very much f:).\.t~r dl.lll tral\sfer
rul.t!.
!60
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The Icnn 'air da!'1', as Wi; larned frod! Ch;;plcr 2. rd;JICS to the
~cnslng nnd Iransmiss;oll of pil!'>! an.:) 51Jlic premm:.s \0 in,:ic"i()~.,
Which, on_the basis or physiccllaws. ~e lpc.ilicall~ desillnc<l 10
lUcasur.: su~h press~rcs in terms t)f :Iil'l,.po:;d. alii rude a!}d mtc of
~ltllude change. III addition to tbes.e lhm:indicalors. however. then:
are many Ol\' system ",'hose oper<ltion
input. The ulili1.Ulioo of suchsys\em$ in in aircraft.:lil)cs, in ItJnI,
dtpcm.l on .its si;r.e ~ (lpcraIiolll\l CltCgo.ry.
(\[Ihollgh II would 11M ~ impossible 10 COnnect
pres-lure prohes and/or venti by pipelines. then. ~s rnay
Ih~ lmonnl of 'plumbing' re-..::uirro wO\!ld 11ilvC 10 b~ cO!l,itlc;.1bly
incrcas~d. Ap~n from ca~~ic.i! addilioll1l wdglll prt.ll1Icms, lh~r.~
cOllld be others ~SSOc'~tcd Vim mairuen:!~cc. In order thercfbr C I'"
minimize thc.~c ploolcms In" ?oncil'!e is adrpled whereby ttiC
pres,sure)) arc Irans.miut.:l "'." .l centf:itiz(d air dala Cf;mputt'1' (ADC~I
corteelions for I'ressUle em', (PE). baI\~melric rres~uro ch:1n,:c <. llr,.l
"onoprc<;sibilily e.ffrcLS c-::>.n :': 3U10m;tticilll)' applied; in "dlit)':':'.
I provision eRn :Ilso ~ m~d'!> 7.\t th.e e.lculnlion of true nirww:: "
I
froll\ ~ir Icmper~lure dJllll The 1110dlilator arwllgtm~n: i'': .);1
Ill:"!.ItS.
,\DC, it~ ~~saci31cd iooi(;';Jt<.,4., and del~ib of 1y'!~mS Ill.al IIlil.i1C '~l'
I data inpuls are shown in Fig. 7.l
An ADC may eilher b~ c:':he aoalogue type, or cl Ihe l.l'pe
processes alld Irtosmits d:!t:.: in djgi[1I1 si!;nal rorlJ)~1. n~~ bile.
is no."" mott widely used. 2';':~ ~s ::m:!le:tg C't)mputers are ~rjll :1~k'lptt'd
ill !ome IY'p<'S of aircr3fc f .... :'2n, at r~.is sr,\ge. ~lld by WJ)' of
inlmd\IClion to ADC Ojr.r:,:i:\Jl; princil'lt& overall. c():1si(\cr :1 I\'P i:;\
amtlQg arr:lnsc-ment,
tml\\o~ ADC The ~rri\ngel~onl {,r 1M b-.ll.S"" modules of I~S Iype of cQm;nJles oJld
their intcrr~dn;:: is shown 1:: Fig. 7.2. Each r.loeulc c"n~lill1tc5 "h~l
is termed a ~en'Omiicl1anisn::.. and i~ comprised of cert.in mcchao:cJ.i
clements .and synchros "it~ perform the. variGu~ funcliO!l, alrC"ldy
d~.!:CribCd itt
Chapt.er S. 1~ ciUlptJl signals fro:n ~dl mod\lk 3r.:
1(;1
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"

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representative selection from the wide range of instruments and
systems that currently come within both areas of technology and the
1 Instrument displ'ays,

~equencing of the relevant chapters has been arranged in such a way

all. to reflect the transition from one area to the other.
panels and layouts

ike its predecessor, thedetails emphasize fundamental principles

and'tpeir applications to civil aircraft instruments and systems, and
over~' I, are also intended to serve as a basic reference for those
person who, either independently or, by way of courses established
by spec list training organizations, are preparing for Aircraft
Maintena ce Engineer Licence examinations. It is also hoped that the
details wi! rovide some support to the current technical knowledge
requirement relevant to flight crew e~aminations. A large number of
'self-test' que 'ons have been compiled and are set out in chapter
sequence at the nd of the book.
As with all boO s of this nature schematic diagrams and
photographs are of reat importance in supporting the written details
and so it is hopedtha the three hundred or so spread over the
chapters which follow ill achieve the desired objective. In reviewing
some current aircraft ins lIations together with the contents of
Aircraft Instruments, and a so of another of my books
(Microelectronics in Aircraft ystems) I found that a number of
diagrams and photographs we still appropriate and so it was
expedient to make further use 0 these. The diagrams relating to 'new
subject' material have, in many ses, been redrawn from my
original 'roughs'. The remaining n w diagrams and photographs
(some of which are reproduced in c our) hav.e been supplied to me
from external sources, and in this con eclion I would particularly like
to express my grateful thanks to Smith' Industries, Aer Lingus, and
Boeing International Corporation for thei assistance.
In conclusion, I wish to convey sincere anks to Leslie Coombs
not only for his help. past and present, in p viding material on a
subject of common interest, but in particular r having accepted my
invitation to write the Foreword to this book, [ necessitated his
having to read through many pages of draft man cript, but as this
resulted in comments that required some changes 0 text, then I am
sure that he too would agree that efforts were not w ted.
Copthome E.P.
W. Sussex
In flight, an aircraft and its operating crew fonn a 'man-machine'
system loop which, depending on the size and type of aircraft, may
be fairly simple or very complex. The function of the crew within the;
loop is that of controller, and the extent of the control function is
governed by tl:!e simplicity or otherwise of the aircraft as an
integrated whole. For example, in manually flying an aircraft, and
manually initiating adjustments to essential systems, the controller's
function is said to be a fully active one. If, on the other hand, the
flight of an aircraft and system's adjustments are automatic in
operation, then the controller's function becomes one of monitoring,
with the possibility of reverting to the active function in the event of
failure of systems.
Instruments, of course, play an extremely vital role in the control
loop as they are the means of communicating data between systems
and controller. Therefore, in order that a controller may obtain a
maximum of control quality, and also to minimize the mental effort
in interpreting data, it is necessary to pay the utmost regard to the
content and format of the data displays.
The most common fonns of data display are (a) qU(lmilalive, in
which the variable quantity being measured is presented in tenns of a
numerical value and by the relative position between a pointer or
index and a graduated scale, and (b) qualitative, in which the datd is
presented in symbolic or pictorial format.
Quantitative displays There are three principal methods by which data may he displayed:
(i) the circular scale, or more familiarly. the 'clock' type of scale,
(il) straight scale. and (iii) digital, or counter.

\\
Circular scale
This maybe considered as the class~al method of displaying data in
quantitative form and is illustrated in Fig. 1.1. The scale base refers
to the graduated line, which may be actual or implied, running from
end to end of the scale and from which the scale marks and line of
travel of the pointer are defined.

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- The distance between the centres of the marks indicating the
FiguU' r I Circul3f scale
tlHc_nriUHtvc display minimum and max.imum values of the chosen range of measurement.
and measured along the scale base, is called the scale length.
Governing factors in the choice of scale length for a particular range
""..AlE ~
(iRAQUAnON .... AtlJ;,l are the size of the instrument. the accuracy with which it needs to be
read, and the conditions under which it is to be observed.

Figure 1.2 Linear and non~
tineef scales. (a) Linear;
'g o
(b) square-law: (c) logarithm",
"'8
~
r~ __ SCALE SPAClNG
IN \J>4fTS Of 1
High-range long-scale displays
For the measurement of some quantities - for example, turbine
engine speed. airspeed, and altitude high measuring ranges arc
Implied ..:ale base
involved with the result that very long scales are required. This
makes it difficult to display such quantities on single circular scales in
standard-size cases, particularly in connection with the number and
I
,
spacing of the marks. If a large number of marks are required their
1 spacing might be too dose to permit rapid reading, while, on the
- '250
RP;a {-200
other hand, a reduction in the number of marks in order to 'open
the spacing will also give rise to errors when interpreting values at

~al ~
points between scale marks.
(hI Some of the displays developed as practical solutions are illustrated
in Fig, l,~. The display shown at (a) is perhaps the simplest way of
\ I accommodating a lengthy scale; by splitting it into two concentric
1 23 scales, the inner one is made a continuation of the outer. A single
pointer driven through two revolutions can be used to register against
"f!1': 4" both scales. but as it can also lead to too frequent misreading. a
Figure 1..1 H,ghrange long
!i:cale displays. (o} Concentric I
te) I , 0 /
9 r~11
scales: (b l fixed and rotating
90 10
<::;J:J',v
(t)::
'sc.atcs~ (c) comrnon scale and
Scale or graduation marks are those which constitute the scale of triple poin1ers. '80 20
an instrument. For quantitative displays the number and size of marks
are chosen in order to obtain quick and accurate interpretation of
readings. In general, scales are divided so that the marks represent
-7 -70 ~,
units of 1, 2 or 5, or decimal multiples thereof. and those marks ft ? 4" 60
/ 50
40
'
which are to qe numbered are longer than the remainder. I
Spacing of marks is also governed by physical laws related to the (a) (hI
quantity to be measured, but in general they result in spacing that is
either linear or 'non-linear. Typical examples are illustrated in Fig.
1.2, -from which it will also be noted that non-linear displays may be
of tht1 square-law or logarithmic-law type, the physical laws in this
instance being related to airspeed~nd rilte of altitude change
'8
~~{" 2
respectively. -7 3_
The sequence of numbering always increases in a clockwise
dir~tioil; thus conformili$to what istermed the 'visual expectation' /6 OIIJ 4"
of the obserVer; As in the case of marks,numbering is always in I

steps of 1, 20r 5 or decimal multiples thereof. The numbers may be

(e)
marked on the dial either inside or outside the scale base.
2 3
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presentation by two concentrically-mounted pointers of different sizes
is much better. A practical example of this is to be found in some
types of engine speed indicator. In this instance, a lar1;e pointer
rotates against an outer scale to indicate hundreds of rev/min, and at
the same time it rotates a smaller pointer through appropriate ratio
gearing, against an inner scale to indicate thousands of rev/min.
The method shown at (b) is employed in a certain type of
pneumatic airspeed indicator; in its basic concept it is similar to the
one just described. In this case, however, a single pointer rotates
against a circular scale and drives a second scale plate instead of a
pointer. This rotating plate, which records hundreds of knots as the
rotates through complete revolutions, is visible through an
aperture in the main dial of the indicator.
Scale and operating ranges
Instrument scale lengths and ranges usually exceed that
required for the operating range of the system with which an
instrument is associated, thus leaving part of the scale unused. This
may appear somewhat wasteful, but an example will show that it
helps in improving the accuracy with which readings may be
observed.
Let us consider a fluid system in which the operating pressure
range is, say, 0-30 Ibf/in2. It would be no problem to design a scale
for the required pressure indicator which would be of a length
equivalent to the system's total operating range, also divided into a
cOllvenient number of parts as shown in 1.4(a). However, under
certain operating conditions of the system concerned, it may be
essential to monitor pressures having such values as 17 or 29 Ibf/in2
and to do this accurately ill the shortest possible time is not very
easy, as a second look at 'the diagram will show.
If the scale is now redesigned so that its length and range exceed
the system's operating range and also graduated in the manner noted
Figure I A Reading accuracy
..29
(al {bl
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,i'
earlier, then as shown at (b) the result makes it much easier to
;n'''',.,..''A' and to monitor specific operating values.
Straight scale
In addition to the circular scale presentation, a quantitative
may also be of the straight scale (verti(~l or horizontal) type, For the
same reason that the sequence of numbering is given in a clockwise
direction on a circular scale, so on a straight scale the sequence is
from bottom to top or from left to right.
Although such displays contribute to the saving of panel space and
improved observatiOlNI1 accuracy, their application to the ,morc
conventional types of mechanical and/or electro-mechanical
instruments has been limited to those utilizing synchronous data
transmission principles. It is pertinent to note at this juncture that in
respect of electronic CRT displays (see Chapter II) there arc no
mechanical restraints, and so straight scales can, therefore, be more
widely applied.
An example of a straight scale presentation of an iridicator
operating on the above-mentioned principles is illustrated in
1.5(a); it is u.~ed for indicating the position of an aircraft's landing
The scales are graduated in degrees, and each pointer is
operated by a synchro (see Chapter 5). The synchros arc supplied
with from transmitters actuated respectively by left and
outboard flap sections.
Another variation of this type of display is shown at (b) of
1.5. It is known as the moving-tape or thermometer display and was
originally developed for the measurement of parameters essential to
the operation of engines of large transpbrt aircraft. Each unit
contains a servo-driven white tape in place of a pointer, which moves
in a vertical plane and registers against a seale in a similar manner to
the mercury column of a thermometer. As will be noted, there is one
display unit for each parameter, the scales being common to each
engine in the particular type of aircraft. When such arc
limited to only one or two parameters then, by scanning across the
ends of the tapes, or columns, a much quicker and more accurate
evaluation of changes in engine performance can be obtained as
b compared to 'clock' type displays. This fact, and the fact that pand
Ii
space can be reduced, are clearly evident from the diagram.
Digital display
A tll!!1tai. or counter, type of display is one that is (0 be
~
r in conjunction with the circular type of display; two
examples are shown in Fig. 1.6. In the application to an altimeter
there are two counters: one presents a fixed pressure value which can
f
f
:;
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Figure 1.6 Application of DYNAMIC COUNTE~
Fi~UF(' J.5 Straighl ~cale digital counter displays. OISP\.AY
dl$play~. (b) giY~~s a
comp.:.tns.on between moving
t::lpe and clTcular scale displays.

40 be set as and when required, and is known as a static

50 while the other is geared to the altimeter mechanism
(a)
in altitude, and is therefore known
as a ayllatmc counter
EXHAUST presentation of altitude data by means of a scale and COunter is yet
GAS another method of solving the long-scale problem

on page 3. The counter of the turbine gas temperature

indicator is also a dynamic display since, in addllion to the main

pointer, it is driven by a servo transmission system (see also page

36:~).
~
G
'i. RPM l~
Dual-indicator displays

These displays are designed principally as a means of conserving

f panel space, particularly where the measurement of the various
~ quantities related to is concerned. They arc normally of two
f
I basic forms: in one, twoseparate indicator mechanisms and scales are
c
~ contained in one case, while in the other, which also has two
~
mechanisms in one case, the pointers register agaill" a commOn
I, scale. examples of display combinations are illustrated in Fig
~
r 1.7.
Engine
No.
EGT
c
%
RPM . t~

Operational range markino~

~

I
2
SOO
470
89
90 ,,~ take the form of coloured arcs, radial lines and
3 480 88 k to the scales of instruments, their purpo~e heing to
4 520 90 iJmits of operation of the systems with which the
instruments are associated. The definitions of theSe, marks are as

I
follows:
RED radial line
YELLOW arc

GREEN arc

Maximum and minimum limits

Take-off and precautionary ranges

I~

Normal operating range

(b)
RED arc
Range in which operation is prohibited
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Figure 1" 7 Dual-indicator Figure 1.8 Operational range
GREEN
dispiays. Ttl<: display with thr~ markings.
pointers has a helicopter
:application: rt shows the speed
of No. I and No.2 <.ngines.
and of the main rotor. REO

WHlT~

YEllOW

/Il)
(b)

In the example shown in Fig. 1.8(a), an additional WHiTE arc is

provided which serves to indicate the appropriate airspeed range over

which an aircraft's landing flaps may be extended in the take-off,

~~Memoty 'bugs'

approach and landing configurations.

The application of sector-type markings is usually confined to those

parts of an operating range in which it is sufficient to know that a

certain condition has been reached rather than knowing a::tual

quantitative values. For examp}e, it may be necessary for an oxygen

cylinder to be charged when the pressure has dropped 10 below, say,

1
500 Ibf/irr. The cylinder pressure gauge would therefore have a red
sector on its dial embracing the marks from 0 to 500 as at (b) of Fig. (eJ

1.8. Thus, if the pointer should register within this sector, this alone
is sufficient indication that recharging is necessary, and it is only of

secondary importance to know what the actual pressure is.

Figure 1. 9 Qualitative display.

r
~
Another method of indicating operating ranges is one that uses

what are termed 'memory bugs'. These take the form of small
pointers which, by means of an adjusting device, can be rotated
!!
UP L

(~
WING
\\
R

Ilb...l \
UP

around the dial plate of an instrumenl to pre-set them at appropriate \~\ pti
operating values on the scale. An example of their application to a \ f /
DN ELEV DN
Mach/airspeed indicator (see page 47) is shown at (c) of Fig, 1.8.
l
SPOIL
l fOt R R
........ ~o~ I/!I!II- SPOIL

t CJ t
RUD
Qualitative displays These are of a special type in which the information is presented in a
--I;
I

symbolic or pictorial form to show the condition of a system,

UPR I
OIJ~~~~
whether the value of an output is increasing or decreasing. or to

show the movement of t1ight control surfaces as in the exatnple

__
shown in Fig. 1.9,
e
9
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Director displays These displays are associated priricipally with the monitoring of flight
attitude and navigational data, and present it in a manner that
indicates to the flight crew what control movements must be made, would be satisfied by the pilot moving the appropriate flight controls
either to correct any departure from a desired flight padt, or to cause in the natural sense.
an aircraft to perfonn a specific manoeuvre. It is dtus apparent that The display presentation of a typical Attitude Director Indicator is
in the development of such a display there must be a close shown in Fig. I. II (a), and as will be noted it is fundamentally
relationship between the direction of control movements and the similar to that of a gyro horizon. Details of its operation will be
instrument pointer, or symbolic-type indicating element; in other covered in a later chapter, but at this juncture it suffices to note tha!
words, movements should be in'the 'natural' sense in order that the
'directives' or 'commands' of the display may be obeyed. Figure I. J J Attitude director Fixed bank
display. (a) Aircraft straight poInter
Displays of this nature are specifically applied to the two primary .00 level; (I .ircrafi nose up;
instruments which comprise conventional' flight director systems and (e) aircraft banked left; (d) 'fly
electronic flight instrument systems (see Chapters 9 and 12). One of up' command; k) 'Ily left
comn-uuxt
the instruments (referred to as an Attitude Director Indicator) has its tron
origins in one of the oldest of flight attitude instruments, r ,Ii""
namely the gyro horizon .(see Chapter 4), and so it serves as a basis
for understanding the concept of director displays. As will be noted ~---- Command
!JaB
~.
- - - 0 - - _ __

from Fig. 1.10, three clements make up the display of the

instrument: a pointer registering against a bank-angle scale, an -r
element symbolizing an aircI;llft, and an element symbolizing the aircraft ~
symbol I I
(b) I I I
natural horizon. Both the bank pointer and natural horizon element
are stabilised by a gyroscope. As the instrument is designed for the la)
of attitude angles, and as also one of the symbolic elements
can move with. respect to the other, then it has two referenee axes,
that of the case which is fi~ed with respect to an aircraft, and that of
the moving element.
Assuming that in level flight an aircraft's pitch attitude changes
such as to bring the nose up, then the movement of the horizon
element relative to the fixed aircraft symbol will be displayed as in ~
diagrdJl1 (a). This indicates that the pilot must 'get the nose down'. ~
It
Similarly, if an aircraft's bank attitude should change whereby the fi
left wing, say, goes down, then the display as at (b) would direct the ~
pilot to 'bank the aircraft to the ril:rht'. In both cases the commands
(01

Fi;';iil<' /.10 DirccWf UISP'''Y

(~J'TO horizon).

~
~
~C.~

~, ~
.,."

~:--=-----
8AN4( SCAJ..

i
co> (h)
I
w I I I

10 I
~
(d)
(e)
I '

~
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the horizon symbolic element is driven by servomotors that receive
appropriate attitude displacement signals from a remotely-located
gyroscope unit. Thus, assuming as before a nose-up displacement of
an aircraft, the signals transmitted by the gyroscope unit will cause
the horizon symbolic element to be driven to a position below the
fixed element symbolizing the aircraft, as shown at (b). The pilot is
therefore directed to 'fly down' to the level flight situation as at (a).
lf a change in the aircraft's attitude produces, say, a left bank, then
in response to signals from the gyroscope unit the horizon symbolic
element and bank pointer will be driven to the right as shown at (c).
The pilot is therefore directed to 'fly right' to the level flight
situation.
In addition to displaying the foregoing primary attitude changes, an
indicator also includes .what istenned a command bar display that
enables a pilot to establish a desired change in aircraft attitude. If, for
example, a climb attitude is to be maintained after take-off, then by
setting a control knob the command bars are motor-driven to a 'fly
position as shown at (d) of Fig. 1.11. During the climb the
horizon symbolic element will be driven in the manner explained
earlier, and the corrunand bars will be recentred over the fixed
element so that the display will be as shown in diagram (b).
Roll attitude, or turn commands, are established in a similar
manner, the command bars in this case being rotated in the required
direction; diagram (e) of Fig. 1.11 illustrates a 'fly left' command.
As the aircraft's attitude changes the aircraft symbolic element moves
with the aircraft, while the horizon symbolic element and bank
pointer are driven in the opposite direction. When the command has
been satisfied, the display will then be as shown in diagram (c).
. The scales and pointers shown to the left and bottom of the
indicator also form a director display that is utilized during the
approach and landing sequence under the guidance of an Instmment
Landing System. Details of the operation of this display and of the
second indicator involved in a Flight Director System will be given in
Chapter 9.
With the introduction of digital signal-processing technology into the \'
Electronic displays
field colloquially known as 'avionics', and its application of micro
electronic circuit techniques, it became possible to make drastic
challges to both quantitative and qualitative data display methods. In
fact, the stage has already been reached whereby many of the
conventional 'clock' type instmments which, for so long, have
perfom1ed a primary role in data display, can be replaced entirely hy
a microprocessing method of 'painting' equivalent data displays on
the screens of cathode ray tube (CRT) display units.
In addition to CRT displays (see Chapter II), electronic display
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1:!
Table 1.1 Applications of eleclronic displays
Display technology Operating mo4e Typi('(l/ applications
Light-emilling diode Active Digital counter displays of engine pcrfom)ancc
Liquid crystal Passive monitoring indicators; rndio frequency sciecwr
indicatofs;rdist.ance measuring indicators: contrf.J1
d~splay tini~ of inertiai na ...igatlon ~ystem~"
Eleclron CRT beam Active Weather radar indicators~ display of navigational
data; engine performance data; system .. status;
check lists.
techniques also include those of light-emitting diode and liquid crystal
elements. Typical examples of their applications are given in Table
1.1. The operating mode of these displays may be either active or
passive, the definitions of which are follows: as
Active: a display using phenomena potentially capable of
producing .light when the display elements are
electrically activated.
Passive: a display which either transmits light ft;om an auxiliary
light source after modulation by the device, or which
~
produces a pattern viewed by reflected ambient
~
~ Display configurations
~ Displays of the light-emitting diode and liquid cryst.al type arc usually
~ limited to applications in which a single register of alphanumeric
~
values is required, and are based on what is termed a seven-segment
~
I;
matrix configuration or, in some cases, a dot matrix configuration.
Figure 1.12(a) illustrates the seven-segment configuration, the
f letters which conventionally designate each of the segments, and the
patterns generated for displaying each of the decimal numbers 0--9.
t A segmented configuration may also be used for displaying alphabetic
fi
f
characters as well as numbers, but this requires that the numher of
f segments be increased, typically from seven up to 13 and/or 16.
~ Exanlples of these alphanumeric displays are illustrated at (b) of Fig.
f 1.12.
In a dot matrix display the patterns generated for each individual
character are made up of a specific number of illuminated dots
arranged in columns and rows.[n the example shown at (c) of
1.12, the matrix is designated as a 4 x 7 configuration, i.e. it
comprises four columns and seven rows.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
I
An LED is a solid-state device comprising a forward-biased p-n
junction transistor formed from a slice or chip of gallium arsenide
'i3
I
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Figure I. 13 Ughc~em;uing
Figure 1.12 Ek"(,'lfOnic A

1
diode.
a(plUloumeric di~pla}'::;.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Seven~scgrnent:

13- and 16-scgment;

a 4 x 7 matrix.
F_* G 8 CRYST At.. C~tU:t

Ie
Oilfuser pia Ie

EI 1]~23YS6189
Reflectiv<! Cl\lIltit's

(a)
D NQ. of segmontS 6 6
-~r
EffE.ctl1"e

i'l/l
:wg(nent

1\1/1 _ __ ""'lgh'

ii \1
- 17i\1
-
--.-

Plastic Q~rla ....

I I IJ 1-
r-, JJ ,_ JJ C r
TI ,- 1- ,- I I-I
1-=' r-I _ I_I
C] TI r- TI r: C r: LJ T I
I I _0 L JJ C_' U 1 1 _L tJ
P["'Sllt: overtay

l! I 1\/1 1\ I 1-' CI '-I '- j -I I I' 1\11 1\ I r-I CI r-, r-I r-

U I
I \ ' - I I I \I I~ 1\ f\ t_ I I I \I tJ I - t~ r-;: :] COHHEC1lOHS

'11/11\1\1 7 11//11\/\1 -7
'-I II 11\1 1\ 1 1 LJ II 11\1 /\ Ie plastic overlay and a diffuser plate. The segments are formed as a
I
I ,
LJ C L-
~LII
CI LJ III
U _I IL.I 1
1 1 ]
II_J
] IJ C '-
IJUI
1 0[I n 1
UJUI
sealed integrated circuit pack, the connecting pins of which are
soldered to an associated printed circuit board. Depending on the
(b)
application and the number of digits comprising the appropriate
quantitative display, independent digit packs may be used, or

T 7 rows
combined in a mUltiple digit display unit.
LEOs can also be used in a dot-matrix configuration, and an
example of this as applied to a type of engine speed indicator is
shown in Fig. I .14. Each dot making up the decimal Ilumbers is an

. . individual LED and they are arranged m a 9 x 5 matrix. The counter
is of unique design in that ils signal drive circuit causes an apparcm
of the digits which simulates the action of a mechanical
t-4 m;~??~f!:;r61'''fl
8J1~ 81~~~..:::~lfiIEF]I~flE'I[:l
__ ~~~f:~__ ___ ..dLJ
drum-type counter as it responds to changes ill speed.

(c)
Liquid crystal display (LCD)

phosphide (GaAsP) Inoulded into a tra l1 sparent covering as shown in The basic structure of a seven-segment LCD is shown in Fig. 1.15. It
Fig. 1.13. Whefl :current flo~st~rotlgh tlj:echip it emits light which consists of two glass plates coated on their inner surfaces with a thin
is in direct proportion to
the cqrrent .flow .J.jght emi;;sion in different film of transparent conducting material (referred to as polarizing film)
colours ofthe spectrum dn, where t~uired, be obtained by varying such as indium oxide. The material on the front is etched to
the proportionsqf tm; ele"ments. emilpi-i?ing the chip, and also bv a form the seven segments, each of which farms an electrode. A mirror
technique of 'doping' with :otliereJe~ents. e.g. nitrogen. image is also etched into the oxide coating of the back
In a typical seven-segment display format it is usual to employ one but this is not segmented since it constitutes a common rctum for all
LED per segment and mount it within a reflective cavity with a
www.Vidyarthiplus.com segments. The space between the plates is filled with a liquid crystal
14 15
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Figure 1./6 Application 01

Figure 1.14 Engine spt.~
LCD.
indicator with a dot matrix
LED. (Courtesy of Smith',
industries Ltd.)

magmtude of the <optical change is basically a measure of the

reflected from, or transmitted through, the segment area to the light
reflected from the background area. Thus, unlike an LED, it docs not
emit light, but merely acts on light passing through it. Depending on
polarizing film orientation, and also on whether the display is
reflective or transmissive, the !;egments may appear dark on a light
background (as in the case of digital watches and pocket calculators)
or light on a dark background. An example of LCD application is
shown in Fig. L 16.

Head-up displays
A head-up display (HUD) is one in which vital in-night data are
presented at the same level as a pilot's line of sight when he is
Figure 1 15 Strucwre 01 an
viewing external references ahead of the aircraft, Le. when he is
LCD
maintaining a 'head-up' position. This display technique is one that
has been in use for Ulany years in military aviation, and in panicular
it has been essential for those aircaft designed tor carrying out very
high-speed low-level sorties over all kinds of terrain.
As far as civil aviation is concerned, HUD systems havc bcen
UQuid clystal
layef
{ designed specifically for use in public transpon category aircraft
(tYPIcal spacing during the approach and landing phase of flight, but thus far it has
'" 10 tntcrons)
been a matter of choice 011 the operators' part whether or not to
install systems in .their aircraft. This has resulted principally from the
differing views held by operators, pilot representative groups, and
aviation authorities on the benefits to be gained, notably in respect of
t a system's contribution to the landing of an aircraft, either
rr' automatically or manually, in low-visibility conditions.
t The principle adopted in a HUD system is to display the required
data on the face of a CRT and to project them through a collimating

cOIllPound, and the complete assembly is hermetically sealed with a

special thermoplastic material to prevent contamination.
I lens as' a symbolic image on to a transparent reflector plate, such thal
the.image is superimposed on a pilot's normal view, through the
wind~creen,of the terrain ahead. The display is a combined
alphanumeric and symbolic one, and since it is focused at infinity it

t6
When a low-voltage, low-current signal is applied to the segments,
the Iiolarizatioit of theeompound is 6hanged together with a change
in its optical appearance from transparent to reflective. The
I~

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permits simultaneous scanning of the 'outside world' and the
without refocusing the eyes. The components of a typical system arc
shown in Fig. 1.17.
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the upper part of the renec/or plate, and altitude may he indicated by
Fig"" t, t 7 Head-up display. the registering of moving dots with a fixed index at one side of the
WlNDSCftH plate instead of the changing digital counter readout located as shown

~n~ ~_,......-~,

in the diagram. Additional data such as decision height, radio altitude

and runway outlines may also be
~- --~

~-~l
Panels and layouts All instruments essential to the operation of an aircraft are
accommodated' on panels, the number and disposition of which vary
in accordance with the number of instruments required for the
appropriate type of aircraft and its cockpit or flight deck layout. A
main instrument panel positioned in front of pilots is, of course, a
feature common to all types of aircraft since instruments displaying
CR TUBE
data must be within the pilot's normal line of vision. The
panel may be mounted in the vertical position or, as is now more
common practice, sloped forward at about 15" from the vertical to
minimize parallax errors. Typical positions of other panels ar~:
overhead, at the side, and on a control pedestal located centrally
Oats _ I PROCESSOR AND 1.18 illustrates the foregoing arrangement
inputs--, ~~~BO~ GENERATOR Ir-- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -J
to the Boeing 737-300 series aircraft. Where a flight
is required as a member of an operating crew, then
would also be located at the station specifically provided on the night
(al
deck.

Altituoo
Airsp<>ed Instrument grouping Flight instrmncnts
there are six night instruments whose indications are so co~
Aircraft ordinated as to create a 'picture' of all aircraft's flight condition and
symboJ
Vertical sp<>ed required control movements: are the airspeed indicator,
altimeter, gyro horizon, direction indicator, verrical spec:d indicator
-(
and IIlrnand-bank indicator. It is, therefore: most important hH thesc
instrumcnts to be properly grouped maintain co-ordination ;lfld (()
Horizon assist a pilot in obscrvltlg them with the minImum of effort.
bars

.
21 22 The first real attempt at establishing a standard method of
was the 'blind flymg panel' or 'basil' six' 1;IYOU{ shown in Fig,
I, 19(a). The gyro horizon occupies trl(: top c.:ntre posllion. and slnc~
it provides positive and direct indications of attitude, and alliwcie
(b) Heading changes in the pitching and rolling planes, it is lltiliz.ed as the master
instrument. As control of airspeed and altitude arc directly related 10
The aIT!0unt. of data required fordispJay is gove(1led by the attitude, the airspeed indicator, altimeter and vertical speed indicator
requirementf. of thc varioijs:fligh(phliSes and operational role of an flank the gyro horizon and support the interprClalion of pitch attitude.
aircraft, i.e:, militaryor"civil, but the parameters shown in diagram Chan'?,cs in direction are initiated by banking an aircraft. and {he
(b) are common to all. Theforma[ and disposition of the displays degree of head'ng change is obtamed from the direction Indicator:
corresponding to required parameters can vary between systems; for this instrument therefore supports the intemrct31HHI of roil altitude
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example, a heading display may be in the form of a rotating arc at 19
18
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and is positioned directly below the gyro horizon. The tum-and-bank
Figmc r 18 Fiighl indicator serves as a secondary reference instrument for heading
lilY('u! BoeIng 737 -]00 Sem~~ changes, so it too~supports the interpretation of roll altitude.
;;ircl'afl
With the development and introduction of new types of aircraft,
and of more comprehensive display presentations afforded by the
indicators of flight director systems, a review of the functions of
certain of the instruments and their relative positions within the group
resulted in the adoption of the 'basic T' 'arrangement as the current
standard. As will be noted from diagram (b) of Fig. 1.19, there are
now four 'key' indicators: airspeed, pitch and roll attitude. an altitude
indicator forming the horizontal bar of the 'T', and a horizontal
situation (direction) indicator forming the vertical bar. As far as the
positions flanking the latter indicator are concemed, they are taken up
by other less specifically essential flight instruments which, in the
exa.'l1ple shown, are the vertical speed indicator and a radiomagnctic
indicator (RMI). In some cases a turn-and-bank indicator. or an
indicator known as a tum co-ordinator, may take the place shown
occupied by the RMI. In many instances involving the use of flight
director system indicators andlor electronic flight imtnlment system
display units, a turn-and-bank indicator is no longer used.
In the case of electronic flight instrument systems, the two CRT
display units (EADI and EHSI) are also used ill conjunction wilh four
conventional-type indicators to form the basic 'T', as shown in Fig.
1.20(a). In displays of more recent origin, and now in use in such
aircraft as the Boeing 747-400 (see also Fig. 12.11), the CRT
screens are much larger in size, thus making it possible for the EADl
FiXi.n' j _11} High! ifl;,truuh:llt to display airspeed, altitude and vertical speed data instead of
g(()Uptng_ (a) Ba~k
~ lMsir 'T' (with fhg!1I
conventional indicators. The presentation, which also corresponds to
the basic 'T' arrangement is illustrated at (b) of 1.20.

I
" directOr sysum Hldt.:-ators)

Power plant instruments

I The specific grouping of instruments required for the monitoring of

power plant operation is governed primarily by the type of power
plant, the size of aircraft, and therefore the space available for

!l location of instruments, In asinglc-engined aircraft this does not

present too much of a proble'm since the sllIall number of instruments
required may flank the flight instruments, thus keeping them within a
small scanning range'.

{bl

21
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 I'

~
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!~
('

Figure 1,20 Dasi<: 'T'

gwuplflg ""'ilh electronic iligh{ that those relating 10 each power correspond to the power plall!
jHSflUln<.;:rHS
positions as seen in plan view. !t will be apparent from the byout 01
1.21 thal by scanning a row of instruments pilot 01 engineer
can easllv compare the readings of a given parameree and by
a column of instruments can assess the overall performance

fi'gurt! 1.21 P()Wcr plant

instrument groupmg

la)

EHSI
8 NO,l I
I

(lJJ EADI
C:j
COn.....entional instruments as standby

The problem is more acute in multi-engined aircraft, the number of

instruments for'all essential parameters doubling up with each engine,

For twin~engined aircraft, and for certain medium-size four-engined

aircraft. the practice is to group the instruments at the centre of the

main inSlmment panel and between the two groups of flight

instruments.

In those aircraft having a flight engineer's slation, the instruments

are grouped on the control panels ai this station. Those instruments

measuring parameters required to be known by the pilot during take

off, cruising and landing-; e.g. rev/n1inand turbine gas temperature,

are duplicated at the centre of the main instrument panel.

The positions of the instruments within a group arc arranged so

22 23
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Figur!! 1.12 Po\ver pl.llll
2 Air data instruments
1fl.\(fUrnenl
dl5,f1!ays!
The earth's
atmosphere
pattern of a panicular power plant. Another advantage of this
method is lhat all the instrllments for one power planl are
more associated with the controls for that power plan!.
Figure 1.22 illustrates the gwuping arrangement currclI!ly
III Boeing 737 --400 series aircraft for the display of the
parall1e!ers associated with its power pl:Plt5.
The numer ie values corresponding to each parameter arc in<hcatcd
by LEDs arranged in a dOl matrIX 'rolling digit' configurmioll. and
located at the cellire of permanenlly defined scale b;lses,
and coloured range markings. In addillon to the counter
LEDs arc also located around the periphery of each scale base, and
l!l their aCliv,~ Slate they simulate the rotation of cO(lventional
indicator pointers.
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An air data. (or manometric) system of an aircraft is one in which the
total pressure created by the forward motion of an aircraft, and the
static pressure of the atmosphere surrounding it, are sensed and
measured .in tennsof speed, altitude. and rate of altitude
(vertical The measurement and indication of these three
parameters may be done by connecting the appropriate sensors, either
directly to mechanical-type instruments, or to a remotely-located air
data computer which then transmits the data in electrical
format to electro-mechanical or servo-type instruments,
Since the primary source of air for these measurelllents is the
earth's atmosphere itself, then it is necessary to have some
understanding of its characteristics before going into the
principles of the measuring instruments and systems involved.
The earth's atmosphere is the surrounding envelope of air, which is a
mixture of a number of gases, the chief of which are nitrogen and
oxygen, By convention, this gaseous envelope is divided into several
concentric layers extending from the earth's surface, each with its
'own distinctive features; these are shown in Fig. 2.1.
The lowest layer. and the one in which conventional types of
aircraft are. flown, is termed the troposphere, and extends to a
boundary height termed the tropopause.
Above the tropopause, the next layer, termed the stratosphere, also
extends to a boundary height called the stratopause.
At greater heights the remaining atmosphere is divided into further
layers which are termed the chemosphere, ozonosphere, iOflospiler
and exosphere,
Throughout all these layers the atmosphere undergoes a gradual
transition from its characteristics at sea-level to those at the of
the exosphere where it merges with the completely airless outer
space.
Atmospheric pressure
The atmosphere is held in contact with the earth's surface by the
force of gravity, which produces a pressure within the atmosphc r
Gravitational effects decrease with increasing distances from the
25