DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

The word personality is derived from the Latin word persona which means mask.
The study of personality can be understood as the study of masks that people wear. These are
the personas that people project and display, but also include the inner parts of psychological
experience which we collectively call our self. "I" is for personality. According to Adams
(1954, cited in Schultz & Schultz, 1994) personality is I. Adams suggested that we get a good
idea of what personality is by listening to what we say when we use "I". When you say I, you
are, in effect, summing up everything about yourself - your likes and dislikes, fears and virtues,
strengths and weaknesses. The word I is what defined you as an individual, as a person separate
from all others.(Schultz & Schultz, 1994, p.8)
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought (Gordon Allport,1961)
Personality is the supreme realization of the innate idiosyncrasy of a living being. It is an
act of high courage flung in the face of life, the absolute affirmation of all that constitutes the
individual, the most successful adaptation to the universal condition of existence coupled with
the greatest possible freedom for self-determination.(Carl Gustav Jung, 1934)
Personality can be deduced and defined it as integrated general characteristics of the
individuals total behavior and higher unique adjustment in the environment.
Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling
and behaving. The study of personality focuses on two broad areas: One is understanding
individual differences in particular characteristics, such as sociability or irritability. The other is
understanding how the various parts of a person come together as whole.
Personality is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that
are organized and relatively enduring and that influence his or her interactions with, and
adaptations to, the intrapsychic, physical, and social environments.

Personality Is the Set of Psychological Traits . . .

Psychological traits are characteristics that describe ways in which people are different
from each other. Psychological traits are useful for at least three reasons. First, they help us
describe people and help us understand the dimensions of difference between people. Second,
traits are useful because they may help us explain behavior. The reasons people do what they do
may be partly a function of their personality traits. Third, traits are useful because they can help
us predict future behaviorfor example, the sorts of careers individuals will find satisfying, who
will tolerate stress better, and who is likely to get along well with others. Thus, personality is
useful in describing, explaining, and predicting differences between individuals.

And Mechanisms . . .
Psychological mechanisms are like traits, except that the term mechanisms refer more to
the processes of personality. Most psychological mechanisms have three essential ingredients:
inputs, decision rules, and outputs. A psychological mechanism may make people more sensitive
to certain kinds of information from the environment (input), may make them more likely to
think about specific options (decision rules), and may guide their behavior toward certain
categories of action (outputs).

Figure 1. Three Key Ingredients of Psychological Mechanisms

PERSONALITY: STRUCTURE, PROCESS, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Christensen, et al referred the concept structure as the stable parts and enduring
aspects of personality. This structure represents the building blocks of personality theory. Such
structural concept as response, habit, trait and type are useful in conceptualizing what people are
alike. According to Allport, the basic units of personality are personal dispositions and the
proprium.
A. Personal Dispositions
Allport distinguished between common traits, which permit inter-individual comparisons,
and personal dispositions, which are peculiar to the individual. He recognized three overlapping
levels of personal dispositions, the most general of which are cardinal dispositions that are so
obvious and dominating that they can not be hidden from other people. Not everyone has a
cardinal disposition, but all people have 5 to 10 central dispositions, or characteristics around
which their lives revolve. In addition, everyone has a great number of secondary dispositions,
which are less reliable and less conspicuous than central traits. Allport further divided personal
dispositions into (1) motivational dispositions, which are strong enough to initiate action and (2)
stylistic dispositions, which refer to the manner in which an individual behaves and which guide
rather than initiate action.
B. Proprium
The proprium refers to all those behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm
and central in their lives. Allport preferred the term proprium over self or ego because the latter
terms could imply an object or thing within a person that controls behavior, whereas proprium
suggests the core of one's personhood.
The concept process refers to the changing aspect of personality. Some theories
consider personality as a process bringing action tendency to the individual to reduce tension.
This viewed as motivational theory. Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains
goal-oriented behaviors. It is what causes us to take action, whether to grab a snack to reduce
hunger or enroll in college to earn a degree. The forces that lie beneath motivation can be
biological, social, emotional, or cognitive in nature. In short, personality processes convert
motivational forces into three types namely:
1 Pleasure Motives. They are tensions-reductions motives (drives) and incentive motives
(goals)
2 Personal Growth Motives. They refer to the need to realize ones potential or self-
actualization.
3 Cognitive Motives. They cause behavior that seeks to understand and predict the world.
Growth and Development are related to the structure and process of personality.
The development of personality determines hereditary and environmental factors. Heredity
(nature) may be defined as the transmission of characteristics through generations. The
characteristics include all physical, physiological and psychological characteristics in organisms.
All these characteristics are called the traits. Such personality characteristics are important as
intelligence, attitudes, temperament, interpersonal relations, values, ideals, and beliefs.
Environment (nurture) influences behavior at several levels. Immediate behavior is a function of
the settings in which it occurs. For example, the arrangement of furniture in a room influences
the way in which people in the room interact. The characteristic personality make-up of persons
in a country is shaped by the nature and type of environment to which they are subjected for long
periods of time. Racial differences in personality can to a large extent be traced to the influence
of different environments to which people of different races have been subjected for generations
(Moos 1976).
The importance of interaction between heredity and environment explains the heredity
sets a range within which the development of the characteristics is determined by environment
thus making the self as an important product of heredity and culture constituting entire
personality.
By and large structure, process and growth and development play a crucial role in
determining personality. Personality is thought to be determined largely by genetics and biology,
by environment and experiences or by some combination resulting thereof.

THEORY OF HUMORS OR HIPPOCRATIC THEORY

Theory of Humors or Hippocratic Theory
The idea of Hipprocrates inherent in his theory is that it refers to the contained different
humans of fluids. Personality type arose from one of the fluids predominating in the body that
accounts the individual differences in temperament. It has four types of personality as described
below (Brennan, 1998)

Black Bile Cold and Dry Too much earth Melancholic Autumn

Blood Hot and Moist Too much air Sanguine Sping

Phlegm Cold and Moist Too much water Phlegmatic Winter

Yellow Bile Hot and Dry Too much fire Choleric Summer

Table 1. Hippocrates Four types of Personality

Finally, each element/humor/season was associated with certain qualities. Thus yellow
bile was thought of as hot and dry. Its opposite, phlegm (the mucus of colds), was cold and
moist. Black Bile was cold and dry, while its opposite, blood was hot and moist.
Sanguine
In a nutshell...
Sanguine people are boisterous, bubbly, chatty, openly emotional, social extroverts.
Social
Sanguines find social interactions with faces both familiar and unfamiliar invigorating.
This is how they recharge, and time alone - while sometimes desirable - can bore them quickly.
The more people they're surrounded by, the better they feel, and they're not picky about who they
get to know. While sanguines enjoy being around other people, it's largely
because they enjoy the attention of others and feel good about the fact that
they are not lonely. They are talkers more than they are listeners. They're
likely to convince people to come along with things like 'come on, you'll
enjoy it!' or 'you don't know what you're missing!' Being friends with a
Sanguine is often as simple as knowing each other's face and name.
Expressive
They are talkative, and speak in a friendly, energetic, playful kind of
way; they're often charismatic, and when interacting with them, you can feel like you've known
them all your life. They are very emotional, and their emotions can be extreme but fleeting. They
are the sorts who will be screaming "I HATE YOU I HATE YOU!!" one day, then mere hours
later, they'll be profusely apologising about it, then expecting everything to all be water under the
bridge after that. They are quick to 'forgive and forget' - and expect others to
do the same - because they live in the moment rather than dwelling in the past.
Attention-Seeking
They love attention. They desire to be in the spotlight, and for people
to compliment and praise them. Everyone loves compliments, but sanguines
will go out of their way to get them. They are often performers, party animals,
drama queens. They wish to fit in and be popular. Or, they'll seek to be
Different in a way that will make them remarkable. The embarrassment of making a fool of
themselves is outweighed by the pleasure of putting on a show. Of course, the reason they'd do
silly things isn't JUST to get attention. They have a tendency to be vain, and to care about how
they look. If nobody is paying attention to them, they will barge into a conversation or say
something in order to attract some attention. They are very uncomfortable being left out.
Role
In our distant past, the sanguine members of the pack might have played a supportive,
encouraging, social role. They would have been the glue that kept the group together. In modern
society, you might see them as entertainers, singers, dancers, or perhaps simply as the energetic
people at parties. In fantasy, they might be Bards.
Choleric
In a nutshell...
Choleric people are the proud, extroverted 'alphas' of our species.
Dominant
Cholerics people are leaders and directors. They seek to be in control of situations, to be
on top, to be the best. This doesn't necessarily mean that they are all driven to reach the top of the
corporate ladder or anything, or that they all want to have leadership roles, but in day-to-day
interactions with other people, they have a tendency towards one-upsmanship. They use
imperative, commanding language, wording things as orders rather than requests. They love
competition... but hate to lose. They may take pleasure in the pain, misfortune, or humiliation of
people they are not on good terms with. This is because it brings them pleasure to feel superior to
others. Words like 'hot-blooded', 'brash', 'domineering', 'overbearing', might be used to describe
this temperament. They blame others for their own mistakes, often to the point of lying to save
face.
Extroverted
Cholerics are extroverted in the sense that they will meddle in others' affairs and 'speak
their mind' if they feel it is necessary, rather than minding their own business. They generally
respond well to new situations, and seek thrills. They seek to prove themselves externally, to
show that they are great and the best and things like that. They must prove that they are strong.
They believe that it is important to 'say things how they are', to be bluntly honest about their
opinions rather than 'sugar-coating' them. Their pride and drive for dominance, as well as their
open expression of emotion, naturally leads to outright aggression when challenged. They will
raise their voices and get angry to show that they are the biggest and strongest, and to assert
superiority. They brag and boast to show how amazing they are, in an 'I am better than others'
kind of way.
Proud
They generally believe that they are right, and have immense stubbornness about
admitting their flaws, UNLESS admitting these flaws would make them look better than others
("I'm strong enough to admit I'm wrong, unlike you"). It is important to them
that they are strong and courageous, not afraid of anything. If they are afraid,
they will deny it (again, unless admitting it makes them look strong).

Role
In our distant ancestors, the choleric members of the pack would be the
alphas, the leaders. They would command their subordinates, and assert their
dominance using force. If challenged, they would respond by getting angry,
larger, in order to intimidate and to prove that THEY were the strongest, the
most fit to lead.
In current society, they often tend towards leadership roles, such as managers, politicians,
captains, team leaders, and so on, though not necessarily. In fantasy, they might be the proud
warriors, the esteemed Kings.

Phlegmatic
In a nutshell...
Phlegmatic people are meek, submissive introverts who live to please others.
Submissive
Phlegmatics do not act as if they are better than others. They are eager to please, and
quick to give in to others rather than asserting their own desires as if they're the most important.
Conflict terrifies them. They do not start it (except perhaps in extreme circumstances), or
provoke it, and try to defuse it when it comes up. When forced into an argument, they get very
upset and distressed, seeking escape rather than victory. They don't believe that they know best.
They have tremendous difficulty saying no, and will go along with things that they dislike to
make others happy. They are extremely trustworthy; if they make a promise, it's very likely that
they will keep it.
Indecisive
 They'll defer to others to make choices, and will feel upset and pressured if they have to
make a decision themselves; this comes from their inability to see themselves in a 'leader' role.
They are natural followers, and work best when they are told what to do. Their language is
generally full of uncertain phrases such as 'I think', 'maybe', 'perhaps', 'or something'.
Calm
Phlegmatics are introverted, and enjoy time alone. However, they are much 'nicer' and
more friendly and social than the melancholic, as they're unburdened by 'perfectionism' and as
such do not judge others. They enjoy spending time with friends, and are very loyal to these
friends, sticking with them through thick and thin, even though abuse. This is because they put
others first, and will not leave another even if THEY want to because the other person may not
want them to leave. They like calm and steady lives, free of surprises. They lack 'passion', as
their emotions are mostly internal.
Role
In our distant past, the phlegmatic members of a pack might have been the obedient
followers who'd get much of the actual work done at the command of their superiors. They may
not stand out, but without them, nothing would work. They are the cooks, the cleaners, the quiet
office drones, the redshirts, the white mages.

Melancholic
In a nutshell...
Melancholic people are emotionally sensitive, perfectionistic introverts.
Perfectionistic
The defining feature of a melancholic attitude is perfectionism. They are idealists who
wish for things to be a certain way, and they get distressed when they are not. They hold
themselves and others to unrealistically high standards, and get distressed when these standards
are not met. This leads to them being self-deprecating - because they do not meet their own
standards - and critical of others - because those others do not meet their standards. They only
argue to set wrongs right, rather than to assert dominance. They respond poorly to compliments,
often 'rebutting' them by saying that they're not so great after all. "Wow, that's a really nice
painting you just made!" "I don't know, the eyes are probably too big..." (rather than "Thanks!")
Introverted
Melancholics are the most introverted of the temperaments in that they crave time alone,
and are most at ease in their own company. They can enjoy spending time with others, but this
drains their energy, and they need alone time in order to recharge. Much of their introversion
comes from their perfectionism. They are picky about the sorts of people that they associate
with; people who meet their standards and share their outlook. People that don't will make them
uncomfortable; they do not wish to talk to 'anyone and everyone'. They are very wary of making
friends. Unlike sanguines, it can take them a very long time for them to consider someone they're
familiar with a 'friend', but once they've reached this point, they will likely stick with that person
loyally. They prefer having a few close friends to many acquaintances. They are usually very
possessive about the things that they own and are reluctant to let others borrow or use them,
because they treat their own things well, care about everything deeply, and will worry that others
will not look after them with the same level of care.
Sensitive
Melancholics are very emotional. They are moved deeply by beauty, and by distress. They
are very easily hurt, because of their perfectionistic tendencies. Often their moods are like
delicate glass sculptures; built up slowly, deliberately, and carefully, but easily broken, and hard
to repair once shattered. They hold grudges, because people who have failed to meet their
standards, who have hurt them, will not just suddenly meet those standards without changing
drastically. They can become very 'moody', and they can be difficult to interact with because they
are so easily hurt.
Role
In our distant ancestors, the melancholic members of a pack may have been the analysts,
the information gatherers. They scouted for potential danger, or for food, and reported back to
the pack leader. The more accurate their findings were, the better; this led to a trend towards
perfectionism, as the 'analysts' closer to perfection survived better than those that made sloppy
mistakes.
In current society, they often tend towards analytical roles such as scientists, analysts,
programmers, logicians, and so on. In fantasy settings, they may be wizards or sages.

SOMATOTYPE THEORY
 The theory of W. H. Sheldon, suggesting that body structure is correlated with certain temper
aments and predisposes to mental disorders.
I. William Sheldon
Sheldon was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety of
human bodies and temperaments. He was a keen observer of animals and birds as a child, and he
turned this talent to good effect by becoming an avid people-watcher, and out of his observations
he gradually elaborated his typology.

The Basic Components of Physique

Endomorphy is centered on the abdomen, and the whole digestive
system.
Mesomorphy is focused on the muscles and the circulatory system.
Ectomorphy is related to the brain and the nervous system.
1. The Extreme Endomorph - Roundness
The easiest way to get an idea of the variety of human
physiques is by looking at the three extremes, even though in actual life the various combinations
are much more common. According to Sheldon's system a 7-1-1 (seven-one-one) is the most
extreme endomorph with minimal mesomorphy and ectomorphy. In this physique the body is
round and soft, as if all the mass had been concentrated in the abdominal area. In fact, the large
intestine of an extreme endomorph can be two or three times the length of that of an ectomorph.
The arms and legs of the extreme endomorph are short and tapering, and the
hands and feet comparatively small, with the upper arms and thighs being
hammed and more developed than the lower arms and legs. The body has
smooth contours without projecting bones, and a high waist. There is some
development of the breast in the male and a fullness of the buttocks. The skin
is soft and smooth like that of an apple, and there is a tendency towards
premature baldness beginning at the top of the head and spreading in a
polished circle. The hair is fine and the whole head is spherical. The head is
large and the face broad and relaxed with the features blending into an over-all impression of
roundness. The head is like a pumpkin sitting on a barrel, and the abdomen is like a sphere with
the chest attached to it like an inverted funnel.
2. The Extreme Mesomorph - Muscles
In the extremely mesomorphic physique, or 1-7-1, there is a squareness and hardness of
the body due to large bones and well-defined muscles. The chest area, which Sheldon likened to
an engine room, dominates over the abdominal area and tapers to a relatively narrow, low waist.
The bones and muscles of the head are prominent as well, with clearly defined cheek bones and a
square, heavy jaw. The face is long and broad and the head tends towards a cubical shape. The
muscles on either side of the neck create a pyramid-like effect. Both the
lower and upper arms and legs are well-developed and the wrists and fingers
are heavy and massive. Sheldon compared it to the skin of an orange. The
hair is basically heavy-textured, and baldness, when it appears, usually starts
at the front of the head. The extreme mesomorph is Mr. Universe or Tarzan.

3. The Extreme Ectomorph - Linear

The highly ectomorphic physique, or 1-1-7, is fragile and delicate with light bones and
slight muscles. The limbs are relatively long and the shoulders droop. In contrast to the
compactness of the endomorph and mesomorph, the ectomorph is extended in space and linear.
The ribs are visible and delicate and the thighs and upper arms weak. The fingers, toes and neck
are long. The features of the face are sharp and fragile, and the shape of the face as a whole is
triangular with the point of the triangle at the chin. The teeth are of ten crowded in the lower jaw
which is somewhat receding. The skin is dry and is like the outer skin of an onion. The hair is
fine and fast-growing and sometimes difficult to keep in place. Baldness is rare.
The extreme ectomorph in our society is the absent-minded professor or Ichabod
Crane.

Sheldon's Temperament Types

Endotonia is seen in the love of relaxation, comfort, food and people.
Mesotonia is centered on assertiveness and a love of action.
Ectotonia focuses on privacy, restraint and a highly developed self-

1. The Extreme Endotonic - Friendliness

 The endotonic shows a splendid ability to eat, digest and
socialize. A good deal of his energy is oriented around food, and he
enjoys sitting around after a good meal and letting the digestive
process proceed without disturbance. Endotonics live far from the
upsets and nervous stomachs of the ectotonics. They fall readily to
sleep and their sleep is deep and easy; they lie limp and sprawled out
and frequently snore. Endotonics are relaxed and slow-moving.
In summary, they love assimilation both on the physical and
social level. They love to eat and digest, to be part of their family and
community, to like and be liked and to rest and relax. They crave food
and affection and abhor isolation and disapproval. They express
affection and approval readily and need both back in kind.
2. The Extreme Mesotonic - Action
In endotonia the stomach was the focus of attention, but in mesotonia it is the muscles.
The mesotonic is well-endowed with them, or to put it another way, the mesotonic's muscles
seem to have a mind of their own. They are always ready for action, and good posture is natural
to them. They get up with plenty of energy and seem tireless. They can work for long periods of
time and both need and like to exercise. They like to be out doing things
The mesotonic tends to eat his food rapidly and somewhat
randomly, often neglecting set meal times. He sleeps the least of the
three types and sometimes contents himself with six hours. He is an
active sleeper who thrashes about. He shows an insensitivity to pain
and a tendency to high blood pressure and large blood vessels.

The Extreme Ectotonic - Reflection

The outstanding characteristic of the ectotonic is his finely-tuned receptive system. His
spread-out body acts like a giant antenna picking up all sorts of inputs..
The ectotonic suffers from a quick onset of hunger and a quick satiation of it.. The
ectotonic is resistant to many major diseases, but suffers excessively from insect bites and skin
rashes. Unfortunately he can succumb to acute streptococcal infections of the throat which cause
swelling and strangulation. His hypersensitivity leads not only to quick physical reactions but to
excessively fast social reactions as well. It is difficult for this type to keep pace with slow-
moving social chit-chat. He races ahead and trips over his own social feet. The ectotonics are
hypersensitive to pain because they anticipate it and have a lower pain threshold as well. They do
not project their voices like the mesotonics, but focus it to reach only the person they are
addressing. They appear younger than their age and often wear an alert, intent expression. They
have a late adolescence, consider the latter part of life the best, and are future-oriented. The more
extreme ectotonics have a distaste for alcohol and their accentuated consciousness fights alcohol,
drugs, anaesthesia and is resistant to hypnosis. They can readily with their dream life and often
rich fantasy life. When they become troubled they seek privacy and solitude in order to try to
work out the difficulty.

II. Ernst Kretschmer

Kretschmer was a German psychiatrist who attempted to correlate body build and physical
constitution with personality characteristics and mental illness. He published his dissertation on
manic-depressive delusions, anticipating his later work in mental illness. He studied hysteria
while a military physician during World War I, developing a treatment in which victims of battle
hysteria were quieted in dark chambers and treated with electrical impulses. His best-known
work, Krperbau und Charakter (1921; Physique and Character), advanced the theory that
certain mental disorders were more common among people of specific physical types.
Kretschmer posited three chief constitutional groups: the tall,
thin asthenic type, the more muscular athletic type, and the
rotund pyknic type. He suggested that the lanky asthenics, and to a
lesser degree the athletic types, were more prone to schizophrenia,
while the pyknic types were more likely to develop manic-
depressive disorders. His work was criticized because his thinner,
schizophrenic patients were younger than his pyknic, manic-
depressive subjects, so the differences in body type could be
explained by differences in age. Nevertheless, Kretschmers ideas to some extent entered into
popular culture and generated further psychological research.

Figure 2. Kretschmers Three Chief Constitutional Groups

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Psychoanalytic theories explain human behavior in terms of the interaction of various
components of personality. (Apruebo, 2013) Thus, some very well-known psychoanalytic
theorists are Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Heinz Kohut, and Karen Horney.
According to them:
1. Personality is deterministic, dynamic, organizational and developmental.
2. All behavior is determined or caused by some forces within the person.
3. Sex urges are responsible for mans behavior. Freud
4. Personality is a stronger force in determining human behavior. Jung
5. The unconscious attempt of an individual to overcome inferiority complex is the
strongest driving force. Adler

I. Sigmund Freud
Freud was an Austrian neurologist, now known as the father of psychoanalysis.
Sigmund Freud explored the human mind more thoroughly than any other who
became before him. His contributions to psychology are vast. Freud was one of the
most influential people of the twentieth century and his enduring legacy has
influenced not only psychology, but art, literature and even the way people bring up
their children.

A. The Human Psyche

 Freud (1923) developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id,
ego and superego (what Freud called the psychic apparatus). These are not physical areas
within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions.

Figure 3. Freuds Id, Ego and Superego

Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure

principle. The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros
and Thanatos.
Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining activities
such as respiration, eating and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy created by the life instincts is
known as libido.
In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct is viewed as a set of destructive forces present in
all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is directed outward onto others, it is expressed
as aggression and violence. Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling
people to survive rather than self-destruct.
The ego develops from the id during infancy. The egos goal is to satisfy the demands of
the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id the ego follows the reality principle
as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.
The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same
sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego operates
on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable
manner.
The superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When there is
conflict between the goals of the id and superego the ego must act as a referee and mediate this
conflict. The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894, 1896) to prevent it from
becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.

B. Theory of Psychosexual Development

According to Kendra Van Wagner, Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of
the best known, but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops
through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become
focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the
driving force behind behavior.

Figure 2: Freuds Psychosexual Stages of Development

 The first stage is called the oral stage wherein the pleasure center is the oral cavity. It is
important for sucking, eating, biting and talking. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning
process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage,
Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation
can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.
The second stage is the anal stage which focuses on the anus. The major conflict at this
stage is toilet training. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence. According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served
as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults. However, if parents
take an approach that is too lenient, an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the
individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
Phallic stage focuses on an individuals genitals. The primary conflict at this stage is the
Oedipus complex (feeling of wanting to possess the mother) and castration anxiety (fear that he
will be punished by his father) for boys, and Electra complex and penis envy for girls.
During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The stage begins around the
time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies,
and other interests. The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still
present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This
stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
During the last stage which is the genital stage, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual
should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance
between the various life areas.

C. Defense Mechanisms
Freud proposed the structural hypothesis, which divides the mind into three forces id, ego,
and super- ego. He believed that both normal and abnormal behavior result from interactions
among the id, ego, and super ego, among which the ego tends to distort or simply deny a reality
that, would arouse unbearable anxiety. Freud called this tactic a defense mechanism, and as long
as it works, the anxiety will be experienced unconsciously. Table 1 explains the different defense
mechanisms.

Table 2. Types of Defense Mechanisms

Defense Mechanisms Explanation Examples
Unacceptable/ unpleasant impulses are A woman is unable to recall that she
Repression
pushed back into unconscious. was raped.
People behave as if they were at an A boss has a temper tantrum when
Regression
earlier stage of development. an employee makes a mistake.
Expression of unwanted feeling or
A brother yell at his younger sister
thought is redirected from a more
Displacement after a teacher gives him a bad
threatening, powerful person to a
grade.
weaker one.
A person who is passed over for an
People distort reality in order to justify
Rationalization award says didnt really want it in
something that has happened.
the first place.
People refuse to accept or acknowledge
A student refuses to believe that he
Denial an anxiety-producing piece of
has flunked a subject.
information.
A man who is angry at his father
People attribute unwanted impulses and acts lovingly to his father but
Projection
feelings to someone else. complains that his father is angry
with him.
Identification with the aggressor.
A terror teacher may acquire the
Incorporating external values and
Introjection trait from a very strict parent or his
standards into ego structure so the
past teacher.
person is not at his external threats.
People divert unwanted impulses into
A person with strong feelings of
Sublimation socially approved thoughts feelings or
aggression becomes a soldier.
behaviors.
A mother who unconsciously
Unconscious impulses are expressed as
Reaction-Formation resents her child acts in an overly
their opposite in consciousness.
loving way to a child.
A business executives extreme
Striving to make up for unconscious or competitiveness might be aimed at
Compensation
fears. compensating for unconscious
feelings of inferiority.

II. Carl Gustav Jung

 Carl Jung was an early supporter of Freud because of their
shared interest in the unconscious. However in 1912 while on a lecture
tour of America, Jung publicly criticized Freuds theory of the
Oedipus complex and his emphasis on infantile sexuality. The
following year, Jung went on to develop his own version of
psychoanalytic theory. Table 3 below shows the differences between
Jung and Freud.
A. Theory of the Libido
Jung disagreed with Freud regarding the role of sexuality. He believed the libido was not just
sexual energy, but instead generalized psychic energy. The purpose of psychic energy was to
motivate the individual in a number of important ways, including spiritually, intellectually, and
creatively. It was also an individuals motivational source for seeking pleasure and reducing
conflict

B. Theory of the Unconscious

Jung placed greater emphasis on the unconscious than Freud. He suggested that the psyche
was composed of three components: the ego, the personal unconscious and the collective
unconscious. The ego represents the conscious mind as it comprises the thoughts, memories, and
emotions a person is aware of. Like Freud, he also emphasized the importance of the
unconscious in relation to personality. However, he proposed that the unconscious consists of
two layers.
The first layer is called the personal unconscious which is essentially the same as Freuds
version of the unconscious. The personal unconscious contains temporality forgotten information
and well as repressed memories. Jung outlined an important feature of the personal unconscious
called complexes. A complex is a collection of thoughts, feelings, attitudes and memories that
focus on a single concept. The more elements attached to the complex, the greater its influence
on the individual.
The second, deeper layer, is the collective unconscious. This is a level of unconscious shared
with other members of the human species comprising latent memories from our ancestral and
evolutionary past. The form of the world into which [a person] is born is already inborn in him,
as a virtual image. Jung called these ancestral memories and images archetypes.
C. Archetypes
 Archetypes are images and thoughts which have universal meanings across cultures which
may show up dreams, literature, art or religion. Jung believes symbols from different cultures are
often very similar because they have emerged from archetypes shared by the whole human race.
For Jung, our primitive past becomes the basis of the human psyche, directing and influencing
present behavior.
Important archetypes include the persona (our social mask), this is the public face or role a
person presents to others as someone different to who we really are (like an actor).
Another archetype is the anima/animus (our male or female sides). Each sex manifests
attitudes and behavior of the other by virtue of centuries of living together. The psyche of a
woman contains masculine aspects (the animus archetype) and the psyche of a man contains
feminine aspects (the anima archetype).
The shadow is a common archetype which is similar to Freuds id and comprises our animal
urges or survival and reproduction.

Table 3. Differences between Jung and Freud

III. Alfred Adler

Meanings are not determined by situations. We determine ourselves by the meanings we
ascribe to situations.
 Alongside Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, Adler helped to pioneer depth
psychology, which emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes. He
is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in psychology.

I. Adler's Individual Psychology

His best-known work is The Practice and Theory of Individual
Psychology (1923). Adler had a tendency to change his theory on personality
throughout his life but he ultimately believed that people are focused on
maintaining control over their lives. He believed in single "drive" or motivating force behind our
behavior, claiming that the desire we have to fulfill our potentials becomes closer and closer to
our ideals.
Alder calls this theory Individual Psychology because he felt each person was unique and no
previous theory applied to all people. Adler's theory included these four aspects: the development
of personality, striving towards superiority, psychological health, and the unity of personality.
Many psychologists accepted Alfred's popular idea of self-actualization.
In studying personality, Alfred came up with the term inferiority complex. He described this
as feelings of lack of worth. He wrote, "We all wish to overcome difficulties. We all strive to
reach a goal by the attainment of which we shall feel strong, superior, and complete" (Ansbacher
& Ansbacher, 1956). Alder was known to use the word superiority complex. This complex
developed when a person tried to conquer their inferiority complex by suppressing their existing
feelings. He felt that people were constantly trying overcome their feelings of inferiority to reach
superiority.

IV. Heinz Kohut

Kohut began to develop a view of the self with four basic components,
beginning with the nuclear self, a biological construct that infants are born
with. The virtual self is an image of the baby retained by her parents. The
combination of the nuclear self and virtual self should lead to the next
component, a cohesive self, but trauma, abuse, and other problems during
development can prevent this. The grandiose self is the fourth component,
and is an egocentric form of the self that results from feelings of being
the center of the universe during early infancy.
 Kohut believed that a parent's failure to empathize with the child was at the heart of
nearly every psychological problem. Kohut's self psychology is built around this belief,
emphasizing that psychological problems and maladaptive coping strategies are the result of
unmet developmental needs.
Empathy is the most important therapeutic tool in self psychology because, according to
Kohut, it can help undo some of the damage caused by unmet developmental needs. Kohut
argues that empathy in itself can have healing effects, but also notes that empathy can be used as
an intellectual tool that gains the client's trust, thus allowing the therapist to gain more useful
information and develop effective therapeutic strategies. Kohut introduced several new terms to
the field, including:

Self-objects, which are objects that an individual experiences as being part of oneself.
These objects may also include people. For example, an infant might see his or her
parents as an extension of self.

Optimal frustration is a form of tolerable frustration and disappointment. When a child

needs access to a self-object but one is not available, he or she might experience
frustration. Optimal frustration occurs when a person experiences frustration that can lead
to the development of new coping skills. For example, when a mother soothes a baby
who can no longer sleep with a pacifier, this enables the baby to develop the ability to
function without the pacifier.

Twinship need is the desire to feel similar to other humans.

Tripolar self: These are three fundamental needs, which include needs for grandiose
exhibitionism, needs for an alter-ego and needs for an idealized figure (such as a parent).

During the 1970s, Kohuts theory of self psychology gained popularity rapidly. Many people
who struggled with guilt resulting from material indulgence and self-serving behaviors saw
self psychology as a more positive and understanding approach to therapy than traditional
psychoanalysis. Because of its accepting approach, self psychology has become one of the
foundations of modern psychology, along with object relations, ego psychology, and the theory
of drive and motivation.
V. Karen Horney
Like all sciences and all valuations, the psychology of women has hitherto been considered only
from the point of view of men.
Horney is known for her theory on neurosis. She believed that neurosis
was not a condition, but rather a process which occurred throughout
ones life. Although she disagreed with her contemporaries about
neurosis, she did agree with them with regard to childhood influences.
She theorized that a persons neurosis is a result of their childhood
perceptions of their own parents. Horney categorized ten basic needs
that she believed were essential for someone to succeed. She grouped them into three types of
needs:

1. Compliance Needs

2. Aggression Needs

3. Attachment Needs

10 Neurotic Needs
Neurosis is a "psychic disturbance brought by fears and defenses against these fears, and
by attempts to find compromise solutions for conflicting tendencies" (The Neurotic Personality
Of Our Time, 28-29). This describes an individual having trouble with coping and handling
certain psychosocial environmental stressors resulting in problems within their selves. Shown
below are the Neurotic needs theorized by Horney:
1.) The neurotic has a desperate need for acceptance and affection. Anxiety will occur without
these. Neurotics see life as if everything is reasonable and suitable to fit their needs but in reality
it is impossible.

2.) The neurotic has a need for love when in an intimate relationship and expect their partners to
take over their lives by solving their problems.
3.) The neurotic need to make things simpler by having no routine or rules. Also, when at the
point of stress, they want to be unnoticeable and avoid confrontation that may add to their
frustration.

4.) The neurotic needs to have control and power over others.

5.) The neurotic has a need to manipulate others. They have this need because of their concern of
being used or looking stupid. Practical jokes that may be funny to others are often not funny to
the neurotic.

6.) The neurotic has a need to be recognized socially. They are extremely concerned with
appearance and popularity. So, they strive to be outgoing.

7.) The neurotic has a need for others to admire their inner qualities. They are desperate
perfectionists, fearing being unimportant or meaningless to others.

8.) Neurotics need personal accomplishment. They are obsessed with it. They want to be leader
of everyone, being top of the world and number one at everything.

9.) Neurotics need independence. They refuse help from others, thinking they can accomplish
things by themselves. Also, if they did receive assistance than it would not be just themselves
recognized but the other person as well. They rather have all the attention focused on them
individually.
10.) Neurotics need perfection, hoping that everything in life is just going to get better and better.

TRAIT THEORY

Traits are consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, or actions that distinguish people from
one another. Traits are basis tendencies that remain stable across the life span, but characteristic
behaviour can change considerably through adaptive processes. A trait is an internal
characteristic that corresponds to an extreme position on a behavioral dimension.
Trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad definitions. The
following are the theorists who focused mainly on the trait theory:
I. Gordon Allport
Allport received his Ph.D. in Psychology in 1922 from Harvard,
following in the footsteps of his brother Floyd, who became an
important social psychologist. His career was spent developing his
theory, examining such social issues as prejudice, and developing
personality tests.
Allports trait theory is composed of:
1. Cardinal Trait- traits that dominate an individuals whole life, often to the point that the
person becomes known specifically to these traits.
2. Central Trait- general characteristics that form the basic foundations of personality.
These are the major characteristics used to describe a person.
3. Secondary Trait- traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often
appear only in certain situations or under specific circumstances.

II. Raymond Cattell

He was born in England in 1905, educated at the
University of London, but spent most of his professional
career in the United States. He held positions at Columbia
University, Clark University, Harvard University, and the
University of Illinois, where he spent most of his active
career. During the last 20 years of his life, he was associated
with the Hawaii School of Professional Psychology. The table below shows his well-
known 16 Personality Factor Model.

Table 4. Primary Factors and Descriptors in Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Model (Adapted From Conn &
Rieke, 1994).

Primary
Descriptors of Low Range Descriptors of High Range
Factor
Reserve, impersonal, distant, cool, Warm, outgoing, attentive to others,
reserved, impersonal, detached, formal, Warmth kindly, easy going, participating, likes
aloof (Sizothymia) people (Affectothymia)
Concrete thinking, lower general mental
Abstract-thinking, more intelligent, bright,
capacity, less intelligent, unable to handle
Reasoning higher general mental capacity, fast learner
abstract problems (Lower Scholastic
(Higher Scholastic Mental Capacity)
Mental Capacity)
Reactive emotionally, changeable,
Emotional Emotionally stable, adaptive, mature, faces
affected by feelings, emotionally less
Stability reality calm (Higher Ego Strength)
stable, easily upset (Lower Ego Strength)
Deferential, cooperative, avoids conflict,
Dominant, forceful, assertive, aggressive,
submissive, humble, obedient, easily led, Dominance
competitive, stubborn, bossy (Dominance)
docile, accommodating (Submissiveness)
Lively, animated, spontaneous,
Serious, restrained, prudent, taciturn,
Liveliness enthusiastic, happy go lucky, cheerful,
introspective, silent (Desurgency)
expressive, impulsive (Surgency)
Expedient, nonconforming, disregards Rule-conscious, dutiful, conscientious,
Rule-
rules, self indulgent (Low Super Ego conforming, moralistic, staid, rule bound
Consciousness
Strength) (High Super Ego Strength)
Shy, threat-sensitive, timid, hesitant, Socially bold, venturesome, thick skinned,
Social Boldness
intimidated (Threctia) uninhibited (Parmia)
Utilitarian, objective, unsentimental,
Sensitive, aesthetic, sentimental, tender
tough minded, self-reliant, no-nonsense, Sensitivity
minded, intuitive, refined (Premsia)
rough (Harria)
Trusting, unsuspecting, accepting, Vigilant, suspicious, skeptical, distrustful,
Vigilance
unconditional, easy (Alaxia) oppositional (Protension)
Grounded, practical, prosaic, solution
Abstract, imaginative, absent minded,
orientated, steady, conventional Abstractedness
impractical, absorbed in ideas (Autia)
(Praxernia)
Forthright, genuine, artless, open, Private, discreet, nondisclosing, shrewd,
guileless, naive, unpretentious, involved Privateness polished, worldly, astute, diplomatic
(Artlessness) (Shrewdness)
Self-Assured, unworried, complacent, Apprehension Apprehensive, self doubting, worried, guilt
secure, free of guilt, confident, self prone, insecure, worrying, self blaming
satisfied (Untroubled) (Guilt Proneness)
Traditional, attached to familiar, Open to change, experimental, liberal,
Openness to
conservative, respecting traditional ideas analytical, critical, free thinking, flexibility
Change
(Conservatism) (Radicalism)
Self-reliant, solitary, resourceful,
Group-oriented, affiliative, a joiner and
Self-Reliance individualistic, self sufficient (Self-
follower dependent (Group Adherence)
Sufficiency)
Tolerated disorder, unexacting, flexible, Perfectionistic, organized, compulsive,
undisciplined, lax, self-conflict, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting
Perfectionism
impulsive, careless of social rues, will power, control, self sentimental (High
uncontrolled (Low Integration) Self-Concept Control)
Tense, high energy, impatient, driven,
Relaxed, placid, tranquil, torpid, patient,
Tension frustrated, over wrought, time driven.
composed low drive (Low Ergic Tension)
(High Ergic Tension)

III. Hans Eysenck

He was born in Berlin in 1916, but as a teenager, he
moved to England to escape Nazi tyranny and made London
his home for more than 60 years. Eysenck was trained in the
psychometrically oriented psychology department of the
University of London, from which he received a bachelor's
degree in 1938 and a Ph.D. in 1940.
According to him, there are three dimensions of
personality, and they are:
1 Introversion- involves directing attention on inner experiences.
Extroversion- relates to focusing attention outward on other people or the environment.
2 Neuroticism- individuals tendency to become upset or emotional.
Emotional Stability- refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.
3 Psychoticism- individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty in dealing with
reality and may be antisocial, hostile, non-emphatic, and manipulative.
BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS

The Big Five represents taxonomy (classification system) of traits that some personality
psychologists suggest capture the essence of individual differences in personality. These traits
were arrived at through factor analysis studies. Factor analysis is a technique generally done with
the use of computers to determine meaningful relationships and patterns in behavioral data.
Many researchers tested factors other than the Big Five and found the Big Five to be the only
consistently reliable factors.

Allport, Norman and Cattell were influential in formulating this taxonomy which was
later refined. Allport compiled a list of 4500 traits. Cattell reduced this list to 35 traits. Others
continued to analyze these factors and found congruence with self- ratings, ratings by peers and
ratings by psychological staff, that eventually became the Big Five factors.

The Big Five Personality Trait are:

Extraversion means a person is, talkative, social and assertive

implies an energetic approach to the social and material world and includes
traits such as sociability, activity, assertiveness, and positive emotionality.

Agreeableness means a person is good natured, co-operative and trusting

contrasts a prosocial and communal orientation toward others with

antagonism and includes traits such as altruism, tender-mindedness, trust, and
modesty.

Conscientiousness means a person is responsible, orderly and dependable

describes socially prescribed impulse control that facilitates task and goal-
directed behavior, such as thinking before acting, delaying gratification,
following norms and rules, and planning, organizing, and prioritizing tasks.

Neuroticism means a person is anxious, prone to depression and worries a lot

 contrasts emotional stability and even-temperedness with negative
emotionality, such as feeling anxious, nervous, sad, and tense.

Openness means a person is imaginative, independent minded and has divergent thinking

describes the breadth, depth, originality, and complexity of an individuals

mental and experiential life.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Personality Disorders are, by definition, exaggerations of normal personality traits that
are both inflexible and maladaptive. The following are the meaning of inflexible and
maladaptive:
1. Inflexible. People with personality disorders find they cannot change, even if they want
to. In some cases, they do not consider themselves abnormal and are brought into treatment (if
ever) by people around them, such as parents or marriage partners, rather than volunteering for
treatment.
2. Maladaptive. By definition, an abnormality prevents some normal, expected talent or
ability from being expressed, or it has an adverse impact on the individuals ability to live
harmoniously with others. To say personality disorders are maladaptive is to say they harm
people or make it harder for people to live normal and productive lives.

Table 5. Different types of Personality Disorders

Personality Disorder Definition
Suspicious of others, irritable, often jealous, and tends to overvalue a
Paranoid personality
private perspective on the world.

An odd individual who has trouble coping with social relationships

Schizotypal personality and tends to interpret events in the outside world as having a special
personal meaning that other people cannot understand.

Characterized primarily by one symptom: voluntary social aloneness;

Schizoid personality unlikely to have friends and does not care about the advice or praise
of others.
Histrionic Prone to emotional displays; attention-seeking

Characterized by a grandiose self-image and sense of self-worth,

Narcissistic
combined with a lack of interest in the interests and feelings of others.

Workaholic without warmth; tend to be preoccupied with details

Obsessive-compulsive
until it hampers their productivity

Show extreme dependence on other people; they may panic if left

Dependent
alone but function well if not left on their own.

Tends to have intense, erratic relationships; hostile and demanding

Borderline
but may also be intelligent and challenging.

Anxious to avoid the risks of social contact; wants to be loved but

Avoidant expects not to be and therefore seeks reassurance constantly,
overreacting to any hint of disapproval.

Once called psychopath or sociopath in the past; intelligent, not

Antisocial
superficially crazy and exists on college campuses among others.

The table shown above shows the different types of personality disorders such as
paranoid personality, schizotypal, schizoid, histrionic, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive,
dependent, borderline, avoidant and anti-social as well as their characteristics and definition.

What causes Personality disorders?

The answer is not clear, but it seems that like other mental disorders, upbringing, brain
problems and genes can play a part.
1. Upbringing
Sometimes, but not always, people with personality disorder have experienced
physical or sexual abuse in childhood, violence in the family or parents who drink too
much. If children are taken out of this sort of difficult environment, they are less likely to
develop a personality disorder.
2. Early problems
Severe aggression, disobedience, and repeated temper tantrums in childhood.
3. Brain problems
 Some people with antisocial personality disorder have very slight differences in
the structure of their brains, and in the way some chemicals work in their brains.
However, there is no brain scan or blood test that can diagnose a personality disorder.
4. Triggers
Some of the examples of triggers that may cause personality disorders are using a
lot of drugs or alcohol, problems getting on with your family or partner, money
problems, anxiety, depression or other mental health problems, important events,
stressful situations, or loss such as death of a loved one.