Approach Channels A Guide for Desi * PIC 1.30, Final report of Group PIANC snd (API, cooperation. sth IPA at Supple alta 0 9 ane 1997) =Permanent International Association of Navigation Congresses PIANC International Association of Ports and Harbors IAPH International Maritime Pilots Association IMPA International Association of Lighthouse Authorities TALA APPROACH CHANNELS A Guide for Design Final Report of the Joint PAANC-IAPH. Working Group iI-30 in cooperation with IMPA and [ALATABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD . | INTRODUCTION 2, COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 21 Poreas Interface 22 Pressures on Approach Channel Design 2.3 Cost/Benefit Analysis 2.4 Environmental Impact 5 6 6 6 7 7 a 8 3. APPROACH CHANNEL DESIGN METHODOLOGY 8 3.1 Data Collection, Design Tools and Experience 8 9 9 9 10 10 lo 10 3.2 Basic Definitions 3.3 Stages of the Design Process 3.4 Physical Environment Data 3.5. Alignment, Width and Depth 3.6 Aids to Navigation 3.7 Operational Limits 3.8 Marine Traffic and Risk Analysi 4. THE DESIGN SHIP oe ALL The ‘Design Ship’ Concept 4.2. Choice of the Design Ship 42.1, Basic Philosophy 422 ShipType 4.23 Trafic Analysis 424 Design Ship Dimensions 12 5, CONCEPT DESIGN 4 4 4 4 5.23 Width Considerations .... 5.2.3.1 Basic Manoeuvrability 5.23.2 Environmental Factors 5.23.3 Aids to Navigation 16 5.2.3.4 Type of Cargo 16 5.2.3.5. Passing Distance 16 5.23.6 Bank Clearance 6 5.24 Depth Considerations 16 5.25 Bends ... 9 5.3 Channel Concept Design Method 20 5.3.1 Introduction 20 5.3.2 Depth . 20 5.3.3. Width: Scraight Sections 20 5.34 Bend Width and Radius 5.3.5 Alignment 5.3.6 Definitions and Notes for theTables. 22 5.3.6.1 Table 5.1 = Ship Manoeuvrabilty 22° $.3.6.2 Table 5.2 - Channel, Fairway, etc, 23 5.363 Table 5.3 - Passing Distance .. 24 5.364 Table 5.4-Bank Clearance ... 24 5.36.5 Berthing and SwingingAreas . 24 54 Worked Examples 5.5 Data on Existing Approach Channels 6. DETAILED DESIGN 6.1 General Methodology 62 Assessment of the Environment 12 6.21 Genera 6.22 Environmental Data 6.23 Field Data Collection Techniques,Analysis and Prediction 6.2.4 Monitoring and Marine Information Systems 34 6.3 Channel Alignment 35 63.1 General... 35 6.3.2 Bend Configuration 35 63.3 Bend Marking... 3 634 Bend Width Assessment 3 64 Channel Width 36 64.1 General. . 36 64.2. Shiphandiing and Simulation 36 643 Use of Simulation for Channel Width. 36 643.1. Real Time wich Mariners the Panel of Experts’... 36 64.3.2. Fast Time Simulation . 38 65 Channel Depth . 40 6.5.1 Introduction 40 65.2 Squat 40 65.2.1. Factors Influencing Squat 40 65.2.2 Recommendations for the Estimation of Squat... . Al 6.5.2.3 Calculation of Squat ........ 41 65.24 Special Cases of Squat ...... 42 6.5.3 Underkeel Clearance inWaves ...... 42 | Wave Spectrum . 42 65.3.2 Vertical Motion of the Design Vessel 42 6.5.33 Allowable Maximum Verdcal Mocion 43 6.5.3.4 Safety Criteria and Decision Rules 43 654° Channel Depths in Muddy Areas B Motivation +B ‘Nautical Bottom Approacl B Mud Characteristics Criteria for Determination of Nautical Bottom Behaviour of Ships in Muddy Areas 45 Recommendations for Channe! Depth in Muddy Areas 6.6 Berthing and Swinging Areas 6.6.1 Use of Simulations 66.2 Berth Alignment 6.6.3 Tug Sizing and Numbers 6.64. Swinging Area Design 67 Operational Limits. 67.1 Tug and Mooring Boat Operations | 67.2 Pilot Boarding feo 6.7.3 Fender Impact Velocities 674 Astern Manoeuvres... 67.5 Moored Ship Movements 7. MARINE RISKAND SAFETY OF OPERATION. 50 7.1 Introduction to Marine Risk 50 TALL Marine Risk 50 7.1.2. Estimation of Marine Ri 50 7.1.3. Risk Alleviation Methods 51 72 Alleviation of Marine Risk —.. SI 72.1 Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) 51 722 Operating Limits 723. Rules of Operation - 7.24 Aids to Navigation. 7.28 ‘Traffic Separation Schemes 73 Collection of Data 537.4 Traffic Planning and Traffic Simulation 53 7A.1. Ineroduction 33 Traffic Flow Simulation Models... 33 Procedure for the Development of a Traffic Flow Modelo... eeceeesecceeeeee 54 7.44 Boundary Conditions and Input Data. 54 745° Outpue : 56 7.48 Evaluation of Simulation Results 56 “x. 7S Pilotage Considerations 37 75.1. General : 87 75.2 PilotVariability ........ ee 7 75.3 Pilot Boarding Areas 87 7.54 Anchoring Areas and Lay-by Berths... 57 TSS PilotNumbers 2.22... ceeeeeeeee 87 7.56 Safety Aspects 38 7.6 Safety Criteria cee 58 76.1 General... scene cette 58 7.62 Primary and Secondary Criteria ..... 58 7.6.3. Risk Criteria 58 7.64 Rudder Activity Criteria... 58 7.6.5 Width Criteria 59 7.84 Depth Criteria 60 7.6.7 Alignment Criteria ...6ceseecesceee 60 8. METHODOLOGY OVERVIEW:THE MARINE IMPACT. ASSESSMENT 6 8.1 General Overview : 6 y 82 The Marine Impact Assessment 6 9. TERMS OF REFERENCE ........... sevens 62 10. REFERENCES . tL.GLOSSARY 12. UST OF SYMBOLS ‘APPENDIX A . 6 ‘Analysis of Existing Approach Channel Widths APPENDIX C. Prediction of Squat APPENDIX D Water Depths in Muddy Areas:The Nautical Bottom ‘Approach a : aFOREWORD The members of Working Group No. 30 were: PM. Fraenkel (APH ‘Chairman Modem design of ‘came into existence as Consung Enger Peer Fraenkel Maritime Led ‘a separate discipline in the 1960's, particularly for the development of deepwater ports. LW. Dand* PIANC ‘The design of channel dimensions was frst considered by (need ergueay near tt ' Working Group 2 of the Permanent International Association ‘af Navigation Congresses (PIANC) international Oil Tankers W. Dietze* PIANC Commission (IOTC) and the report was published in 1973. Formerly Wasser-und Schiffahrtsdirektion ‘The IOTC work was then reviewed some years later by Nordwest ‘Working Group 4 of the PIANC International Commission (Germany) for the Reception of Large Ships (|CORELS), whose report ‘was published in 1980.The ICORELS Report contained a J.Barber* tAPH detailed review, but the Commission concluded that in the ‘Consulting Engineer state of knowledge as it then stood, its general (United Kingdom) _ recommendations would have to be conservative, but it left M.Hoctor PH ‘open the possibility that its recommendations might be Fe Managing Director, Port of Limerick Capable of refinement as knowledge developed. (rend eee Since the ICORELS Report, there have been considerable Capt.A.R.B: IMPA developments, not only in knowledge, but also in International Maritime Pilots Association technology and analytical techniques: (United Kingdom) ‘+ firstly,in research as to ship behaviour and in the R. Buchanan** IAPH development of guidance systems & Formerly Department of Marine and Harbours + secondly in computer technology and in mathematical (South Australia) and physical modelling systems (using the research on ship behaviour), enabling vessel tracking to be predicted Prof. K. d’Angremond PIANC ‘aking account of human factors Technische Universiteit Delft + thirdly, in experience of large ships transiting port (The Netherlands) approach channels over a number of years, including C.Deelen PIANC ‘some channels which have lower width/design ship beam Port of Rotterdam ratios than the ICORELS general recommendation. (The Netherlands) Recognising the need for a review of the recommendations R.Groenveld PIANC presented in previous reports, PAANC and the International Technische Universiteit Delft Association of Ports & Harbors (IAPH) set up a joint (The Netherlands) ‘Working Group (No. 30) and invited the participation of the International Marie Pilots Association (IMPA) and the FR. Kalff APH International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (ALA) to _-Haskoning Consulting Engineers assess and, if necessary. update existing reports to provide (The Netherlands) practical guidelines for the design of approach channels and fairways. Central to this work were the results collected by an earlier PIANC Working Group (No. 7) and these have Y. Okuyama IAPH Port & Harbour Research Institute ‘been combined with recent developments in design (apan) ‘techniques to form the basis of this report. N. Matthews TALA Its intention is to provide practising engineers with guidelines ‘ormerly Secretary General - {ALA and data which will allow them to design a channel for a given. Navalit* PIANC ship or mix of ship types or, alternatively, enable assessment ‘Australian Construction Services ofthe suitability ofan existing channel for a proposed change (Australi) in ship type or operation The intention has been to provide practical guidelines which are readily usable and easy to O.Piet PIANC understand and justi. Ministére de LEquipment, des Transports et du . Tourisme, Service Technique Central des Ports In accordance with the Terms of Reference which are given’ Maritimes et des Voies Navigables, Complégne in Chapter 9, preliminary Report was prepared dealing (France) with aspects of Concept Design, and this Report was published jointly by P[ANC/IAPH in April 1995, However, J.Read JAPH the present report covers all aspects of Channel Design Formerly Maunsell Consulting Engineers (Concept and Detailed Design). {United Kingdom)T.Rekonen National Board of Navigation (Finland) V.K. Shah Formerly Marine Works,A & E Services (Canada) J.C.K. van Toorenburg Rikswaterstaat (The Netherlands) PIANC PIANC, PIANC M.Vantorre PIANC Universiteit Gent (Belgium) * Members of the editing sub-committee * Corresponding Members 1. INTRODUCTION | ‘The design of an approach channel encompasses a number Of disciplines including ship handling and maritime engineering in order to design waterways to a desired level of navigabilicy and safety. This requires the assessment of a ‘umber of key elements, including vessel size and behaviour, human factors in ship handling and effects of the physical environment. Approach channel design involves designing the layout and dimensions of a port's main water area with reference to: + the alignment and width of approach channels and port entrances + the depth of approach channels + the size and shape of manoeuvring spaces within the port, with particular reference to the stopping and swinging areas. The layout and dimensions are of great importance, firstly because in some instances the creation of the water areas and related protection works constitute the biggest investment by far in port infrastructure, and secondly because factors such as entrance width, manoeuvring space and breakwater alignment are very difficult to change or adapt once the port has been built. For deepwater ports which must receive large ships. in excess of 50,000 dive say. an important problem to be faced is the fact that the actual track of these ships may deviate considerably from the ideal. This is a consequence Of the slow response of large ships to rudder action or ‘engine movements. This characteristic may require the introduction of different operational limits for such ships in port approaches and other navigational areas and, as a result, the provisions to be made for safe navigation may have to be more extensive than those for ports catering only for small vessels Developments in sea transport are continually stimulated by technological improvements and changes in transport demand. Ifa port and its facilities are not ready to respond to these developments, then delays, congestion, incidents and accidents will resule,in short, it will function inadequately. The resultant penalty for the regional and national economy is always heavy. As already observed, adapting an existing port to new maritime requirements is often a difficult, time-consuming and expensive affair, especially if insufficient flexibility was incorporated in the original design. Therefore in the development of new ports,a thorough evaluation has to be made at the outset of the type. size, loading and number of vessels that will use it both now and in the future. Then, because of the inherent inadequacies and errors in these ‘evaluations and forecasts, a maximum degree of future adaptability to new types of ships in the port’s approach ‘channels and manoeuvring areas must be incorporated. All of the above considerations lead naturally to a requirement for a logical and rationally-based design process ‘which will allow.among other things, for the determination of the horizontal and vertical dimensions of the port's approach channels and manoeuvring areas. ‘The design process is presented as two stages: + a Concept Design study, based on initial physical ‘environment data, design ship and other requirements derived from commercial considerations and forecasts. This leads on to + a Detailed Design study, involving development and validation of particular aspects. In this report the more complex areas of Detailed Design are discussed in some depth and the computer-based techniques which they use are described. However, rather than just dwell ‘on the detail of such techniques, particular attention is given to the steps which have to be taken by the designer to prepare for their use and interpret the results. Particular attention is drawn to Appendices C and D dealing ‘with squat and the determination of depth in muddy areas. 2. COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS 2.1 PORT AS INTERFACE ‘A port functions as a vital link in a transport chain, forming. an interface between modes of transport as part of international or domestic trade or carriage of passengers and/or cars. The port is an interface becween ships on the marine side and transport or storage on the land side.(Another possibility. of course,is transfer from ship to other waterborne transport). The logistics of handling goods, passengers, cars or trucks ‘on the land side of the port is a vast and important subject when the commercial viability of a port is considered. But so is the design of the marine side of the port - that area to seaward of the quays, jetties or anchorages which allows the safe passage, stopping, turning, berthing and unberthing Of ships using the port ‘The design methods discussed below relate entirely to the marine side of port design; the land-side operations are not mentioned. However, in reality, the two aspects will co- exist. Adequate and effective land-side infrastructure and operations are essential to the performance of the marine- side operation - for example, in enabling ships to be turned around quickly and efficiently, and have access to berths ‘without waiting, This should be borne in mind at all times by the marine-side designer, who may occasionally be presented with, for example, lengths of quay or reclamation areas which may be determined more by land-side ‘requirements than those of the marine side. The ingenuity of the marine-side designer will be called upon to ensure that such situations do not prevent the safe and efficient operation of ships. 2.2 PRESSURES ON APPROACH CHANNEL DESIGN ‘There are often moves to optimise the economics of individual links or stages in the transport chain, but port planners generally seek to optimise the economics of the transport chain overall, subject to the necessary investment in port infrastructure and equipment being justified by an acceptable return, and any environmental criteria being satisfied. ‘The pressure on port authorities to provide approach channels for large ships, or to allow larger ships to use existing channels, is a result of the economics of shipping. The costs per tonne-km of cargo, in respect of fuel, manning and capital value for a laden ship at sea, decrease a5 ship size increases. ‘The increase in ship size,once accepted, then puts a premium on minimizing time in port, which leads to further pressures on the approach channel design: + tw minimise ship transit time in the approach channel + to provide accessibility at all stages of tide and in all weathers, or at least to minimise restrictions. The development of a successful port is an on-going process, dependent on variations in both world trade and markets, and on trends in shipping and cargo-handling practice. tis necessary for the port authority, therefore, to anticipate demand and trends, and forecast the quantities of goods likely to pass through the port in years ‘to come, and the ships that will be used. Combining the a forecasts, quantities of goods may be translated into umbers of ships of various types, all of which must be catered for by the marine side of the port operation. From these forecasts, the design ship size will be derived, as described in Chapter 4, but the increase in numbers of ships also imposes pressures on the approach channel design as it increases the frequency of ship/ship encounters (see Table 5.3 and Chapter 7). ‘Changes in the nature of cargoes handled (for example, by the introduction of more hazardous cargoes) also affect, the channel design,'as shown in Table 5.2(i) and Chapter 7. 2.3 COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS The commercial stimuli are always at work in port design and operation and, although they do not form the focus of this report (and will be touched on only briefly), ic is they who drive the design techniques discussed below. The overall economic justification for a port approach channel is normally assessed as part of the cost/benefit analysis for the total transport chain through the port (together with any associated inland waterway infrastructure). The significance of the channel cost in the total cost/benefit analysis will vary, depending on the length ‘of the channel and the extent of any natural or pre-existing artificial channel. Channel costs include the following components: + construction - normally capital dredging, and/or reconstruction through widening and/or deepening + maincenance - normally maintenance dredging, to cope with accretion and siltation + operation - tugs, pilotage and aids to navigation (including capital costs) + environmental impact mitigation or requirements. As part of the initial overall cosubenefit analysis, the effects of adjusting variables, such as maximum permissible ship size, tidal restrictions or other rules of operation, and standards of aids to navigation, can be calculated quickly using the Concept Design Method given in Chapter 5 to derive initial channel dimensions which can also be used in trade-off studies. {cis implicic in this process that the Concept Design Method should provide adequate navigational safety in accordance with good modern practice. t contains within ic the implied safety margins used in many ports ‘throughout the world. (See Appendix A). A thorough analysis of ship accidents shows that only a small percentage of accidents and marine casvatties in approach channels and ports is due to channel design, but itis essential, with future commercial, economic and environmental pressures placed on port operators, that this percentage remains low.In the evaluation of proposed marginal adjustments or refinements to the channel design, as part of Detailed Design, cost/benefit analysis may also be applied to justify the cost of such adjustments relative to the effect on the risk of ship accidents, and the benefit of saving the costs and consequences of ship accidents. These costs include ship salvage and repair costs, lors of freight or hire, loss or damage to cargo, injury or death to persons, closure or obstruction of the channel, loss of port reputation, property damage, and environmental damage. {The magnitude of the risk in terms of costs depends both ‘i the risk in terms of likelihood of accidents and the environmental consequences of each accident. The consequences of, say.a grounding accident could be ‘expected to be proportional to the size of vessel for a Particular cargo type, while certain cargoes will have much greater potential consequences. In Chapter 7, methods of assessing the effect of channel design on marine risk are described. {eis particularly important to establish that a proper match between safety and cost has been obtained, especially where the channel cost is high. For a short channel ‘through which ships pass carrying only harmless bulk materials, a conservative channel design, with limitad design effort, may be perfectly acceptable. However, for a long high-density channel and/or one carrying hazardous cargo, a special design effort is necessary. 2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ‘The development of a new channel or the extension of an existing one will often affect the marine environment in the vicinity As a result it is nowadays necessary to carry out an environmental impact assessment (EIA). (On the marine side the port and its approach channel may affect local flora and fauna due to the reclamation of, or damage to, their natural habitats. In addition, changes in the water movements in the locality may have an effect on locat marine life. ‘On land the environment may be affected by the visual impact of the port, its noise and any emissions (such as dust or furnes) caused by its operation or during its construction. Additionally, land-based flora and fauna may be disturbed (or eliminated) by the proposed changes. ‘The EIA will follow what are now well-established guide- lines which are beyond the scope of this report. However it must be remembered that the design of an approach channel will interact with the EIA and changes may have to ‘be made if the environmental impact is unacceptable. This in turn may well affect the environmental conditions of the channel design as well as the design itself 3. APPROACH CHANNEL DESIGN METHODOLOGY 7 3.1 DATA COLLECTION, DESIGN TOOLS AND EXPERIENCE ‘The design methodology presented in this report makes use of a range of data collection methods and design tools ‘now available to the designer of approach channels. All should be applied in conjunction with experience.The methods shown are necessarily based on the current state of technology, techniques and knowledge. However, they are intended to allow and encourage designers to keep up to date with, and make use of, future developments, so long as the limitations and underlying assumptions or simplifications of any method or model are appreciated. The design tools available may be classified broadly as: + analytical + numerical + physical. Analytical tools are models which allow for the analysis of wind, waves and currents as well as some ofthe probabilistic aspects of marine traffic and risk. Examples are the elementary analysis of waves,and the frequency distributions used for the arrivals of ships at a port or ata position along a channel. ‘Analytical models are supplemented (and in some cases superseded) by numerical models based on the use of digital computers. These have revolutionised approach channel design; examples are madels of water flow, ship manoeuvring and traffic flow. ‘Analytical and numerical models can only be as good as the understanding of their physical processes allows. In some instances of port design this knowledge may be sparse and the mathematical models need to be supplemented by physical models, e.g. laboratory models to investigate wave propagation in a port, or ship madels passing over a complex seabed topography. Al these design tools can and should be supplemented by ‘experience. This may comprise the personal and corporate experience of the designer, based on previous involvement with other channels and ports, but it must also include the practical experience of the mariners who use (or, for a new port, will have to use) the results of the designer's efforts. {cis essential that this and other relevant experience be sought, and brought to bear as early in the design process as possible, with a multi-disciplinary approach being a great advantage. The way in which such experience can be integrated into design will be indicated below.3.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS Before considering the various stages in the design process, it is necessary to define some basic terms. Most important of these is the “approach channel”. __An approach channel is defined as any stretch of waterway linking the berths of a port and the open sea, There are ‘wo main types: + the seaway or outer channel, in open water, + the main approach or inner channel which les in relatively sheltered waters. The channel normally terminates at its inner end in a swinging and/or berthing area which allows stopping and ‘turning manoeuvres to be made. All sizes of approach channel are considered in this report: the problems of catering for small coasters in a small port may be as great as those for a large tanker at an oil terminal. Definitions of other common terms are included in the Glossary in Chapter 11 3.3 STAGES OF THE DESIGN PROCESS In this report approach channel design is considered to be a two-stage process consisting of : © Concept Design + Detailed Design. ‘As explained below, the methodology is based on the intial premise of a Design Ship, specified to represent the most testing ship expected to use the channel. In some cases, more than one Design Ship may be specified. In the Concept Design stage, initia estimates of the overall physical parameters of the proposed channel - width, depth and alignment - are determined from physical environment. data and other information available at the outset The ‘Concept Design process is intended to be rapid in execution and not require excessive input data, so that alternative ‘options (for trade-off studies) can be evaluated rapidly. The ‘output physical parameters will be combined with proposals ‘or assumptions on operational limits and aids to navigation. Detailed Design is a more elaborate process intended to validate, develop and refine the Concept Design, as regards both inputs and ourputs.The methods used in Detailed Design commonly rely on computer models and therefore require more extensive and detailed input as well as needing proper judgement and experience in the interpretation of their output. The outputs of the Detailed Design may be subjected to further checking for acceptability by means of marine ‘traffic analysis, risk analysis, and cost estimates. The results of these checks may lead to adjustments and a further cycle of detailed design. Pete wager cotaanicas, pease sqrt AvaaastereNscaL 5 a ‘emoNENT xr 1 ‘CONCERT DESION 1 rapanae mpeoer ARNEL shes ‘ DETALED DESIGN | Figure 3.1:Approach channel design method The overall logic of the methadotogy is shown in Figure 3.1, together with an indication of the main sections of the report in which the various steps are described. 3.4 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT DATA Physical environment data refers to data on existing bathymetry and seabed features. winds, waves, tides, currents, visibility, channel bottom conditions etc. In most ports, sufficient data will already be available to enable Concept Design, but some surveys, preliminary investigations and approximate calculations may be required, Since the prediction of winds, waves, tides, currents, and Visibility depends on long-term statistics. the earlier ‘identification of the need for additional data collection is important. In the context of channel design as distinct from other civil engineering aspects, however, the major interest isin the prevalence of physical conditions, rather than extremes.3.5 ALIGNMENT, WIDTH AND DEPTH Much of this report is concerned with the geometry of approach channels. By this is meant their width, depth and alignment. Although for convenience, these three aspects are treated separately, it will be seen that they are to some extent interdependent, with the linking ‘element being the speed of the ship, as well as the overall channel cost, Ship speed will play an important part in the design process; for example, it must not be too slow (which will affect manoeuvrability and may make the passage time atong the channel so long that the tidal window is exceeded), and it must not be so fast that safety is compromised. 3.6 AIDS TO NAVIGATION ‘As mentioned in Chapter 2, considerations of navigational safety play an important role in the design process.Although the width, depth and alignment of the channel will be chosen to optimise safety, it must not be forgotten that the navigator will only have evidence of the width and alignment by the way itis presented to him. This will be in two ways: + ona chart of the area, either printed or ECDIS + by the navigation marks. He may be able to proceed along the channel purely from the chart if his on-board instrumentation gives him position, depth and heading information to the required degree of accuracy, but it would be highly unlikely to find a channel that is unmarked in some way by aids to navigation which are visible to the naked eye or to radar. ‘These marks define the width and alignment of the channel, and the correct type and position of the marks is of crucial importance to its safe operation. They therefore feature in the design process and will be considered in the guidelines given below. 3.7 OPERATIONAL LIMITS Handling a ship in all conditions of tide and weather is not always possible in the confined waters and low speeds associated with port operations. the underkeel clearancd is too low, the waves coo high, the current too strong or the wind speed too great, the ship may be endangered. The pilot may not be able to control the vessel safely, tug operations may be compromised or berthing may not be possible. ‘There are certain limits beyond which operations become unsafe and it is important that the designer be able to estimate these limits at the design stage. In addition, the designer may need to make allowance for any existing operational limits. If the operational limits are particularly restrictive, they could have a significant commercial impact on port operations, and it may be decided to modify the design to allow greater freedom. If, for example, a ferry service were restricted to high water berthings only, due to insufficient channel depth, it would be impossible to adhere to any sort of timetable and the channel depth would have to be increased, Operational limits on activities at berths also need to be considered: on the one hand, there is no benefit in ‘enabling access if the ship cannot load or discharge or be moored at the quay; on the other hand, the design of the mooring may be based on giving the ship the ability to leave when storms are approaching. Vessel speed limits, both minimum and maximum, are also regarded as‘operational limits. In some cases tidal and speed limits may interact. for example, where a vessel is passing down a long channel on a falling tide. 3.8 MARINE TRAFFIC AND RISK ANALYSIS In chat the object of approach channel design is safety and navigability for the shipping traffic which will use the port,a final stage, particularly in a busy port, will be to carry out a marine traffic analysis and risk analysis. Marine risk embraces the risk to fife, damage to the marine environment and occasionally the potential ‘commercial loss to a port in the event of an accident. Overall risk is determined from the frequency with which a particular type of accident may occur combined with some measure of its consequence. Consequence may be measured as the number of casualties (if risk to life is under consideration), damage to the environment ‘or potential loss of revenue. At the heart of such estimates is a knowledge of the frequency with which a particular type of accident may occur. Although maritime accidents may be classified under various headings, there are some {notably collisions) which lend themselves to analysis by means of ‘computer models, One of the most useful of these is the marine traffic simulation model which is able to represent present and future traffic streams and their interactions. ‘This allows the likelihood of the vessel-to-vessel encounters to be estimated, and this in turn helps in ‘estimating the probable frequency of collision. Once this is known, marine risk may, in principle, be calculated. In practice such computations are often used for comparative rather than absolute assessments of risk. In this way the benefits (or dis-benefits) of the channel design in terms of risk may be determined, and any necessary design changes may be made. es :4. THE DESIGN SHIP 4.1 THE ‘DESIGN SHIP’ CONCEPT ‘The width of a channel is conveniently expressed as a multiple of the beam of a ship, with bend radii expressed as multiples of its length. Moreover the depth of the channel 's related to ship draught If the channel is to be designed for only one ship, then the choice of length, beam and draught is simple. Seldom will this be the case, and so the concept of the Design Ship must be used. ‘The Design Ship is therefore that for which the channel is designed. It should be chosen to ensure that the channel design allows it, and all other ships using the channel, to navigate in safety. I will have to satisfy certain criteria and it may well be appropriate to consider more than one design ship in the early part of the design process to determine channel width and depth. . 4.2 CHOICE OF THE DESIGN SHIP 4.2.1 Basic Philosophy ‘The choice of the design ship is governed by a number of, considerations: . + Iemust be of the right type. + les choice must ensure that all other ships likely to use the channel can do so safely. le may not be the largest ship to use the channel, for large ships are often accorded the greatest attention and are subject to special rules of operation when arriving at or leaving port and may not therefore pose the greatest threat to safety. Choice of the design ship might therefore bbe based on one or more of the following criteria: + Itmay have poor inherent manoeuvrability, + le may be very large in the context of port operations. + Iemay have gxcessive windage. + be may carry a particularly hazardous cargo. Finally. ifthe channel is to cater for a wide range of ship ‘types itis possible that more than one design ship may be necessary. In such a case a deep-draughted design ship might be used to determine channel depth while a shallow- draughted ship with a large windage might be used for channel wideh. 4.2.2 Ship Type ‘The type of design ship may be specified at the outset by the client. It may be a bulk carrier (for an oil or ore terminal),a container ship (for a container terminal), cruise liner, ferry or any one of a range of other types.A typical classification of types is given in Table 4.1. ‘A further categorisation occurs for channels used by many ship types and for which Rules of Operation must be imposed which may vary from one type to another. In such cases, the information readily available to port authorities ‘must be taken into consideration and, as this is most ‘commonly the Gross Tonnage, categorisations based on this measure of ship size and type are often used.As an example, the following classification has been used in a port in the Far East (Table 4.2). ‘The adequacy of gross or deadweight tonnage to define the design ship is poor Ships may be broadly classified into those ‘whose cargoes have a high density and are heavy (the ‘weight’ carriers) and those whose cargo is of low density (the ‘volume’ carriers) such as passenger ships. gas carriers and container vessels. he principal dimensions (length, beam and draught) as well as the above-water shape (and hence windage) will be determined by whether the ship is a'Wweight’ or Volume’ carrier.The former will be characterised by a deep draught and low windage, the fatter by a light draught and high windage. Deadweight tonnage Is a reasonable measure for the former, gross tonnage for the latter Further classification (for the numbers of tugs needed, say) ‘may be based on length and beam (for Panamax ships) or beam and draught (for Suezmax) ships. Within all these classifications of ship type and size a range of length, beam and draught combinations may be found, all of which must be considered when choosing a design ship. 4.2.3 Traffic Analysis ‘On some occasions it may not be obvious which vessel should be chosen as the design ship. This occurs when the channel is to serve a mix of traffic containing both deep- draughted ships and those with high windage. As mentioned in section 4.2.1 the former may be used to determine channel depth while the latter may determine channel width. ‘Analysis of present and future traffic may then be needed to determine the ship types likely to be present and, from this ‘analysis, suitable design ship (or ships) may be chosen. ‘Analysis of existing traffic flows may be carried out using + port radar and other records + visual observations. In the former it may be possible to obtain records from the PortVessel Traffic Services (VTS) which may provide ship data in terms of deadweight, gross tonnage and principal dimensions, With the latter it may be necessary to ‘observe the ships passing through a ‘gate’, and noting their names so that dimensions, etc. can be found later from reference publications. a(Dry BULK CARRIERS OBO sHirs CONTAINER SHIPS BREAK BULK, GENERAL CARGO SHIPS Ro-Ro Vesseis VeHiCue CARRIERS Fennies ‘CRUISE LINERS ‘TUGS, SERVICE VESSELS, ETC. BARGES, PUSH TOWS, ETC. crudelproduct crude product unclassifiable IMO classes 1, 2 ond 3 IMO classes A, B and C not classified integral tanks independent atmospheric tanks independent pressurised tanks integral tanks independent atmospheric tanks independent pressurised tanks Cope Size, Panamax First to sixth generation. Panamax and post Panamax. Table 4.1 | > 120.000 80 001 - 120 000 30.001 - 80 000 15.00! - 30.000 300 - 15 000 Table 4.2 4.2.4 Design Ship Dimensions For the design process, the principal dimensions of the design ship are needed. if only the deadweight or gross tonnage has been specified, then they must be deduced. To do this, itis usually necessary to provide trend plots of dimensions for ship types in the world fleet from reference conventional or electronic publications, The main sources ‘of such information are: + Lloyds Register of Ships + Clarkson's Guides 12 + Jane's Publications + Fairplay Publications From these, plots such as length against deadweight, beam against length and draught against beam may be produced. If, for example, only deadweight is known, then Use of these plots in succession enable length, beam and draught to be obtained. Figure 4.1 shows an example of the variation of overall length with deadweight for dry bulk carriers over 100 000 dwt taken from Clarkson's Bulk Carrier Guide. Figure 4.2 shows the variation of length overall with beam from the same source. ‘As can be seen, there is some scatter, and judgement is needed to provide a realistic combination of tength, beam and draught. Appendix B provides additional information.wae we =o a9 302 ee Deodweight (kllotonnes) Figure 4.1 - Dry Bulk Carrier Dato . : . tog “ see Pe 7 * us ghoitett , : Lodge PM Eu tee : re Suu pe Length Overall (m) Figure 4.2 - Dry Bulk Carrier Data a5. CONCEPT DESIGN 5.1 GENERAL With the type and dimensions of the design ship chosen, the preliminary design of the channel may be undertaken. In this, ‘one or more concepts of width, depth and alignment may be developed, to enable intial decisions (usually based on ‘economic considerations) to be made as to the most likely candidate (or candidates) to be chosen for more detailed consideration. In this section, a method for Concept Design is presented. 5.2 CHANNEL DESIGN ‘The Concept Design method given here uses information gathered worldwide which is representative of good modern practice t wll be satisfactory for the preliminary design of ‘most channels but ic is accepted that some occasions will arise when such a technique will be inappropriate and the ‘more elaborate methods of Derailed Design will have to be ‘employed, even for preliminary design. 5.2.1 Alignment, Width and Depth ‘The key parameters of alignment, width and depth are all interlinked, Additional width can compensate for reduced depth, and alignment can be changed to allow for reduced width or depth. However, with some exceptions (discussed in Section 5.2.3 below) the linking is not strong and, at the Concept Design stage, some aspects of width and alignment ‘an,to a certain extent, be decoupled from those of depth. Parts of this report will therefore consider width and alignment in isolation from depth. Depth has been considered in previous PIANC reports (References 5.1 and 5.2 (see ‘Chapter 10) and is considered in more detail in this report in ‘Appendices C and D in relation to channels through hard or soft seabed materials. 5.2.2 Alignment ‘Channel alignment should be assessed with regard to: + the shortest channel length: + contlicions/basins, etc. at either end of the channel: + the need to avoid obstacles or areas of accretion which are difficult or expensive to remove or require excessive (and hence costly) maintenance dredging; *+ prevailing winds, currents and waves; + avoiding bends close to port entrances; + the edge of the channel should be such that ships passing along it do not cause disturbance or damage. Straight channel fegs are preferable to curved ones and the designer should strive for an alignment consisting of a series of straight legs connected by smooth bends and not abrupt angles. Individual legs may have different widths and depths and be navigated at different speeds. For more details, see Figure 5.1. DMINWAL ARRANGEMENT OF BUO¥S PREFERRED ARRANGEMENT OF BUOYS (Gateo 80°) Figure 5.1 ~ Suggested Bend Morki igure eaessed 4 Markings It is preferable to have the prevailing currents aligned with the channel to minimise cross-currents. The same applies to wind and waves although these may come from any direction. Usually the prevailing wind and wave direction is tused in design with a judgement having to be made as to whether possible downtimes due to strong winds or high waves from other directions are acceptable. Finally it is advisable, (and important inthe case of channels navigated by ships carrying dangerous goc ds) that the channel be aligned in such a way as to prevent the ship heading directly at the quay or jetty durirg ts approach.Any channel whose direction is perpendicular to the berthing face should be aligned to one side of the quay or jetty,so that the ship must «urn (or be swung) to arrive at the berth. This minimises the risk of ships demolishing the jetty or quay in the event of losing all control on the approach. 5.2.3 Width Considerations {In channel width design, some or all of the following should be considered: es «25.2.3.1 Basic Manoeuvrability ‘The dynamics of ships are such that, when under manual control (as is usually the case in approach channels) they ‘sweep a path, in the absence of all external perturbations from wind, waves, current, ete., which exceeds their breadth by a certain amount (Figure 5.2).This is due to the *” speed of response of both the ship-handler in interpreting the visual cues indicating position, and that of the ship in reacting to the rudder. Clearly the width of the swept path, which is the basic manoeuvring lane, will depend on a number of factors, but the key elements are: + the inherent manoeuvrability of the ship (which will vary with water depth/draught ratio); + the ability of the ship-handler; + the visual cues available to the ship-handler; + the overall visibility. BASIC MANOEUVRING LANE REAL COURSE THEORETICAL COURSE Few 5:2 wnt of Maroc + Ship Manoeuvrabilty & Response ing Lane allows for : Of these the first two are the most important, for the other two can be dealt with by suitable aids to navigation both outside (e.g buoys) and navigational aids inside the ship (eg. radar). ‘ 5.2.3.2 Environmental Factors Cross Wind Cross wind will affect the ship at all speeds, but will have its greatest effect at low ship speeds. lt will cause the ship to drift sideways or to take up an angle of leeway, both of which increase the width required for manoeuvring. ‘Seldom will the ship be able to maintain a steady course at low speeds in a cross wind, the ship-handler having to offer the ship up to the wind, resulting in a slightly oscillatory course (Figure 5.3). Cross wind effects depend on: + the windage of the vessel; + the depth/draught ratio (because a ship's resistance to lateral motion changes as the depth/draught ratio approaches unity. Wind causes less drift at small underkeel clearances); + the wind speed and direction relative to the ship. Some width allowance must be made therefore for wind effects over and above that needed for basic manoeuvring. In order to compute this, information on wind speeds and directions for the area under consideration is needed. The collection of this data is dealt with in Section 6.2 below; in this section it is simply assumed that such information is available. ‘Current Cross currents affect a ship’ ability to maintain a course, longitudinal currents affect its ability to manoeuvre and stop.As will be shown, the manoeuvrability of a ship changes as its depth! draught ratio approaches unity.As a result, its ability to cope with currents will also change as the water depth reduces. In some ports, the currents may be too strong at certain states of the tide to allow certain ships to navigate with safety.This may cause their arrivals and sailings to be restricted to certain time periods (or ‘current windows’) in the tidal cycle. This implies times (downtime) for which the channel will not be available for such ships and the decision Ssregarding acceptable downtime levels will be based mainly ‘on economic considerations. Collection of current data is considered in Section 6.2. Waves ‘Waves will naturally have an effect on channel depth, but if the wave fronts mave across the channel then they will also have'an effect on manoeuvring and hence channel width. Waves can cause transient effects on yaw (‘knocking’ the ship's head off course) which can be corrected by the shiphandler, and they can also cause a mean drift in the direction of the wave. ‘Wave scatter tables for the area (using local information ‘obtained as discussed in Section 6.2 or information in publications such as Reference 5.3) should be obtained and a judgement, based on experience, made as to what wave height and period (length) should be used for design. 5.2.3.3 Aids to Navigation “The importance of aids to navigation lies in the cues they give to the ship-handler. They will usually be visual although radar reflectors may be used. Electronic means are being developed in which a combination of DGPS and electronic charts may be used.A well-marked channel will require less width than one that is poorly marked. For Concept Design a judgement must be made regarding the adequacy of the available aids to navigation in accordance with compulsory carriage requirements. Suitable types and positions of channel markers can be determined at the Detailed Design stage by the use of manoeuvring simulation as discussed in Sections 6.3 and 6.4. Reference 5.5 gives useful information. 5.2.34 Type of Cargo If the cargo being carried by the Design Ship is hazardous, in nature, then an additional width allowance is required to reduce the risk of grounding and to ensure that such vessels are well clear of other waterway users. 5.2.3.5 Passing Distance If a two-way ‘eame! is proposed then some arrangement must be made to allow vessels to pass safely. Such a distance must ensure that ship-ship interaction is reduced to an acceptable minimum and it is usual to allow for a central ‘strip’, equal to a multiple of the beam of the larger ‘passing ship, between the overall manoeuvring lanes of the passing vessel (Figure 5.4). ‘The width required for passing will also depend on the traffic density in the two lanes - the greater the density, the greater the width required, 5.2.3.6 Bank Clearance Bank interaction can cause a ship to sheer uncontrollably (Figure 5.5).To avoid this in a channel with underwater banks it is necessary to allow additional channel width outside the manoeuvring lanes (Figures 5.6 and 5.11).This will depend on ship speed (the higher the speed, the greater the bank interaction), bank height and slope, and depth/draught ratio.At and early stage in design itis probably adequate to cater for only the first two. WANOEWRING LANES Figure 54 - Passing Distance 5.2.4 Depth Considerations Ieis apparent that depeh/draught effects have to be allowed for in some considerations of channel width and some of them are considered here. These are: ‘Speed/Depth Relationship The hydrodynamic resistance to motion of a ship in shallow water is governed by the Froude Depth Number Fh which is broadly a ngp-dimensianal ratio between speed and depth. It is defined as: Fay = W (leh) o is the speed through the water in metres/second where: V his the undisturbed water depth in metres gis the acceleration due to gravity (about 9.81 misec’). ‘When Fay, approaches or equals unity, the resistance to motion reaches very high values which most displacement ships have insufficient power to overcome. In fact such ships are unlikely to be able to exceed Fp, values of 0.6 or 0.7 (the former for tankers, the latter for container ships) ‘which results in an effective speed barrier. es -B‘CANAL BANKS, Figure 5.5 - Computed Sheers due to Bank Effects Met} | We X SRT STEEP AND HARO EMBANKWENTS ANO STRUCTURES Figure 5.6 - Bonk Clearance Bank Clearance We to be great enough to reduce Bank Effects to a Controllable Minimum Therefore, before deciding on the speed with which to carry ‘out the channel width calculations, i is advisable to check that itis compatible with the depth under consideration. (Alternatively the limiting Froude Number can be used with a chosen speed to set a minimum depth limi) ‘Squat, Waves apd Depth/Draught Ratio Squat is the tendency of a vessel to sink and trim when underway, thereby reducing its underkeel clearance. Squat depends strongly on speed and is accentuated (and may become critical) in shallow water. Therefore it is wise to check that the depth of the channel is sufficient to allow for any squat engendered by the necessary speed of the ship in transit to negotiate the tidal window CANG - K¥ THUAT BIEN AL ob and maintain manoeuvrability. Squat may be 6.5.2 below. For a quick first estimate, the ICORELS expression (Reference 5.4) may be used for ‘open water: B = @ Co) Squot(m) = 24¥- volume of displacement (m’) = Cy1,,8.T Lyp = length of ship between perpendiculars (m) B hip beam (m) ship draught (m) = Froude Depth Number (Ste also Section 65.23) ‘The graphical method of Figure §.7 can also be used to give values of squat adequate for Concept Design, simpler way to allow for squat, draught and sounding ‘uncertainties (and also to give a margin for safety) is to set a ‘minimum value on water depth/draught ratio. In many parts of the world a value of |.10 has become accepted although a value of 1.15 can be found. These values are for calm water ‘only and greater values would be necessary if the channel is subjected to wave action, where figures of |.3 or more may be used.The closer the ratio is to unity, the more directionally stable is the ship and, consequently, the more sluggish its response. It is usual to allow for this by increasing ‘channel width - another occasion when width and depth are linked. Tide Height If the waterway is subjected to tidal action a decision may have to be made as to whether it must be usable throughout the tidal cycle. If not then a suitable tidal window must be chosen bearing in mind the commercial consequences of any downtime. The window must be compatible with depth, speed and squat. Shortening the window may require an increase in transit speed, resulting in problems of squat, resistance and additional width allowance. 2Figure 5.7 - Squat Estimation Chart for Full-Bodied Ships es 2Tidal information for the area in question should be collected, paying particular attention to the way high water may ‘move’ along a lengthy waterway. It is usual to set tidal ‘windows so that ships transit an approach channel on a tising tide. This may not always be possible and ifa ship ‘must navigate a channel on a falling tide, stepped depth profile may be necessary. “++ Nautical Bottom If the solid bottom of the waterway is covered with a non-consolidated, iquid layer of silt or mud, a clear definition of the depth of the channel does not exist. In this case, the concept of nautical bottom is appropriate (see Section 6.5.4). 5.9.5 Bends For the moment it is assumed that the ship navigates unaided by tugs and therefore any bend connecting straight legs of a channel must take account of the ability of a ship to turn. In calm water with no wind a harg-over turn may be accomplished by a ship having average-to-good manoeuvrability with-an initial radius of about 2.0 t0 3.0 ship fengths in deep water, increasing to perhaps 5 or more ship lengths at a depth/draught ratio of 1.10 (Reference 5.6 and Figure 5.8). Figure 5.8 -Turning Radius as a Function of Rudder Angle and Water Depth (Based on Single ScrewiSingle Rudder Container Ship) The ship ‘sideslips’ as it curns and so sweeps out a path which is wider than its beam. This excess can vary from 19 about 30% - 40%, at a depth/draught ratio of 1.10, 0 100% - 160% in deep water (Reference 5.6) of the beam depending on the depth of water. ‘Therefore the way a ship tirns depends very much on the depth/draught ratio. This affects both the radius of curn and the width of swept track, showing that, ac the lowest depth/draught ratios the radius will be at its greatest and the additional width needed ac its smallest (see Figures 5.8 and 5.9). In determining bend radius and width, it is inadvisable to design bends which require hard-over rudder angles. This would give no ‘reserve’ rudder angle to ‘counter wind, wave-or current and would therefore compromise safety. 19 2 30 R008 ANGLE 4) Figure 5.9 -Width of Swept Track in aTurn os @ Function of Rudder Angle and Water De (based on Ste Sensi fades Conte Ship) For Concept Design therefore, itis suggested that turning radii and swept track width of the design ship at a steady rudder angle less than hard-over be used as a guide. Often ship-handlers are happy to use 15% to 20% rudder in a bend; greater values give too little margin for safety and lesser values (implying a targe radius) make turning difficult due to the length of the track and the handling problems of keeping a ship accurately on track in a gentle bend. Keeping position in any bend requires that it be well marked. Ina one-way channel, marks on the inside of the bend are better visual cues and a minimum of three - one at the apex and one at entry and exit - are recommended ‘with, if possible, one marking the outer apex (see Figure 5.1).lf more markers are available then gated pairs of buoys at apex entry and exit are recommended. Without proper marking, the ship-handler can become disorientatedina bend (especially a long one) and so extra width is required to allow for this. Bends subject to cross currents, winds and waves require additional width, 5.3 CHANNEL CONCEPT DESIGN METHOD 5.3.1 Introduction In this section a Concept Design method for approach channels is introduced. It is meant for use in early design and trade-off studies. It represents good modern practice and channels designed to this method should result in an adequate level of navigational safety. Alehough it can be applied to channels world-wide, local conditions may require dimensions of alignment which differ, in part, from those derived from the information given below. Detailed Design, which would follow Concept Design. would address the particular features of a given site and is discussed in Chapter 6, The Concept Design method deals with the width and depth of straight sections and gives guidelines for bends. It is accompanied by some notes and definitions and is followed by a few worked examples to illustrate its use. 5.3.2 Depth Depth is estimated from: + at-rest draught of design ship: + tide height throughout transie of channel; *+ squat (from Figure 5.7, equation (2) or, for detailed discussion, Sections 6.5.2 and 6.5.4); + wave-induced motion; ‘+ a margin depending on type of bottom; + water density and its effect on draught. All the above values for draught, squat, wave action and margin are additive. In the absence of other information minimum values of depth’ draught ratio should be taken as 1,10 in sheltered waters, [.3 in waves up to one metre in height and 1.5 in higher waves with unfavourable periods and directions. Froude Depth Number, Fay, must be less than 0.7. 5.3.3 Width: Straight Sections The bottom width w of the waterway (Figure 5.1), is given for a one-way channel by: 20 Sertworantiy | wot | Basic Manoeuvring Lane. Wy | = | To the basic manoeuvring lane width way are added additional widths (to allow for the effects of wind, current, ete.) which gives the manoeuvring lane wyy- The additional widths are given in Table 5.2. amt DL M+ Wort Woy @) ist and for a two-way channel by: W = 2Woyt 2D) Ww; +5, + Wee DM, (4) fet where,as shown in Figure 5.11, wg, and Wp, are the bank clearances on the ‘red’ and ‘green’ sides of the channel, ‘Ewe is passing distance {comprising the sum of a separation distance based on ship speed and an additional distance based on traffic density) and the w, are given in Table 5.2, ‘The basic manoeuvring width Way,.a5 a multiple of the beam B of the design ship, is given in Table 5.1. This basic manoeuvring width is that required by the design ship to sail safely in very favourable environmental and operational conditions (see Figure 5.2). Table 5.1 Basic Manceuvring LaneTable 5.2 - Additional Widths for Straight Channel Sections Inner Channel i Speed ‘to open water protected water (2) Vessel speed (knots) fast > 12 018 OLB = moderate > 8 - 12 00 00 ~slow 5-8 0.0 0.0 (6) Prevailing cross wind (knots) = mild < 15 (< Beaufort 4) all 00 00 ~ moderate > 15-33 fast 038 - (© Beaufort 4 - Beaufort 7) mod 04B 048 slow 058 058 = severe > 33-48 fast 0.6B - (© Beaufort 7 - Beaufort 9} mod 0B 0B slow 10B 10B © Prevailing cross current (knots) = negligible < 0.2 all 00 0.0 ~low 02-05 fast OLB - mod 028 O18 slow 038 028 - moderate > 05 - 1.5 fase 058 - mod 0.78 058 . slow 10B 08B = strong > 1.5 -2.0 fast 07B - mod 10B . slow. 13B : (4) Prevailing longitudinal current (knots) slows 1.5 all 0.0 00 - moderate > 1.5-3 fast ox - mod OIB O1B slow 028 028 + strong> 3 fast 018 - mod 028 028 slow 048 04B (e) Significant wave height H, and length 4(m) oHys lands L all 00 00 fast ~208 -3>H,> Landh=L mod ~1.08 slow =05B fast ~30B Hy> Band A>L mod =228 slow =158 @ Alids to Navigation - excellent with shore traffic contro! 0.0 0.0 ~ good O18 O18 - moderate with infrequent poor visibility 028 028 = moderate with frequent poor visibility 2058 205B (g) Bottom surface ~if depth = LST 0.0 0.0 = if depth < I\ST then + smooth and soft OlB OB = smooth or sloping and hard OB O18 ~_rough and hard 028 028 () Depth df waterway -215T 00 als 00 = 1ST -1.28T 018 <(SELIST 028 -<125T 0283 <1.15T 048 (i) Cargo hazard level ~low 00 00 - medium ~05B ~04B high ~108 ~08B _] 21Table 5.3 - Additional Width for Passing Distance ‘Table 5.4 - Additional Width for Bank Clearance ‘Wide for bark desrance aera) 5.3.6 Definitions and Notes for the Tables “The following definitions apply to the various boxes in Tables 5.1 to 5.4. Where necessary, some notes for clarification are also given. 5.3.6.1 Table 5.1 - Ship Manoeuvrability ‘The rational classification of ship manoeuvrability is not ‘easy and often a considerable amount of judgement must be used. In che open ocean a ship which possesses good manoeuvrability is one that is course-stable at its design or service speed. However the very qualities which make it course-stable do nat help it in rapid manoeuvring or navigating around tight bends ‘which may be thought of as ‘good manoeuvrability’ in the approaches to a port. As mentioned above, the manoeuvrability ofa ship also ‘loping channe! edges and shoal: changes noticeably in shallow ‘water As depthidraught ratio reduces to about |.3 to 1.5, the ship may become slightly fess Note: Referring othe design ship: B= Beam L= Leng 7 = Draught 5.3.4 Bend Width and Radius Bend width and radius can be estimated from the ship turning data in Figures 5.8 and 5.9.A mean rudder angle for the bend should be chosen and the appropriate radius and width read off for a given depth/draught ratio. {fin trafic studies, it becomes apparent that passing on bend is unavoidable, then a separate, detailed, study will be required for each bend so affected. Cross wind and current allowances in bends should be made in Detailed Design phase, but as a guide, the width of navigable channel in the bend should be no Jess chan that of the straight. Additional width is preferably placed on the inside rather than the outside of the bend. 5.3.5 Alignment Alignment should follow the guidelines given in Section 5.2.2 above, directionally stable and more “ewitchy’.As the depth/draughe ratio reduces still further the vessel may become more directionally stable until, at very low underkeel clearances (depth/draught ratios of 1.05 to 1.10), ie turns very sluggishly indeed. This improvement in directional stabiliy (illustrated for turning in Figure 5.8) is an advantage in a straight channel ifthe ship is not deflected from its proper course. But If ici, its sluggish response may give handling problems, and therefore require additional room to manceuvre. ‘Therefore a general classification of the inherent manoeuvrability of ships is difficult, because it depends very much on context.As a rough guide, the following may be used: |. Long slender ships (/B > 6.5) are more directionally stable than short fat ones (U/B <6).The latter will be able to manoeuvre around tight bends more easily. 2. In shallow water (h/T 1.5) all ships will turn less readily. 3. Low speed manoeuvrability may be quite different from that at the service speed for which the ship was designed. 4. Single screw / single rudder ships will manoeuvre quite well, but will experience screw bias (an offset due to lateral movement of the stern induced by the propeller necessitating counter rudder). 5. Ships with single controllable-pitch screws may ‘experience screw bias, even when the propeller pitch is set for low or zero thrust.6. ‘Twin screw / twin rudder ships generally have good manoeuvrability and control at all speeds, ‘Twin screw / single rudder ships may have good manoeuvrability at service speed, but poor manoeuvrability at low speeds. Ships fitted with adequate bow or other thrusters may have very good low speed manoeuvrability. Ships with ‘omni-directional thrusters will generally have excellent low speed manoeuvrability. 7 5.3.6.2 Table 5.2 - Channel, Fairway, etc. ‘Channel’ and ‘Fairway’ are defined in Figure 5.10. In many dedicated channels the aids to navigation will be close to, the edge of the channel to indicate the limits of safe navigation, but on those with a range of traffic, the fairway markers may be positioned to allow the passage of smaller vessels on either side of the dredged channel, In yet other ‘cases both the deep water channel and the outer lanes for smaller vessels may be marked. Figure 5.10 Channel and Fairway Definitions The three elements of channel width are defined in Figure Si. Inner and Outer Channel ‘An Outer Channel is one exposed to wave action which is, such as to produce important vessel motions. Usually these will be of pitch, heave and roll and will be of a magnitude to reduce underkeel clearance by a significant amount. An Inner Channel is one which is not subject to wave action of any significance and is generally sheltered. Box (b) : Prevailing Cross Wind ‘This should be taken from the wind records appropriate to the site of the channel and should be of the dominant one hour mean value. ‘As mentioned above, the behaviour of a ship in wind depends very much on its windage. Therefore, if a channel is used frequently by high-sided vessels, it would be advisable, for Concept Design, to classify them as having ‘poor manoeuvrability’ in Table 5.1. Box (¢) and (d) : Current This is taken from the actual or predicted current records for the channel site. If the current varies along a long channel, it may be necessary to carry out width calculations at various key points along its length. Although cross current magnitudes of up to 2.0 knots are shown in the Table, it is best to align the channel, if at all possible, to avoid such high cross-current velocities. On occasions high cross currents over a short section of the channel may be unavoidable, and in such circumstances the ship may have to pass through them as rapidly as possible to avoid deviating from its course. However, as a simple rule, cross currents greater than 1.5 knots across significant lengths of the channel should be avoided by re-alignment if possible. Box (e) :Waves This section gives rough indications only and should be used with a degree of judgement. Scatter tables will give the most likely significant wave heights (Hg) and periods (Ty) for the area. The ‘general relationship between wave length ‘Rand wave period Ty in water of depth h is: te aa ‘tanh (21h/ 2) © In shallow water as h -» 0 equation (5) becomes Figure 5.11 - Elements of Channel Width 2 = Tle © while in deep water, as h — 2 equation (5) assumes the form = gT/ (2m) ” 23