Kinetics of Particles 14.1 INTRODUCTION the previous two chapters, we discussed the kinematics of particles, where we described the motion the particle by stating its position, velocity and acceleration at different instants of time. In this Sapter, we will discuss what actually causes such types of motions and relate the cause of motion with ‘Se resulting motion. The branch of dynamics, which deals with the motion of particles without consid- =vrg the cause of motion, i.., just the geometry of motion is termed kinematics; whereas the branch of amics which deals with the motion of particles considering together the cause of motion is termed Kinetics, Inthe following section, we will discuss the laws, which gover the motion of particles. These laws = put forth by Sir Isaac Newton in the sixteenth century. They can also be expressed mathematically x they are known as kinetic equations of motion just like the equations of equilibrium seen under s32cs, In Sections 14.3-14.4, we will discuss the kinetic equations of motion in rectangular coordinates ‘%e rectilinear motion with constant acceleration and in Section 14.6 for rectilinear motion with variable ration. In Section 14.5, we will discuss an alternative way of expressing the equation of motion as by DAlembert and itis known as D'Alembert’s principle. Itsolves dynamics problems by apply- equilibrium condition. In Section 14.7, we will discuss the forces causing the acceleration in ‘=Frilinear motion resolving the motion along tangential and normal directions and establish the corre- seeding kinetic equations of motion. 14.2. LAWS OF MOTION ‘x sarly contributions to the development of statics could be dated back to the time before Christ, ver, the contributions to the development of dynamics can be considered to have started only from ‘Be =me of Galileo (1564-1642), The reason for this delay was due to lack of proper time measuring ‘sss such as pendulum clock and balance wheel watch, which were not developed at that time. Galileo's experimental studies on motion of bodies, namely, the one at the leaning tower of Pi 4s sliding down an inclined plane, etc., revealed the fallacies in the beliefs held till then and later the way for Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) to put forth his famous laws of motion. The branch of 's was also further refined by the contributions of mathematicians like Sir. W. Hamilton, agrange and Pierre S. De Laplace, who developed formulas that described motion in dynamic ser through time,Before Galileo's time, most philosophers, including Aristotle held the view that some force was always needed to keep a body moving; otherwise, it would come to rest. This they beligved based on the experiment on motion of a block on a horizontal plane. Suppose we push a block, which is at rest on a horizontal plane, it causes the motion of the block. However, when the force is removed, which in this case is the hand, it can be observed that the block slows down and comes to rest. Hence, they believed that bodies at rest remained at rest unless a force acted on them, but that bodies in motion did not continue in that motion unless the force continued to act on it. Hence, they concluded that a force must always continue to act on a body to keep it in motion; otherwise, it would come to rest. ‘The first part ofthe conchusion, that is, a body at rest must be acted on by an external force to make it move could be easily accepted. However, a body in motion also requires an extemal force to keep ‘moving was hard to accept for Galileo. He realized that the analysis of Aristotle was incorrect, because it failed to account properly for a hidden force, namely, the frictional force between the surface and the body. He realized that the reduction in velocity is not due to the removal of the applied force but due to the action of a hidden force, namely, the frictional force and air resistance coming into play. He conducted experiments with a smoother block placed on a smoother plane and a lubricant placed in between the sliding surfaces, and found that the block moved a further distance before coming to rest. ‘With still smoother contact surfaces, he found thatthe block moved still further before it came to rest, In this way, he argued that ifthe total friction could somehow be eliminated, the body once set in motion ‘would continue to do so forever, even if the force, which caused the motion, is removed. Thus, he concluded that force is always needed to change the state of rest of a body, but once motion is se, force is not needed to keep it in motion. Based on this observation, he introduced the concept of inertia stating that an object in a state of rest or of motion possesses an “inertia” that causes it to remain in that state of rest or of motion unless an external force acts on it, Stated in simple words, if body is at rest, it cannot of itself change that state of rest. Similarly if ¢ body is moving with a uniform velocity along a straight line, the body is incapable of altering the magnitude or the direction of its motion unless an external force acts on it. Thus, inertia can be defined as the tendency of a body to resist any attempt to change the state of rest oF of motion. ~To make this point clear, let us consider for instance a reilway coach at rest. It would remain at rest forever unless itis pulled by a locomotive. Once set in motion, it would continue to do so, even ifit is not pulled by the locomotive, However, we observe that this does not happen and the coach comes to rest after some interval of time. This is because the motion is retarded by an extemal force, namely, the frictional force between the wheel and the rail and also by air resistance. First-Law of Motion Sir Issac Newton (1642-1727), who was bom the same year that Galileo died, adopted the ideas of Galileo and had put forth his three laws of motion and the universal law of gravita- tion. Based on the above observation of Galileo, Newton stated his first law of motion as follows: Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless itis compelled to change that state by forces acting on it. ‘Stated in an alternate way, if no extemal force acts on a body, it will not have acceleration, i... its velocity will remain constant. Ifa body were initially a rest, it would continue to remain at rest until a net extemal force acts on it. Similarly if it were initially moving with constant velocity along a straight line, it would continue to do so until a net external force acts on it. Hence, to cause a changé in velocity or in other words, to accelerate a body, an external force must act om it.Second-Law of Motion If resultant force acts on a body at rest or moving with constant velocity along a straight line, it will always cause a change in velocity or in other words accelerate the body. Depending upon the direction of the resultant force acting on it, the body either accelerates or deceler~ ‘ates oF changes its direction of motion. Ifthe force acts on a moving body in the same direction as that of the motion then the body will accelerate. IFt acts in the direction opposite to that of the direction of ‘motion, it will cause deceleration. If it acs in a direction other than that of the direction of motion, it will ‘cause a change in direction of motion The relationship between the external force acting on a particle and the resulting motion was stated by Newton in his second law of motion, It relates , the force causing the change in motion with the resulting acceleration aad it Jem be stated as follows: Ifthe resultant force acting om a particle i not ZrO, egy cay [ake particle will have an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the ".A Grection of force, resultant and in the direction ofthis resultant force: + The mathematical expression for this law can be derived based on experimental studies. The fol- Hewing observations could be made based on the experimental studies on the motion of a block acted @ When a force of constant magnitude and direction is applied on a block resting on a frictionless surface, it can be found that its acceleration is also of constant magnitude and that itis in the Same direction as that of the applied force. i) Suppose the magnitude of the force is doubled or tripled. Then the acceleration also increases proportionately and the motion of the block is in the same direction as that of the applied force. t Gai) Further, if a number of forces act on a block then it can be found that each force produces Proportional acceleration as ifit is acting aloné. The resultant acceleration is proportional to the magnitude of the resultant force and the motion is in the direction of the resultant force. G) If the same force is applied on different bodies, it can be scen that it produces different accel- erations on different bodies. This is because different bodies offer different resistances to change in motion. This property of the body, offering resistance to change in motion as dis- cussed above is the inertia. The physical quantity, which measures this property, is defied as ‘mass of the body. Ifthe mass ofthe body is greater then it offers greater resistance to change in motion and thus, its acceleration is lesser and vice versa. Thus, we can see that for a given force, acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the body. Combining all ofthe above observations, we can see that acceleration is proportional to the applied and is in the direction of the force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the particle and this, ibe mathematically stated as follows: de® ond cet aaay y. Hence, we can write (142) R aisWB Fsincing Mechanic tts nd Dyas Introducing a constant of proportionality c, we have 4.3) By choosing a proper system of units such that unit force acting on unit mass produces unit accel- ration, we make the constant of proportionality c equal to 1. Hence, we can also write Pama (44) which isthe mathematical expression of Newton's second law of motion, where F represents the result- ant of system of forces actingon a particle. A special case of the second law is that ifthe resultant force is zero, ie., F = O then acceleration is also zero, a = 6 , which is same as the first law. Hence, first law ‘can be treated as a special case of second law. ‘Alternatively, we can also write the Eq. 14.4 as Fem ane - (4s) ‘Since the mass m of the particle is constant, which is true in most of the situations we encounter except in those cases such as motion of rockets, we can take it inside the differential sign and hence we ccan write the above expression as Pa 4.6) The product of mass and velocity vector is defined as linear momentum of the particle. Thus, Newton's second law of motion can also be stated as that the rate of change of momentum of a particle is proportional to the resultant force acting on the particle and is in the same direction. Actually, ‘Newton stated his second law of motion in the above form. ‘tis worthwhile mentioning here that Newton's law has been found to hold good for motion of gross bodies. This is the size of bodies that we normally deal inthe study of mechanics. However, it fails in the motion of minute particles such as electrons and particles reaching the speed of light. 14.3 MOTION OF BODIES IN RECTANGULAR COORDINATES If force and acceleration vectors can be resolved into rectangular components along x and y directions for plane motion then Newton's second law can also be expressed in scalar forms as: 47) (148) where F, and F, are respectively x and y components of the individual forces in a system of forces. Ifthe resultant force is constant in magnitude and direction then the body is under constantly accelerated rectilinear motion in the direction of the resultant. The motion of a body in free fall is an example for such type of motion, Here the body is subjected to constant force of gravity, resulting in constant acce!- eration due to gravity vertically downwards. Ifthe resultant force is varying in magnitude, but constant in direction then the body is under non-uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion in the direction of the resultant. If the resultant force is varying in direction and magnitude either constant or varying then it has a curvilinear motion. and‘While solving problems in statics, we initially chose some axes of reference and accordingly the ‘ofthe forces were considered, ic. if they pointed along positive axes, forces were taken as posi- ‘and negative if they pointed along negative direction of axes. However, here in dynamics, it will be convenient to choose the initial direction of motion of the bodies as positive, irrespective of they point along positive or negative ditection of the axes. Hence, throughout this book, we followed this sign convention 14.1. The displacement of a body of 5 kg mass with respect to time is given as x = 37 +2, xis in metres and ¢is in seconds. Determine the force acting on it causing the motion. gn. Given that the displacement of the body with respect to time is x= 37 + 2, its velocity and ion could be determined by differentiating successively the above expression with respect to ‘We observe that the acceleration is of constant magnitude and hence the force causing this change velocity or acceleration is also of constant magnitude, We know that these two are related by the 9's second Iaw of motion. Hence, the force acting on the body is obtained as Fema = (5)6)=30N 142 A block of 150'N weight is resting on a rough horizontal table. What horizontal force "i required to move the block with an acceleration of 1.5 nv/s*? The coefficient of kinetic friction the contact surfaces is 0.2. mn_The fice-body diagram of the block is shown in Fig. 14.2(a). The forces acting on the block is weight mg, normal reaction W, frictional force j4N acting in the direction opposite to the direction on and the applied force P. Writing the equations of motion along the X and ¥ directions, taking itil direction of motion as positive: LFy=may=> > Fig. 14.2 that as the block moves horizontally, its acceleration along the ¥-direction, i.e., a, is zero.) LAs mays i P=4N=ma ; | P-jymg=ma Y > P=symg+ ma AN ‘Substituting the values, we get f 150 N P=(0.2)(150) + F57(1.5) = 52.94N nevefExample 143° A block of 100.N weight is resting on a rough horizontal table. What force P inclined at 30° to the horizontal is required to move the block horizontally with an acceleration of 2 m/s"? The coefficient of kinetic friction between the contact surfaces is 0.2 Solution The free-body diagram of the block is shown in Fig. 14.3¢a). Writing 5 the equations of motion along the X and ¥ directions, taking the initial direction of ‘motion as positive: =T\2 LF,=ma, = N+Psind-mg = 0 Fig. 143 * N=mg~Psind [Note that as the block moves horizontally, its acceleration along the ¥-direction is zero,] Rm ma, > Poe Pcos— [N= ma mit P cosO— py(mg — P sin) = ma ojo c pa Heng + ma Fix i, sin 8+ 6088 | = (02100) + (100/982) _ 41 gi, ” (02)sin30° + cos30° Fig. 14.3(2) [Example 144 A block of 2 kg mass rests on a rough horizontal surface, whose coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.2. It is acted on by a horizontal force of 10 N for 5 seconds and then itis removed. Deter- ‘mine how far it would travel before coming to rest, assuming the frictional resistance to be uniform. ‘Also, determine the total distance travelled starting from rest. Solution The free-body diagram of the block is shown in Fig. 14.4(a). Writing the kinetic equations of ‘motion along the X and Y directions, taking the initial direction of motion as positive: Shama, = 2g [= 10N DFr= mo, = 2g 10-0.2)2\) = 2a { ; | tow = a= 3.04 mi " “Applying the kinematic equation of motion of the block, a 7 savget tat ‘ ta Fig. 14.4(@) ‘Therefore, the distance travelled until the force is applied is given as (5) =0+ 30 1045)? = 38m