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Mechanical Vibration - KRODKIEWSKI
Mechanical Vibration - KRODKIEWSKI
UNIT 2
MECHANICAL VIBRATION
J.M. KRODKIEWSKI
2006
1
2
MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
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CONTENTS
0.1 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.1 INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this text is to provide the students with the theoretical background
and engineering applications of the theory of vibrations of mechanical systems. It is
divided into two parts. Part one, Modelling and Analysis, is devoted to this solu-
tion of these engineering problems that can be approximated by means of the linear
models. The second part, Experimental Investigation, describes the laboratory
work recommended for this course.
Part one consists of four chapters.
The first chapter, Mechanical Vibration of One-Degree-Of-Freedom
Linear System, illustrates modelling and analysis of these engineering problems
that can be approximated by means of the one degree of freedom system. Infor-
mation included in this chapter, as a part of the second year subject Mechanics 1,
where already conveyed to the students and are not to be lectured during this course.
However, since this knowledge is essential for a proper understanding of the following
material, students should study it in their own time.
Chapter two is devoted to modeling and analysis of these mechanical systems
that can be approximated by means of the Multi-Degree-Of-Freedom models.
The Newtons-Eulers approach, Lagranges equations and the influence coecients
method are utilized for the purpose of creation of the mathematical model. The
considerations are limited to the linear system only. In the general case of damping
the process of looking for the natural frequencies and the system forced response
is provided. Application of the modal analysis to the case of the small structural
damping results in solution of the initial problem and the forced response. Dynamic
balancing of the rotating elements and the passive control of vibrations by means of
the dynamic absorber of vibrations illustrate application of the theory presented to
the engineering problems.
Chapter three, Vibration of Continuous Systems, is concerned with the
problems of vibration associated with one-dimensional continuous systems such as
string, rods, shafts, and beams. The natural frequencies and the natural modes are
used for the exact solutions of the free and forced vibrations. This chapter forms a
base for development of discretization methods presented in the next chapter
In chapter four, Approximation of the Continuous Systems by Dis-
crete Models, two the most important, for engineering applications, methods of
approximation of the continuous systems by the discrete models are presented. The
Rigid Element Method and the Final Element Method are explained and utilized to
produce the inertia and stiness matrices of the free-free beam. Employment of these
matrices to the solution of the engineering problems is demonstrated on a number of
examples. The presented condensation techniques allow to keep size of the discrete
mathematical model on a reasonably low level.
Each chapter is supplied with several engineering problems. Solution to some
of them are provided. Solution to the other problems should be produced by students
during tutorials and in their own time.
Part two gives the theoretical background and description of the laboratory
experiments. One of them is devoted to the experimental determination of the nat-
ural modes and the corresponding natural frequencies of a Multi-Degree-Of-Freedom-
INTRODUCTION. 6
7
8
xi
i
t
2
1
Figure 1
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 10
i
xi
2 x
1
x
t
Figure 2
Position xi of all the other points of our system depends on x. If the rod
is uniform, its instantaneous position as a function of x is shown in Fig. 2. The
following analysis will be restricted to system with one degree of freedom only.
To produce the equation of the vibration of the body 1, one has to produce
its free body diagram. In the case considered the free body diagram is shown in Fig.
3.
x
R
1 t
Figure 3
the displacement x and the instantaneous velocity x of the body 1 (R = R(x, x)).
The relationship between the restoring force R and the elongation x as well as the
velocity x is shown in Fig. 4a) and b) respectively.
R R
a) b)
0 0
x .
x
Figure 4
particle of of mass m
m
A, J, E
massless beam area A, second moment of area J and Young modulusE
k
massless spring of stifness k (angular motion)
Figure 5
k c x
k xs
mg
Figure 6
-k\x\=-kx
k c x
k xs
k\x\=-kx
x>0
m
x<0
mg
Figure 7
x . . . .
k c -c\x\=-cx +c\x\=-cx
k xs
. .
x>0 x<0
m
mg
Figure 8
Creating the equation of motion one has to take into consideration the interac-
tion force between the damper and the block considered (see Fig. 8). This interaction
force is called damping force and its absolute value is |FD | = c |x|
. A very similar to
the above consideration leads to conclusion that the damping force can be represented
in the equation of motion by the following term
FD = cx (1.3)
k c x
Fex (t)
Figure 9
The assumption that the system is linear allows to apply the superposition
rules and add these forces together with the external force Fex (t) (see Fig. 9). Hence,
the equation of motion of the block of mass m is
x = kx cx + Fex (t)
m (1.4)
x + 2n x + 2n x = f (t) (1.5)
where
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 15
r
k c Fex (t)
n = ; 2n = ; f (t) = (1.6)
m m m
n - is called natural frequency of the undamped system
- is called damping factor or damping ratio
f (t) - is called unit external excitation
The equation 1.5 is known as the mathematical model of the linear vibration
of the one-degree-of-freedom system.
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 16
1.1.3 Problems
Problem 1
A
k2
k1 c
Figure 10
The block of mass m (see Fig. 10)is restricted to move along the vertical axis.
It is supported by the spring of stiness k1 , the spring of stiness k2 and the damper
of damping coecient c. The upper end of the spring k2 moves along the inertial axis
y and its motion is governed by the following equation
yA = a sin t
were a is the amplitude of motion and is its angular frequency. Produce the equation
of motion of the block.
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 17
Solution
A x
k2
k1 c
Figure 11
Let us introduce the inertial axis x in such a way that its origin coincides with
the centre of gravity of the block 1 when the system is in its equilibrium position (see
Fig. 11. Application of the Newtons low results in the following equation of motion
x = k2 x k1 x + k2 y cx
m (1.7)
Problem 2
r 1
Figure 12
The cylinder 1 (see Fig. 12) of mass m and radius r is plunged into a liquid
of density d. The cylindric container 2 has a radius R. Produce the formula for the
period of the vertical oscillation of the cylinder.
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 19
Solution
x r
V2
G
z
V1
x
R
Figure 13
Let us introduce the inertial axis x in such a way that its origin coincides with
the centre of gravity of the cylinder 1 when the system is in its equilibrium position
(see Fig. 13. If the cylinder is displaced from its equilibrium position by a distance
x, the hydrostatic force acting on the cylinder is reduced by
H = (x + z) dgr2 (1.10)
Since the volume V1 must be equal to the volume V2 we have
V1 = r2 x = V2 = R2 r2 z (1.11)
Therefore
r2
z= 2 x (1.12)
R r2
Introducing the above relationship into the formula 1.10 one can get that
2 2
r2 2 Rr
H = x + 2 x dgr = dg x (1.13)
R r2 R2 r 2
According to the Newtons law we have
R2 r 2
x = dg
m x (1.14)
R2 r 2
The standard form of this equation of motion is
x + 2n x = 0 (1.15)
where 2 2
dg Rr
2n = (1.16)
m R2 r 2
The period of the free oscillation of the cylinder is
s s
2 2 m (R2 r2 ) 2 m (R2 r2 )
Tn = = = (1.17)
n Rr dg Rr dg
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 20
Problem 3
R
c
G
D
L
m 1
Figure 14
The disk 1 of mass m and radius R (see Fig. 14) is supported by an elastic shaft
of diameter D and length L. The elastic properties of the shaft are determined by
the shear modulus G. The disk can oscillate about the vertical axis and the damping
is modelled by the linear damper of a damping coecient c. Produce equation of
motion of the disk
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 21
Solution
R
c
G
D
L
m 1
Figure 15
= ks cR2
I (1.18)
where
2
I = mR2
- the moment of inertia of the disk
4G
ks = = TTL = JG
T
L
= D
32L
the stiness of the rod
JG
Introduction of the above expressions into the equation 1.18 yields
D4 G
+ cR2 +
I =0 (1.19)
32L
or
+ 2 n + 2n = 0
(1.20)
where
D4 G cR2
2n = 2n = (1.21)
32LI I
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 22
Problem 4
O
k c
l
b
1
a m
Figure 16
The thin and uniform plate 1 of mass m (see Fig. 16) can rotate about
the horizontal axis O. The spring of stiness k keeps it in the horizontal position.
The damping coecient c reflects dissipation of energy of the system. Produce the
equation of motion of the plate.
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 23
Solution
O
k c
l
b
1
a m
Figure 17
Motion of the plate along the coordinate (see Fig. 17) is govern by the
generalized Newtons equation
I=M (1.22)
The moment of inertia of the plate 1 about its axis of rotation is
mb2
I= (1.23)
6
The moment which act on the plate due to the interaction with the spring k and the
damper c is
M = kl2 cb2 (1.24)
Hence
mb2
+ kl2 + cb2 = 0
(1.25)
6
or
+ 2 n + 2n = 0
(1.26)
where
6kl2 6c
2n = 2 n = (1.27)
mb2 m
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 24
Problem 5
m
M
E,I t
Figure 18
The electric motor of mass M (see Fig. 18)is mounted on the massless beam of
length l, the second moment of inertia of its cross-section I and the Young modulus
E. The shaft of the motor has a mass m and rotates with the angular velocity . Its
unbalance (the distance between the axis of rotation and the shaft centre of gravity)
is . The damping properties of the system are modelled by the linear damping of
the damping coecient c. Produce the equation of motion of the system.
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 25
Problem 6
d D 0
A y
c
l
L
Figure 19
Problem 7
1 L
r
Figure 20
The cylinder 1 of mass m is attached to the rigid and massless rod 2 to form
the pendulum shown in the Fig. 20. Produce the formula for the period of oscillation
of the pendulum.
MODELLING OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 27
Problem 8
O
k c
l
b
1
a m
Figure 21
The thin and uniform plate 1 (see Fig. 21) of mass m can rotate about the
horizontal axis O. The spring of stiness k keeps it in the horizontal position. The
damping coecient c reflects dissipation of energy of the system. Produce the formula
for the natural frequency of the system.
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 28
x + 2n x + 2n x = 0 (1.28)
x + 2n x = 0 (1.29)
1 = +i n and 2 = i n (1.32)
Their linear combination is the wanted general solution and approximates the free
vibration of the undamped system.
The two constants Cs and Cc should be chosen to fulfill the initial conditions which
reflect the way the free vibrations were initiated. To get an unique solution it is nec-
essary to specify the initial position and the initial velocity of the system considered.
Hence, let us assume that at the instant t = 0 the system was at the position x0 and
was forced to move with the initial velocity v0 . Introduction of these initial conditions
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 29
into the equation 1.34 results in two algebraic equation that are linear with respect
to the unknown constants Cs and Cc .
Cc = x0
Cs n = v0 (1.35)
According to 1.34, the particular solution that represents the free vibration of the
system is
v0
x = sin n t + x0 cos n t =
n
= C sin( n t + ) (1.36)
where s !
2
v0 x0
C= (x0 )2 + ; = arctan v0 (1.37)
n n
For n = 1[1/s], x0 = 1[m] v0 = 1[m/s] and = 0 the free motion is shown in Fig.
22 The free motion, in the case considered is periodic.
x[m]
1
vo
C
xo 0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 t[s]
-0.5
-1
Tn
-1.5
Figure 22
x + 2n x + 2n x = 0 (1.40)
Introduction of the equation 1.30 into 1.40 yields the characteristic equation
2 + 2n + 2n = 0 (1.41)
If < 1, the characteristic equation has two complex conjugated roots and
this case is often referred to as the underdamped vibration.
p
1,2 = n i n 1 2 = n i d (1.43)
where p
d = n 1 2 (1.44)
The particular solutions are
Introduction of the expressions 1.48 into 1.46 produces the free motion in the following
form
x = en t (Cs sin d t + Cc cos d t) = Cen t sin( d t + ) (1.49)
where
s 2
v0 + n x0 x0 d p
C= + (x0 )2 ; = arctan ; d = n 1 2
d v0 + n x0
(1.50)
For n = 1[1/s], x0 = 1[m] v0 = 1[m/s] and = .1 the free motion is shown in Fig.
23In this case the motion is not periodic but the time Td (see Fig. 23) between every
x[m]
1
vo
t Td
xo 0.5
x(t+ Td ) x(t)
0 10 20 30 40 50 t[s]
-0.5
-1
Td
-1.5
Figure 23
second zero-point is constant and it is called period of the dumped vibration. It is easy
to see from the expression 1.49 that
2
Td = (1.51)
d
If = 1, the characteristic equation has two real and equal one to each other
roots and this case is often referred to as the critically damped vibration
1,2 = n (1.55)
x = Cs en t + Cc ten t (1.57)
Cs = x0
Cc = v0 + x0 n (1.59)
Introduction of the expressions 1.59 into 1.57 produces expression for the free motion
in the following form
x = en t (x0 + t(v0 + x0 n )) (1.60)
For n = 1[1/s], x0 = 1[m] v0 = 1[m/s] and = 1. the free motion is shown in
Fig. 24. The critical damping oers for the system the possibly faster return to its
equilibrium position.
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 33
x[m]
1
vo
xo 0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 t[s]
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 24
If > 1, the characteristic equation has two real roots and this case is often
referred to as the overdamped vibration.
p p
1,2 = n n 2 1 = n ( 2 1) (1.61)
x[m]
vo 1
xo 0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 t[s]
-0.5
-1
-1.5
Figure 25
x + 2n x + 2n x = f (t) (1.66)
where
r
k c Fex (t)
n = ; 2n = ; f (t) = (1.67)
m m m
The general solution of this mathematical model is a superposition of the general
solution of the homogeneous equation xg and the particular solution of the non-
homogeneous equation xp .
x = xg + xp (1.68)
The general solution of the homogeneous equation has been produced in the previous
section and for the underdamped vibration it is
In the above equation q represents the amplitude of the unit excitation and is the
excitation frequency. Introduction of the expression 1.70 into equation 1.66 yields
x + 2 n x + 2n x = q sin t (1.71)
where As and Ac are constant. The function 1.72 is the particular solution if and
only if it fulfils the equation 1.71 for any instant of time. Therefore, implementing it
in equation 1.71 one can get
2
(n 2 )As 2n Ac sin t+ 2 n As + ( 2n 2 )Ac cos t = q sin t (1.73)
( 2n 2 )As 2 n Ac = q
2n As + (2n 2 )Ac = 0 (1.74)
Solution of the above equations yields the expression for the constant As and Ac
q 2 n
0 (2n 2 ) ( 2n 2 )q
As = 2 2
=
( n ) 2 n (2n 2 )2 + 4( n )2 2
2 n (n )
2 2
2
( n 2 ) q
2 n 0 2(n )q
Ac = 2 2
= 2
(1.75)
( n ) 2 n (n 2 )2 + 4( n )2 2
2 n (2n 2 )
Introduction of the expressions 1.75 into the predicted solution 1.72 yields
where
p q Ac 2( n )
A= A2s + A2c = p = arctan = arctan 2
( 2n 2 )2 + 4(n )2 2 As n 2
(1.77)
or q
2n 2 n
A= q = arctan (1.78)
(1 ( n )2 )2 + 4 2 ( n )2 1 ( n )2
Introducing 1.69 and 1.76 into the 1.68 one can obtain the general solution of the
equation of motion 1.71 in the following form
The constants C and should be chosen to fullfil the required initial conditions.
For the following initial conditions
one can get the following set of the algebraic equations for determination of the
parameters C and
x0 = Co sin o + A sin
v0 = Co n sin o + Co d cos o + A cos (1.81)
Introduction of the solution of the equations 1.81 (Co, o ) to the general solution,
yields particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation that represents the forced
vibration of the system considered.
This solution, for the following numerical data = 0.1, n = 1[1/s], = 2[1/s],
Co = 1[m], o = 1[rd], A = 0.165205[m], = 0.126835[rd] is shown in Fig. 26
(curve c).The solution 1.82 is assembled out of two terms. First term represents an
x[m]
1
0.8 c b a
0.6
0.4 A
0.2
0
-0.2 t[s]
20 40 60
-0.4
-0.6 transient state of the forced vibration steady state of the forced vibration
Figure 26
oscillations with frequency equal to the natural frequency of the damped system d .
Motion represented by this term, due to the existing damping, decays to zero (curve
a in Fig. 1.82) and determines time of the transient state of the forced vibrations.
Hence, after an usually short time, the transient state changes into the steady state
represented by the second term in equation 1.82 (curve b in Fig. 1.82)
x = A sin(t + ) (1.83)
This harmonic term has amplitude A determined by the formula 1.77. It does not
depend on the initial conditions and is called amplitude of the forced vibration. Mo-
tion approximated by the equation 1.83 is usually referred to as the system forced
vibration.
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 37
Both, the exciting force f (t) = q sin t (1.70) and the (steady state) forced
vibration x = A sin(t + ) (1.83) are harmonic. Therefore, they can be represented
by means of two vectors rotating with the same angular velocity (see Fig. 27).One
x
q
A
qsin( t )
Asin( t+ )
t
Figure 27
can see from the above interpretation that the angular displacement is the phase
between the exciting force and the displacement it causes. Therefore is called phase
of the forced vibration.
Because the transient state, from engineering point of view play secondary
role, in the following sections the steady state forced vibration will be considered
only.
a) b)
m 2 sin t x x
m 2
m 2 sin t
t
m M
M
k c
Figure 28
and m is its mass, then the rotor produces the centrifugal force
F = m 2 (1.84)
Fx = m2 sin t (1.85)
M x = kx cx + m 2 sin t (1.86)
x + 2 n x + 2n x = q sin t (1.87)
where r
k c m 2
n = 2n = q= (1.88)
M M M
Hence, the steady state forced vibration are
x = A sin(t + ) (1.89)
The ratio mA , is called the magnification factor, Its magnitude and the phase as
M
a function of the ratio n for dierent damping factor is shown in Fig. 29.If the
frequency of excitation changes from zero to the value equal to the natural frequency
n , the amplitude of the forced vibration is growing. Its maximum depends on the
damping ratio and appears for > n . The phenomenon at which amplitude of
the forced vibration is maximum is called amplitude resonance. If the frequency of
m
excitation tends towards infinity, the amplitude of the forced vibration tends to M .
For = n , regardless the damping involved, phase of the forced vibration is equal
to 90o . This phenomenon is called phase resonance. If the frequency of excitation
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 39
6
=0
=0.1
=0.25
=0.5
4
=1.0
A =1.5
m
M
0
1 2 3
n
1 2 3
0
=0 =1.0
-45 =0.1 =1.5
=0.25
-90 =0.5
-135
-180
Figure 29
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 40
tends to infinity, the phase tends to 180o . Hence the response of the system tends to
be in the anti-phase with the excitation.
The force transmitted to the foundation R, according to the physical model
shown in Fig. 28b) is
R(t) = kx + cx = kA sin(t + ) + cA cos(t + ) = A k2 + c2 2 sin(t + + )
(1.92)
The amplitude of the reaction is
p
|R| = A k 2 + c2 2 = AM 4n + 4 2 2n 2 =
q
1 + 4 2 ( n )2
2
= m q
(1 ( n )2 )2 + 4 2 ( n )2
|R|
The amplification ratio m 2 of the reaction as a function of the ratio
n
is shown in
Fig. 30.For the frequency of excitation < 1.4 n the force transmitted to foundation
=0
=0.1
=0.25
4 =0.5
=1.0
R
m
2 =1.5
0
0 1 1.4 2 3
n
Figure 30
is greater then the centrifugal force itself with its maximum close to frequency n .
For > 1.4 n this reaction is smaller then the excitation force and tends to zero
when the frequency of excitation approaches infinity.
a) b)
x
M
v
y G
k y c
B
L a
R
Figure 31
model can be used to analyze vibration of a bus caused by the roughness of the
surface of the road shown in Fig. 31a). The stiness k of the spring and the damping
coecient c represent the dynamic properties of the bus shock-absorbers. The block
of mass M stands for the body of the bus. If the surface can be approximated by the
sine-wave of the amplitude a and length L and the bus is travelling with the constant
velocity v, the period of the harmonic excitation is
L
T = (1.93)
v
Hence, the frequency of excitation, according to 1.39 is
2v
= (1.94)
L
and the motion of the point B along the axis y can approximated as follows
y = a sin t (1.95)
M x = kx cx + ky + cy (1.96)
M x + cx + kx = ka sin t + ca cos t
or
x + 2 n x + 2n x = 2n a sin t + 2 n a cos t = q sin(t + ) (1.97)
where r
q= a 2n 1 + 4 2 ( )2 (1.98)
n
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 42
Without any harm to the generality of the considerations one can neglect the phase
and adopt the mathematical model in the following form
x + 2 n x + 2n x = q sin t (1.99)
x = A sin(t + )
where
q
2n 2 n
A= q = arctan (1.100)
(1 ( n )2 )2 + 4 2 ( n )2 1 ( n )2
The magnifying factor Aa and the phase as a function of n is shown in Fig. 32.
For < 1.4n it is possible to arrange for the bus to have vibration smaller than the
amplitude of the kinematic excitation
The expression for the reaction force transmitted to the foundation is
Problem of minimizing the reaction force R (e.g. 1.92) or the amplitude A (e.g..
1.101) is called vibration isolation.
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 43
=0
=0.1
=0.25
4 =0.5
=1.0
A
a =1.5
0
0 1 2 3
n
1 2 3
0
=0 =1.0
-45 =0.1 =1.5
=0.25
-90 =0.5
-135
-180
Figure 32
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 44
1.2.3 Problems
Free vibrations
Problem 9
k c
Figure 33
The carriage 1 of the lift shown in Fig. 33 operates between floors of a building.
The distance between the highest and the lowest floor is H = 30m. The average mass
of the carriage is m = 500kg. To attenuate the impact between the carriage and the
basement in the case the rope 3 is broken, the shock absorber 2 is to be installed.
Calculate the stiness k and the damping coecient c of the shock-absorber
which assure that the deceleration during the impact is smaller then 200m/s2 .
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 45
Solution
In the worst case scenario, the lift is at the level H when the rope brakes.
H
mg
k c
Figure 34
Due to the gravity force the lift is falling down with the initial velocity equal to zero.
Equation of motion of the lift is
mx = mg (1.103)
By double side by side integrating of the above equation one can get
g
x = A + Bt + t2 (1.104)
2
Introduction of the following initial conditions
x |t=0 = 0 x |t=0 = 0
Since
v = x = gt (1.107)
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 46
the velocity of the lift at the time of the impact with the shock-absorber is
p
vo = x |t=to = 2Hg (1.108)
To analyze the motion of the lift after impact let us introduce the inertial axis y
in such a way that its origin coincides with the upper end of the shock-absorber at
the instant of impact (see Fig. 35).Since at the instant of impact the spring k is
x
y
k c
y
mg
Figure 35
uncompressed, the equation of motion after the lift has reached the shock-absorber is
m
y + cy + ky = mg (1.109)
or in the standardized form
y + 2n y + 2n y = g (1.110)
where r
k c
n = ; 2n = (1.111)
m m
It is easy to see that in the case considered the particular solution of the non-
homogeneous equation is
g
yp = 2 (1.112)
n
The best performance of the shock-absorber is expected if the damping is critical
( = 1). In this case, there exists one double root and the general solution of the
homogeneous equation is
yg = C1 en t + C2 ten t (1.113)
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 47
Therefore the general solution of the non-homogeneous equation as the sum of yp and
yg is
g
y = C1 en t + C2 ten t + 2 (1.114)
n
This equation has to fullfil the following initial conditions
By inspection of the function 1.118, one can see that the maximum of the deceleration
occurs for time t = 0. Hence the maximum of deceleration is
amax = y |t=0 = D2n 2En (1.120)
If
g
vo > (1.121)
n
both constants E and D are positive. Hence
It follows
aa + g 200 + 10
n < = = 4.28s1 (1.124)
2 2Hg 2 2 30 10
q
k
Since n = m
, the stiness of the shock-absorber is
Our computation can be accepted only if the inequality 1.121 is fullfil. Indeed
p g 10
vo = 2Hg = 2 30 10 = 24.5 > = = 2.4m/s (1.127)
n 4.28
The displacement of the lift, its velocity and acceleration during the impact as a
function of time is shown in Fig. 36
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 49
2.5 displacement
2
1.5
y [m] 1
0.5
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
time [s]
25
20
15 velocity
v [m/s] 10
5
0
-5 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
time [s]
50
acceleration
time [s]
-50
a [m/s 2]
-100
-150
-200
Figure 36
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 50
Problem 10
The power winch W was mounted on the truss T as shown in Fig. 37a) To
a) T
b)
W k c
x
R
Figure 37
analyze the vibrations of the power winch the installation was modelled by the one
degree of freedom physical model shown in Fig. 38b). In this figure the equivalent
mass, stiness and damping coecient are denoted by m, k and c respectively. Origin
of the axis x coincides with the centre of gravity of the weight m when the system
rests in its equilibrium position.
To identify the unknown parameters m, k, and c, the following experiment was
carried out. The winch was loaded with the weight equal to M1 = 1000kg as shown in
Fig. 38. Then the load was released allowing the installation to perform the vertical
T
Ml
Figure 38
0.003
0.002
0.001
x[m] 0
1 2 3 4
-0.001
-0.003
Figure 39
Answer
m = 7000kg; k = 3000000Nm1 ; c = 15000N sm1
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 52
Problem 11
a) T
b)
W k c
x
R
Figure 40
Figure 41
R is not extendible produce expression for the tension in the rope R before and after
the block will lose contact with the floor.
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 53
Solution
In the first stage of lifting the block M, it stays motionlessly at the floor
whereas the lift itself is going down with respect to the inertial axis x with the
constant velocity vo . The tension T in the rope R varies between 0 and Mg.
0 < T 0 Mg (1.128)
If origin of the inertial axis x coincides with the gravity centre when the unloaded
winch is at its equilibrium, the equation of motion of the winch is
x + cx + kx = T
m (1.129)
In the above equation x = 0 (the winch is moving with the constant velocity vo ),
x = vo and x = vo t. Hence
The equation 1.130 governs motion of the winch till the tension T will reach value
Mg. Therefore the equation 1.130 allows the time of separation ts to be obtained.
Mg cvo
ts = (1.131)
kvo
At the instant of separation the winch will be at the position determined by the
following formula
Mg cvo
xs = vo ts = (1.132)
k
If Mg < cvo then xs = ts = 0.
If Mg > cvo
T = cvo + kvo t f or 0 < t < ts (1.133)
Tension in the rope R after the contact of the weight with the floor is lost
Without any harm to the generality of the further consideration one may
assume that the time corresponding to the instant of separation is equal to 0.
For t > 0, the equation of motion of the winch and the block (see Fig. 42) are
as following
x + cx + kx = T
m
M xb = T Mg (1.134)
Since the rope R is not extendible, the instantaneous length of the rope L is
L = Lo vo t (1.135)
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 54
k c
x
m
x
xb L
T
Mg
Figure 42
Where Lo stands for the initial length of the rope (the lenght the rope had at the
instance t = 0). Taking into account that
L = x xb (1.136)
we have
xb = x L = x Lo + vo t (1.137)
Introduction of the equation 1.137 into 1.134 yields
x + cx + kx = T
m
M x = T Mg (1.138)
Elimination of the unknown tension force allows the equation of motion of the winch
to be formulated
(m + M) x + cx + kx = Mg (1.139)
The standardized form is as following
x + 2n x + 2n x = q (1.140)
where
r
k c Mg
n = ; 2n = ; q= (1.141)
m+M m+M m+M
The particular solution of the non-homogeneous equation can be predicted as a con-
stant magnitude A. Hence
q
2n A = q; A= 2 (1.142)
n
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 55
where p
d = n 1 2 (1.144)
This solution has to fulfill the following initial conditions
f or t = 0 x = xs x = vo (1.145)
Introduction of these initial conditions into the solution 1.143 yields the following
expressions for the constants Cs and Cc
vo + n (xs A)
Cs = Cc = xs + A (1.146)
d
Hence,
n t vo + n (xs A)
x=e sin d t + (xs + A) cos d t + A (1.147)
d
The time history diagram of the above function is shown in Fig.43 The tension is
O t
xs
xmax
Td
Figure 43
T = M x + Mg (1.148)
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 56
Double dierentiation of the function 1.147 yields the wanted tension as a function
of time
T = Mg + Men t Cs (n )2 + 2Cc n d Cs 2d sin d t
+Men t Cc ( n )2 2Cs n d + Cc 2d cos d t (1.149)
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 57
Forced vibration
Problem 12
m
M
E,I t
A
c
B
l
Figure 44
The electric motor of mass M (see Fig. 44) is mounted on the massless beam
of length l, the second moment of inertia of its cross-section I and Young modulus E.
Shaft of the motor, of mass m, rotates with the constant angular velocity and its
unbalance (distance between the axis of rotation and the shaft centre of gravity) is
. The damping properties of the system are modelled by the linear damping of the
damping coecient c. Produce expression for the amplitude of the forced vibration
of the motor as well as the interaction forces transmitted to the foundation at the
points A and B.
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 58
Solution
m x
m
2
M
E,I t
A
c
B
l
Figure 45
M x = kx cx + m 2 sin t (1.150)
x = A sin (t + ) (1.154)
where
q
2n 2 n
A= q = arctan (1.155)
(1 ( n )2 )2 + 4 2 ( n )2 1 ( n )2
represents the forced vibrations of the system. In the above formula A stands for the
amplitude of the forced vibrations of the motor. The interaction force at the point
A can be determined from equilibrium of forces acting on the beam at an arbitrarily
chosen position x (see Fig 46).
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 59
kx
E,I D
x A
0.5k x 0.5k x
l
Figure 46
The force needed to displace the point D by x is equal to kx. Hence, the
reaction at the point A is
cx
x
D
c
B
cx
Figure 47
To move the point D (see Fig. 47) with the velocity x the force cx is required.
Hence, from the equilibrium of the damper one can see that the reaction at the point
B is
RB = cx = cA sin (t + )
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 60
Problem 13
z
5
x
3
z=x-y
4
y
2
Figure 48
z =xy (1.157)
where y is the absolute displacement of the vibration object 1 and x is the absolute
displacement of the seismic weight 3. Upon assuming that the object 1 performs a
harmonic motion
y = a sin t (1.158)
derive the formula for the amplification coecient of the amplitude of vibration of
amplitude of z
the object 1 of this transducer ( = amplitude of y
) as a function of the non-dimensional
frequency n .
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 61
Solution
The equation of motion of the system shown in Fig. 48 is
m
x + cx + kx = cy + ky (1.159)
where r
k c c k
n = 2 n = qc = qs = (1.161)
m m m m
Simplification of the right side of the above equation yields
x + 2 n x + 2n x = aq sin (t + ) (1.162)
where
s 2
p qc
q = qc2 + qs2 = 2n 4 2 +1 = arctan = arctan 2 (1.163)
n qs n
According to equation 1.76 (page 35) the particular solution of the equation 1.162 is
xp = aA sin(t + + ) (1.164)
where
r 2
4 2 n
+1 2 n
A = s = arctan 2 (1.165)
2 2 2
1 n
1 n + 4 2 n
z = x y = aA sin(t + + ) a sin t =
= aA cos ( + ) sin t + aA sin ( + ) cos t a sin t =
= (aA cos ( + ) a) sin t + aA sin ( + ) cos t (1.166)
5
=0.1
4
=0.25
3
=0.5
2
0 1 2 3 4 5
/ n
Figure 49
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 63
Problem 14
O
A G B
c
k
a x
C
b
d
Figure 50
The physical model of a vibrating table is shown in Fig. 50. It can be con-
sidered as a rigid body of the mass m and the moment of inertia about axis through
its centre of gravity IG . It is supported with by means of the spring of the stiness
k and the damper of the damping coecient c. The motion of the lower end of the
spring with respect to the absolute coordinate x can be approximated as follows
x = X cos t
where X stands for the amplitude of the oscillations of the point C and stands for
the frequency of these oscillations.
Produce:
1. the dierential equation of motion of the vibrating table and present it in
the standard form
2. the expression for the amplitude of the forced vibrations of the table caused
by the motion of the point C
3. the expression for the interaction force at the point A
4. the expression for the driving force that has to be applied to the point C
ANALYSIS OF ONE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 64
Problem 15
C
Y c B
k
1 L
A
2 xG
G
L/2 L/2
Figure 51
Two uniform rods (1 and 2), each of length L and mass m, were joined together
to form the pendulum whose physical model is depicted in Fig. 51. The pendulum
performs small oscillations about the axis through the point A. At the point B it
is supported by a spring of stiness k and a damper of damping coecient c. The
point C of the damper is driven along the axis Y and its motion is approximated by
the following function
Y = A sin t
Produce:
1. The expression for the position xG of the center of gravity G of the pendulum
Answer:
xG = 34 L a
2. The expression for the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the axis through
the point A.
Answer:
17
IA = 12 mL2 + 2maH2 3mLa
3. The dierential equation of motion of the pendulum
Answer:
+ 2 n + 2n = q cos t
Since in the nature massless or rigid elements do not exist, therefore each of the
particle the real element is made of can moves independently. It follows that to
determine its position with respect to the inertial space one has to introduce infinite
number of coordinates. Hence, according to the previously introduce definition, the
number of degrees of freedom of each real element is equal to infinity. But in many
vibration problems, with acceptable accuracy, the real elements can be represented
by a limited number of rigid elements connected to each other by means of massless
elements representing the elastic and damping properties. This process is called
discretization and the final result of this process is called multi-degree-of-freedom
system. In this chapter it will be assumed that forces produced by these massless
xj
mj
k ij c ij
xi
mi
y i(t) ki ci
Figure 1
elements (springs and dampers) are linear functions of displacements and velocities
respectively.
2.1 MODELLING
2.1.1 Physical model
Fig. 1 shows part of a multi-degree-of-freedom system. Usually, to describe motion of
such a system a set of local generalized coordinates is introduced. These coordinates
(xi , xj , yi (t)) are motionless with respect to a global (inertial) system of coordinates
MODELLING 67
(not shown in the Fig. 1). The coordinate yi (t) is not independent (is an explicit
function of time) whereas the coordinates xi , and xj are independent and their number
determines the number of degree of freedom of the system. Origin of each coordinate
coincides with the centre of gravity of individual bodies when the whole system is at
its equilibrium position. For this equilibrium position all the static forces acting on
individual bodies produces the resultant force equal to zero.
2.1.2 Mathematical model
It will be shown in this section that the equation of motion of the multi-degree of
freedom linear system has the following form
m
x+cx+kx=F(t)
where
m - is the inertia matrix
c - is the damping matrix
k- is the stiness matrix
F - is the external excitation matrix
x- is the displacement matrix
There are many methods that allow the mathematical model to be formulated.
In the following sections a few of them are presented.
mi xi = F (2.1)
If the system stays at its equilibrium position, as it was mention earlier, the resultant
of all static forces is equal zero. Therefore, the force F must contains forces due to
the displacement of the system from its equilibrium position only. To figure these
forces out let us move the mass mi out of its equilibrium position by the displacement
xi . The configuration a) shown in the figure below is achieved.
MODELLING 68
a) b) c) d) e) f)
xi 6= 0 xi = 0 xi = 0 xi = 0 xi = 0 xi = 0
xj = 0 xj 6= 0 xj = 0 xj = 0 xj = 0 xj = 0
yi = 0 yi = 0 yi 6= 0 yi = 0 yi = 0 yi = 0
x i = 0 x i = 0 x i = 0 x i 6= 0 x i = 0 x i = 0
x j = 0 x j = 0 x j = 0 x j = 0 x j 6= 0 x j = 0
yi = 0 yi = 0 y i = 0 yi = 0 yi = 0 y i 6= 0
xj xj xj xj xj xj
xj mj mj
mj mj mj mj xj
-kijxi kij +kijxj kij cij kij -cijxi k +cijxj k kij cij
cij xi
cij ij cij ij cij
xi
xi xi xi xi
xi mi
mi +kiyi mi mi xi mi mi
-ki xi -ci xi
yi (t) k ci yi (t) k
i
ci yi (t) ki ci yi (t) k ci yi (t) k ci yi (t) k
i
ci
i i i
yi yj
mi xi = ki xi kij xi +kij xj +ki yi (t) ci x i cij x i
+0 +cij x j
(2.2)
Due to this displacement there are two forces ki xi and kij xi acting on the considered
mass mi . Both of them must be taken with sign - because the positive displacement
xi causes forces opposite to the positive direction of axis xi . Similar consideration
carried out for the displacements along the axis xj (configuration b)) and axis yi (
configuration c)) results in the term +kij xj . and +ki yi (t) respectively. Up to now it
has been assumed that the velocities of the system along all coordinates are equal
to zero and because of this the dampers do not produce any force. The last three
configurations (d, e, and f ) allow to take these forces into account. Due to motion of
the system along the coordinate xi with velocity x i two additional forces are created
by the dampers ci and cij. they are ci x i and cij x i . Both of them are caused by
positive velocity and have sense opposite to the positive sense of axis xi . Therefore
they have to be taken with the sign -. The forces caused by motion along the axis
xj (configuration e)) and axis yi ( configuration f )) results in the term +cij x j . and 0
respectively. Since the system is linear, one can add all this forces together to obtain
After standardization we have the final form of equation of motion of the mass mi .
To accomplished the mathematical model, one has to carry out similar consideration
for each mass involved in the system. As a result of these consideration we are getting
set of dierential equation containing as many equations as the number of degree of
freedom.
MODELLING 69
where
mi - mass of the rigid body
vi - absolute velocity of the centre of gravity of the body
ix, iy, iz, - components of the absolute angular velocity of the body
Iix , Iiy , Iiz - The principal moments of inertia of the body about axes through
its centre of gravity
Potential energy function V for the gravity force acting on the link i shown in Fig. 2
is
Vi = mi grGiZ (2.7)
Gi
Z rGiZ
rG i
O Y
X
Figure 2
A
s
B
rA
Z rB
O Y
X
Figure 3
Potential energy function for all conservative forces acting on the system is
X
I X
S
V = Vi + Vs (2.9)
i=1 s=1
li = xi yi lij = xj xi (2.12)
MODELLING 71
xj xj
mj xj
mj
c ij k ij c ij
x i k ij xi
mi xi
mi
ki ci
y i (t) k y i (t)
i ci
yi
Figure 4
Introduction of the equations 2.11, 2.13 and 2.14 into equation 2.15 yields the equation
of the motion of the mass mi .
mi xi + (ci + cij )x i cij x j + (ki + kij )xi kij xj = ki yi (t) (2.16)
Fj xj
mj
xi
x ij mi
Figure 5
Let us consider the flexible structure shown in Fig. 5. Let us assume that the masses
mi and mj can move along the coordinate xi and xj respectively. Let us apply to this
system a static force Fj along the coordinate xj . Let xij be the displacement of the
system along the coordinate xi caused by the force Fj .
DEFINITION: The ratio
xij
ij = (2.17)
Fj
is called the influence coecient
It can be easily proved (see Maxwells reciprocity theorem) that for any structure
ij = ji (2.18)
If one apply forces along all I generalized coordinates xi along which the system
is allowed to move, the displacement along the i th coordinate, according to the
superposition principle, is.
X
I
xi = ij Fj i = 1, 2, ......I (2.19)
j=1
The inverse transformation permits to produce forces that have to act on the system
along the individual coordinates if the system is at an arbitrarily chosen position x.
F = 1 x (2.21)
k = 1 (2.22)
X
I
Fi = kij xj (2.23)
j=1
If the system considered moves and its instantaneous position is determined by the
vector x (x1 , ....xj , ...xJ ) the force that acts on the particle mi is
X
I
fi = Fi = kij xj (2.24)
j=1
Hence, application of the third Newtons law to the particle i yields the equation of
its motion in the following form
X
I
mi xi + kij xj = 0 (2.25)
j=1
MODELLING 74
2.1.3 Problems
Problem 16
2 1
Figure 6
Solution.
2 1
R
z
Md y
Fd
l
y
Figure 7
my = Fd
I
y = Md (2.26)
2
Fs
Ms
z
y
y
l
Figure 8
If the beam is loaded with force Fs (see Fig. 8), the corresponding displace-
ments y and y are
l3 l2
y= Fs y = Fs (2.27)
3EJ 2EJ
If the beam is loaded with force Ms (see Fig. 8), the corresponding displacements y
and y are
l2 l
y= Ms , y = Ms (2.28)
2EJ EJ
MODELLING 76
l3 l2
y = Fs + Ms
3EJ 2EJ
l2 l
y = Fs + Ms (2.29)
2EJ EJ
or in matrix form
l3 l2
y 3EJ 2EJ
Fs
= l2 l (2.30)
y 2EJ EJ
Ms
where
r4
J= (2.31)
4
The inverse transformation yields the wanted forces as function of the displacements
l3 l2
1
Fs 3EJ 2EJ
y k11 k12 y
= l2 l = (2.32)
Ms 2EJ EJ
y k21 k22 y
x + kx = 0
m (2.35)
where
m 0 k11 k12 y
m= ; k= ; x= (2.36)
0 I k21 k22 y
MODELLING 77
Problem 17
k1 k2
l1 l2
Figure 9
A rigid beam of mass m and the moments of inertia I about axis through
its centre of gravity G is supported by massless springs k1 , and as shown in Fig. 9.
Produce equations of motion of the system.
MODELLING 78
Solution.
M
G O
y y2=y+ l 2
y1 =y- l1
k1
l1 F l2
k2
y
Figure 10
The system has two degree of freedom. Let us then introduce the two coordi-
nates y and as shown in Fig. 10.
The force F and the moment M that act on the beam due to its motion along
coordinates y and are
F = y1 k1 y2 k2 = (y l1 )k1 (y + l2 )k2
= [(k1 + k2 )y + (k2 l2 k1 l1 )]
M = +y1 k1 l1 y2 k2 l2 = +(y l1 )k1 l1 (y + l2 )k2 l2
= [(k2 l2 k1 l1 )y + (k1 l12 + yk2 l22 ) (2.37)
y = F = [(k11 + k2 )y + (k2 l2 k1 l1 )]
m
= M = [(k2 l2 k1 l1 )y + (k1 l12 + yk2 l22 )
I (2.38)
x + kx = 0
m (2.39)
where
m 0 k1 + k2 k2 l2 k1 l1 y
m= ; k= ; x= (2.40)
0 I k2 l2 k1 l1 k1 l12 + k2 l22
MODELLING 79
Problem 18
1
A
k 3 r k R
4
2
Figure 11
The link 1 of a mass m1 , shown in Fig. 11), can move along the horizontal
slide and is supported by two springs 3 each of stiness k. The ball 2 of mass m2
and a radius r and the massless rod 4 form a rigid body. This body is hinged to the
link 1 at the point A. All motion is in the vertical plane. Use Lagranges approach
to derive equations of small vibrations of the system about its equilibrium position.
I = 25 m2 r2 moment of inertia of the ball about axis through its centre of gravity.
MODELLING 80
Solution
1 x
k
o
rG x
k 3
r R
2
G
Figure 12
The system has two degree of freedom and the two generalized coordinates x
and are shown in Fig. 12. The kinetic energy of the system T is equal to the sum
of the kinetic energy of the link 1 T1 and the link 2 T2 .
1 1 1
T = T1 + T2 = m1 x 2 + m2 vG
2
+ I 2 (2.41)
2 2 2
The absolute velocity of the centre of gravity of the ball vG can be obtained by
dierentiation of its absolute position vector. According to Fig .12, this position
vector is
rG = i(x + R sin ) + j( R cos ) (2.42)
Hence
vG = r G = i(x + R cos ) + j(R sin ) (2.43)
The required squared magnitude of this velocity is
2
vG = (x + R cos )2 + (R sin )2 = x 2 + 2xR
cos + R2 2 (2.44)
Introduction of Eq. 2.44 into Eq. 2.41 yields the kinetic energy function of the system
as a function of the generalized coordinates x and .
1 1 1
T = m1 x 2 + m2 (x 2 + 2xR
cos + R2 2 ) + I 2
2 2 2
1 1
= (m1 + m2 )x 2 + m2 Rx cos + (m2 R2 + I) 2 (2.45)
2 2
The potential energy function is due the energy stored in the springs and the energy
due to gravitation.
1
V = 2 kx2 m2 gR cos (2.46)
2
MODELLING 81
In the case considered, the Lagranges equations can be adopted in the following form
d T T V
+ = 0
dt x x x
d T T V
+ = 0 (2.47)
dt
T
=0 (2.49)
x
V
= 2kx (2.50)
x
d T d
= m2 Rx cos + (m2 R2 + I) =
dt dt
= (m2 R2 + I) + m2 Rx cos m2 Rx sin (2.51)
T
= m2 Rx sin (2.52)
V
= m2 gR sin (2.53)
Hence, according to Eq. 2.47, we have the following equations of motion
(m1 + m2 )
x + m2 R
+ 2kx = 0
2
(m2 R + I)
+ m2 Rx + m2 gR = 0 (2.55)
Problem 19
k A2 k
q
2 l
k k
A1
q l
1
Figure 13
Two identical and uniform rods shown in Fig. 13, each of mass m and length l,
are joined together to form an inverse double pendulum. The pendulum is supported
by four springs, all of stiness k, in such way that its vertical position (q1 = 0 and
q2 = 0) is its stable equilibrium position. Produce equation of small vibrations of the
pendulum about this equilibrium position.
MODELLING 83
Problem 20
1 3 4 2
l3
GJ o EI
R l4
Figure 14
The disk 1 of mass m1 and radius R shown in Fig. 14, is fasten to the massless
and flexible shaft 3. The left hand end of the massless and flexible beam 4 is rigidly
attached to the disk 1. At its right hand side the particle 2 of m2 is placed. Derive
equations for analysis of small vibrations of the system.
MODELLING 84
Problem 21
R R
I1 I2
l 1 J1 G l 2 J2 G
1 2
I3
Figure 15
A belt gear was modelled as shown in Fig. 15. The shafts are assumed to
be massless and their length the second moment of inertia and the shear modulus is
denoted by l, J, and G respectively. The disks have moments of inertia I1 , I2 , and I3 .
The belt is modelled as the spring of a stiness k. Derive the dierential equations
for the torsional vibrations of the system.
MODELLING 85
Problem 22
D1 D2
I2
I1
l 2 J2 G
l 1 J1 G 2
1
I3
Figure 16
In Fig. 16 the physical model of a gear box is presented. Derive equations for
the torsional vibrations of the gear box. The shafts the gears are mounted on are
massless.
MODELLING 86
Problem 23
B A
l C l
l l
l l
O Y
2 4 6 7 1 5 3
Figure 17
Problem 24
l l l l
4 4 4 4
m m m
Figure 18
Three beads, each of mass m are attached to the massless string shown in Fig.
18. The string has length l and is loaded with the tensile force T. Derive equation of
motion of the beads
MODELLING 88
Problem 25
m
l
q R
1
q
2
Figure 19
On the massless string of length l the ball of mass m and radius R is suspended
(see Fig. 19). Derive equation of motion of the system.
MODELLING 89
Problem 26
I1 i I2 I1 i I2
R
c
k
ks1 ks2
m
Figure 20
Fig. 20 presents the physical model of a winch. The shafts of the torsional
stiness ks1 and ks2 as well as the gear of ratio i are massless. To the right hand end
of the shaft ks2 the rotor of the moment of inertia I2 is attached. The left hand end
of the shaft ks1 is connected to the drum of the moment of inertia I1 . The rope is
modelled as a massless spring of the stiness k. At its end the block of mass m is
fastened. The damper of the damping coecient c represents the damping properties
of the system.
Produce the dierential equation of motion of the system.
MODELLING 90
Problem 27
Z
z
4R
C
3
G
R
O X
Figure 21
Problem 28
I1 I2
l 1 J1 G1 l 2 J2 G2
l 3 J3 G3
l 4 J4 G4
Figure 22
The two disks of moments of inertia I1 and I2 are join together by means of
the massless shafts as is shown in Fig. 50. The dynamic properties of the shafts are
determined by their lenghts l, the second moments of area J and the shear modulus
G. Produce the dierential equations of motion.
x + cx + kx = F(t)
m (2.58)
where
m - matrix of inertia
c - matrix of damping
k - matrix of stiness
F(t)- vector of the external excitation
x- vector of the generalized coordinates
2.2.1 General case
In the general case of the multi-degree-of-freedom system the matrices c and k do not
necessary have to be symmetrical. Such a situation takes place, for example, if the
mechanical structure interacts with fluid or air (oil bearings, flatter of plane wings
etc.). Since the equation 2.58 is linear, its general solution is always equal to the sum
of the general solution of the homogeneous equation xg and the particular solution
of the non-homogeneous equation xp .
x = xg + xp (2.59)
corresponds to the case when the excitation F(t) is not present. Therefore, its gen-
eral solution represents the free (natural) vibrations of the system. The particular
solution of the non-homogeneous equation 2.58 represents the vibrations caused by
the excitation force F(t). It is often refered to as the forced vibrations.
x = y
y = m1 kx m1 cy (2.62)
z = Az (2.63)
where
x 0 1
z= , A= (2.64)
y m1 k m1 c
Solution of the above equation can be predicted in the form 2.65.
z = z0 ert (2.65)
Introduction of Eq. 2.65 into Eq. 2.63 results in a set of the homogeneous algebraic
equations which are linear with respect to the vector z0 .
[A 1r] z0 = 0 (2.66)
The equations 2.66 have non-zero solution if and only if the characteristic determinant
is equal to 0.
|[A 1r]| = 0 (2.67)
The process of searching for a solution of the equation 2.67 is called eigenvalue problem
and the process of searching for the corresponding vector z0 is called eigenvector
problem. Both of them can be easily solved by means of the commercially available
computer programs.
The roots rn are usually complex and conjugated.
rn = hn i n n = 1.....N (2.68)
Their number N is equal to the number of degree of freedom of the system considered.
The particular solutions corresponding to the complex roots 2.68 are
In the above expressions Re(z0n ) and Im(z0n ) stand for the real and imaginary part
of the complex and conjugated eigenvector z0n associated with the nth root of the
set 2.68 respectively. The particular solutions 2.69 allow to formulate the general
solution that approximates the system free vibrations..
z = [z11 , z12, z21 , z22, z31 , z32, .....zn1 , zn2, .........zN1 , zN 2 ] C (2.70)
As one can see from the formulae 2.69, the imaginary parts of roots rn represent
the natural frequencies of the system and their real parts represent rate of
decay of the free vibrations. The system with N degree of freedom possesses
N natural frequencies. The equation 2.70 indicates that the free motion of a multi-
degree-of-freedom system is a linear combination of the solutions 2.69.
A graphical interpretation of the solutions 2.69 is given in Fig. 23 for the
positive and negative magnitude of hn .The problem of searching for the vector of the
30 z z
1
25
0.8
20
15
h>0 0.6 h<0
10 0.4
5 0.2
0 0
-5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 t -0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 t
-10 -0.4
-15 T n = 2 / n -0.6
-20 T n = 2 / n
-0.8
Figure 23
constant magnitudes C is called initial problem. In the general case, this problem is
dicult and goes beyond the scope of this lectures.
The roots 2.68 allow the stability of the system equilibrium position to be
determined.
If all roots rn of the equation 2.68 have negative real parts then the
equilibrium position of the system considered is stable.
If at least one root of the equation 2.68 has positive real part then
the equilibrium position of the system considered is unstable.
The relationship between the complex excitation f k and the real excitation is shown
in Fig. 24. According to Eulers formula the complex excitation may be rewritten as
Im
k
f
F0
k 0k
k k Re
F0 cos( t+ 0 )
0k
k
F
k
F0
Figure 24
follows
k k
f k = Fok ei(t+o ) = Fok eio eit = fok eit (2.74)
Here, fok is a complex number that depends on the amplitude and phase of the external
excitation. Introduction of Eq. 2.74 into Eq. 2.71 yields
x + cx + kx = fo eit
m (2.75)
Now, the particular solution of Eq. 2.75 can be predicted in the complex form 2.76
xc = aeit (2.76)
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 95
Introduction of Eq. 2.76 into Eq. 2.75 produces set of the algebraic equations which
are linear with respect to the unknown vector a.
2
m + ic + k a = fo (2.77)
Its solution is 1
a = 2 m + ic + k fo (2.78)
Therefore, according to Eq. 2.76, the response of the system xc due to the complex
force f is
xc = (Re(a) + i Im(a))(cos t + i sin t) (2.79)
Response of the system x due to the real excitation F is represented by the real part
of the solution 2.79.
x = Re(a) cos t Im(a) sin t (2.80)
Motion of the system considered along the coordinate xk , according to 2.80 is
where
p Im(ak )
xko = Re(ak )2 + Im(ak )2 k = arc tan (2.82)
Re(ak )
It is easy to see from 2.79 that the amplitude of the forced vibration xko is equal to the
absolute value of the complex amplitude ak , and its phase k is equal to the phase
between the complex amplitudes ak and the vector eit . This findings are presented
in Fig. 25.
The complex matrix
2 1
m + ic + k (2.83)
It is easy to see that the element Rpq (i) of the matrix of transfer functions represents
the complex displacement (amplitude and phase) of the system along the coordinates
xp caused by the unit excitation 1eit along the coordinate xq . Example of three
elements of a matrix of the transform functions are presented in Fig. 26. The first
two diagrams present the real and the imaginary parts of the complex transform
functions whereas the last two present its absolute value (amplitude) and phase.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 96
Im
k
f
k
F0
a
k 0k
k
x0
0k
t
k k Re
F0 cos( t+ 0 )
k k
x0 cos( t+ 0 )
0k 0k
k
F
k
x
t
k
F0
k
x0
Figure 25
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 97
0.003
0.0025 R(1,1)
0.002
R(1,2)
0.0015
R(1,3)
0.001
0.0005
0
0
500 1000 1500 frequency rad/s
2 R(1,1)
R(1,2)
0 R(1,3)
-2
-4
500 1000 1500 frequency rad/s
Figure 26
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 98
Fq xq
xp
xp
F(t)
q Fq ( i ) R (i )
i pq
t Fourier
x(p i )
x(t) ___
p x( i )
p
transformation
Fq ( i )
Figure 27
In order to produce the transfer function between the coordinate xp and the coor-
dinate xq (see Fig. 27) let us apply force Fq (t) along the coordinate xq and record
it simultaneously with the system response xp (t) along the coordinate xp . Fourier
transformation applied to these functions
Z +
Fq (i) = eit Fq (t)dt
Z +
xp (i) = eit xp (t)dt (2.85)
yields the Fourier transforms in the frequency domain xp (i) and Fq (i). The am-
plitude of the complex functions xp (i) and Fq (i)
q
|xp (i)| = Re(xp (i))2 + Im(xp (i))2
q
|Fq (i)| = Re(Fq (i))2 + Im(Fq (i))2 (2.86)
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 99
Im(xp (i))
xp = arctan
Re(xp (i))
Im(Fq (i))
F q = arctan (2.87)
Re(Fq (i))
These Fourier transforms allow the transfer function Rpq (i) to be computed.
xp (i)
Rpq (i) = (2.88)
Fq (i)
The above formula determines response of the system along coordinate xp caused by
the harmonic excitation Fq along the coordinate xq .
Since the system considered is by assumption linear, the response along the coordinate
xp caused by set of forces acting along coordinates N coordinates xq , according to
the superposition principle, is
q=N
X
xp (i) = Rpq (i)Fq (i) q = 1....N (2.90)
q=1
x + cx + kx = 0
m (2.92)
x + kx = 0
m (2.93)
(2 m + k)X = 0 (2.96)
In turn, the above set of equations has the non-zero solutions if and only if its char-
acteristic determinant is equal to zero
2
m + k = 0 (2.97)
The above characteristic equation, for any physical system, has N positive roots with
respect to the parameter 2 . Hence, the parameter can take any of the following
values
1 , 2 , 3 , ..... n , .... N (2.98)
As one can see from Eq. 2.94, these parameters have the physical meaning only for
positive values. They represent frequencies of the system free vibrations. They are
called natural frequencies. The number of dierent natural frequencies is therefore
equal to the number of degree of freedom. For each of the possible natural frequencies
n the system of equations 2.96 becomes linearly dependent and therefore has infinite
number of solution Xn . Its follows that if Xn is a solution of Eq. 2.96, the vector
Cn Xn (2.99)
where Cn is arbitrarily chosen constant, is solution of the Eq. 2.96 too. The vector Xn
represents so called natural mode of vibration associated with the natural frequency
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 101
n . It determines the shape that the system must possess to oscillate harmonically
with the frequency n .
For example, if a beam with four concentrated masses is considered (see Fig.
28) the vector Xn contains four numbers
If the system is deflected according to the this vector and allowed to move with the
x3n = X 3n cos n t
x
X 1n X 4n
X 2n X 3n
Tn
Figure 28
initial velocity equal to zero, it will oscillate with the frequency n . There are four
such a natural modes and four corresponding natural frequencies for this system.
The problem of the determination of the natural frequencies is called eigen-
value problem and searching for the corresponding natural modes is called eigenvector
problem. Therefore the natural frequencies are very often referred to as eigenvalue
and the natural modes as eigenvectors.
Now, one can say that the process of determination of the particular solution
xn = Xn cos n t (2.101)
of the equation 2.93 has been accomplished. There are N such particular solutions.
In similar manner one can prove that
xn = Xn sin n t (2.102)
is a particular solution too. Since the solutions ?? and 2.102 are linearly independent,
their linear combination forms the general solution of the equation 2.93
X
N
xn = (Sn Xn sin n t + Cn Xn cos n t) (2.103)
n=1
2n mXn +kXn = 0
2m mXm +kXm = 0 (2.104)
Primultiplying the first equation by XTm and the second equation by XTn one can get
XTm kXn = XTn kXm and XTm mXn = XTn mXm (2.106)
Now, primultiplying the first equation of set 2.105 by -1 and then adding them to-
gether we are getting
( 2n 2m )XTn mXm = 0 (2.107)
Since for n 6= m (2n 2m ) 6= 0,
1
n = Xn (2.111)
n
The process of producing of the eigenvectors n is called normalization and the
eigenvector n is called normalized eigenvector or normalized mode. According to
2.110,
Tn mn = 1 (2.112)
Taking into account Eqs 2.108 and 2.112 one can conclude that
T 0 if n 6= m
n mm = (2.113)
1 if n = m
It is said that eigenvectors n and m that fulfill the above conditions are orthogonal
with respect to the inertia matrix m.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 103
T m = 1
T k = 2 (2.116)
c =m+k (2.118)
x = (2.119)
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 104
x + cx + kx = F(t)
m (2.120)
results in its decoupling. Indeed, introduction of the transformation 2.119 into 2.120
yields
m + c + k = F(t) (2.121)
Primultiplying both sides of the above equation by T we obtain
T m
+ T (m+k) + T k = T F(t) (2.122)
Taking advantage of the orthogonality conditions 2.116 we are getting set of indepen-
dent equations
+ + 2n = T F(t)
1 (2.123)
where
1 - the unit matrix
2n and = (1+ 2n ) - diagonal matrices
Hence, each equation of the above set has the following form
n + 2 n n n + 2n n = T
n F(t) n = 1, 2, ...N (2.124)
The coecients n = (+ 2n )/2 n are often referred to as the modal damping ratio.
Solution of each of the above equations can be obtained independently and
according to the discussion carried out in the first chapter (page 30, Eq. 1.46) can
be written as follows
Hence
n + 2 n n n + 2n n = qn Fq eit n = 1, 2, ...N (2.127)
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 105
Therefore
qn Fq
n = 2 2
eit n = 1, 2, ...N (2.128)
n + 2 n n i
Since
x = (2.129)
response along coordinate xp
X
N
pn qn Fq
it
xp = e (2.130)
2
n=1 n
2 + 2 n n i
xp X N
pn qn
it
= q = 1, 2, .......N (2.131)
Fq e 2 + 2 n n i
2
n=1 n
PN pn qn (( 2n 2 )2 n n i)
Rpq (i) = Fqxepit = =
PN pn qn (2n 2 ) 2n 2n 2
n=1 (2n 2 )2 +4
2pn qn n n i (2.132)
= n=1 ( 2n 2 )2 +4 2n 2n 2
+ (2n 2 )2 +4 2n 2n 2
q = 1, 2, .......N
pn qn ( 2n 2 ) pn qn i
if
= n Rpq (i)
= + q = 1, 2, .......N (2.133)
4 2n 2n 2 2 n n
Alternatively, The natural frequencies and the natural modes can be extracted from
diagrams of the magnitudes and phases of the transfer function.
The phase since the real part of the transfer function is equal to zero for
= n is equal to 90o
Im (Rpq (in ))
= arctan = arctan = 90o (2.135)
Re (Rpq (in ))
This property allows the natural frequencies to be determined.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 106
Since the real part of the transfer function is equal to zero for = n , its mod-
ulus is equal to the imaginary part. Therefore the modulus of the transfer functions
corresponding = n determine the natural modes
pn
|Rpq (i)| = qn
(2.136)
2 n 2n
An example of extracting the natural frequency and the corresponding natural mode
from the transfer functions is shown in Fig. 29
transfer functions m/N (modulus)
0.00025
0.0002
R(1,1) natural mode
0.00015
R(1,2)
0.0001 R(1,3)
0.00005
0
1500 1600 1700 1800 frequency rad/s
-1
-2 /2
-3
-4
1500 1600 1700 1800 frequency rad/s
2 3
1
Figure 29
Determination of the natural frequencies and the natural modes from the
transfer functions is referred to as modal analysis.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 107
x + cx + kx = F(t)
m (2.137)
where the matrices m, c and k are symmetric and positive definite matrices.
If this function is positive definite (is always positive and is equal to zero if and only
if all variables x n are equal to zero) the corresponding matrix m is called positive
definite matrix.
If T is the kinetic energy function, according to Lagranges equations should
be
x1
....
d T T
= {mn1 , ..mnn ..mnN } xn (2.140)
dt x n xn
.....
xN
Let us prove that the function 2.138 fulfills the requirement 2.140.
d T T
dt x n xn
Pm=N
m=1 m1m x m
m1n
d 1 .................
P .......
= {0, 0..1..0} m=N
+ {x , ..x ..x } mmn =
m=1 mnm x m
dt
1 n N
2
..................
.......
Pm=N
m=1 m Nm mx mN N
m=N !!
d 1 X X
m=N
= mnm x m + mmn x m (2.141)
dt 2 m=1 m=1
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 108
Now we may conclude that the function 2.143 is the kinetic energy function if the
matrix k is symmetric and positive definite.
Dissipation function
It is easy to notice, having in mind the previous consideration, that the function
1
D = x T cx x = {x 1 , ......x n ........x N }T (2.148)
2
fulfills the following relationship
x 1
D ....
= {cn1 , ......cnn ........cnN } x n (2.149)
x n
.....
x N
It follows that if the matrix of damping is symmetrical and positive definite, such a
damping can be included in the Lagranges equation in the following way
d T T V D
+ + = Qn (2.150)
dt x n xn xn x n
The function D is called dissipation function. It must be noted that the dissi-
pation function does not represent the dissipation energy.
The damping forces, in a general case, are not conservative and have to be
included in the generalized force Qn .
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 110
2.2.4 Problems
Problem 29
l 1 J1 E 1 m1
B
k m2
J2 E 2
l2 l2
2 c 2
A
Figure 30
The point A of the system shown in Fig. 30 moves according to the following
equation
y = A1 sin(f1 t) + A2 sin(f2 t) (2.151)
where A1 and A2 are amplitudes of this motion and f1 and f2 are the corresponding
frequencies.
Produce
1. the dierential equations of motion
2. the natural frequencies
3. the steady state motion of the system due to the kinematic excitation y
4. the exciting force at the point A required to maintain the steady state
motion
5. the reaction force and the reaction moment at the point B. .
Given are:
l1 = 1m E1 = 0.2 1012 N/m2 J1 = 1 108 m4 m1 = 10kg
l2 = 2m E2 = 0.2 1012 N/m2 J2 = 1 108 m4 m2 = 20kg
k = 10000N/m
c = 100Ns/m
A1 = 0.01m f1 = 30rad/s
A2 = 0.01m f2 = 35rad/s
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 111
Solution
l 1 J1 E 1 m1
B
k y
J2 E 2 m2 1
l2 l2
2 c y2 2
A
Figure 31
m1 y1 = k1 y1 ky1 + ky2
m2 y2 = k2 y2 ky2 + ky1 cy 2 + cy (2.152)
or shorter
y + cy + ky = F(t)
m (2.154)
where
m1 0 0 0 k + k1 k 0
m= ; c= ; k= ; F(t) =
0 m2 0 c k k + k2 cy
(2.155)
Taking into consideration Eq. 2.151, the excitation cy is
where
a1 = cA1 f1 ; a2 = cA2 f2
Introduction of Eq. 2.156 into the equation of motion 2.154 yields
y + cy + ky = F1 (t) + F2 (t)
m (2.157)
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 112
where
0 0
F1 (t) = ; F2 (t) = (2.158)
a1 cos(f1 t) a2 cos(f2 t)
For the given numerical data the stiness of the beam 1 at the point of attachment
of the mass 1 is
3E1 J1 3 0.2 1012 1 108
k1 = = = 6000N/m (2.159)
l13 13
The stiness of the beam 2 at the point of attachment of the mass 2 is
Hence
10 0 0 0 16000 10000
m= ; c= ; k=
0 20 0 100 10000 22000 (2.161)
0 0
F1 (t) = ; F2 (t) =
30 cos(30t) 35 cos(35t)
To analyze the free vibrations let us transfer the homogeneous equation 2.157
to the state-space coordinates. The substitution
w = y (2.162)
z = Az (2.163)
where
0 0 1 0
y 0 1 0 0 0 1
z= , A= =
1600.0
(2.164)
w m1 k m1 c 1000 0 0
500 1100 0 5
For underdamped system the imaginary part of the above roots represents the natural
frequency of the damped system. The real part indicates the rate of decay of the free
vibrations.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 113
The two first rows in the above solutions represent displacement along the coordinates
y1 and y2 respectively. The two last rows represents the generalized velocities along
the coordinates y1 and y2 . Example of the motion along the coordinate y1 , associated
with the particular solution z11 (y111 ) and z21 (y211 )
y111 = e1. 6741t (1. 6392 102 cos 24. 483t + 1. 4508 102 sin 24. 483t)
y211 = e0. 8259t (1. 9755 102 cos 45. 734t + 6. 049 103 sin 45. 734t) (2.168)
y111[m]
0.01
0 1 2 3 4 t[s]
-0.01
-0.02
y211[m]
0.01
0 1 2 3 4 t[s]
-0.01
-0.02
Figure 32
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 115
3. The steady state motion of the system due to the kinematic excitation
y[m]
0.01
-0.01
-0.02
Figure 33
y + cy + ky = F1 (t)
m (2.171)
y + cy + ky = F2 (t)
m (2.172)
To produce the particular solution of the equation 2.171 let us introduce the complex
excitation
c 0 0 0
F1 (t) = = = eif1 t =
a1 cos(f1 t) + ia1 sin(f1 t) a1 eif1 t a1
if1 t 0
= F10 e = ei30t (2.173)
30
y + cy + ky = F10 eif1 t
m (2.174)
where
c
y10 = (f12 m+if1 c + k)1 F10 =
1
2 10 0 0 0 16000 10000 0
= 30 + 30i + =
0 20 0 100 10000 22000 30
.00 384 .00 112i
= (2.176)
2. 688 103 7. 84 104 i
Hence
3. 1546 103 3. 7855 104 i i35t
y2 = Re e
1. 183 103 1. 4196 104 i
3. 1546 103 cos 35t + 3. 7855 104 sin 35t
= (2.178)
1. 183 103 cos 35t + 1. 4196 104 sin 35t
y = y1 + y2
.00 384 cos 30t + .00 112 sin 30t
= 3 4 +
2.
688 10 cos 30t + 7. 84 10 sin 30t
3. 1546 103 cos 35t + 3. 7855 104 sin 35t
+
1. 183 103 cos 35t + 1. 4196 104 sin 35t
=
.00 38 cos 30t + .00 11 sin 30t 3. 15 103 cos 35t + 3. 78 104 sin 35t
2. 6 103 cos 30t + 7. 8 104 sin 30t 1. 1 103 cos 35t + 1. 41 104 sin 35t
(2.179)
This resultant motion of the system along the coordinates y1 and y2 , computed
according to the equation 2.179, is shown in Fig. 34 and 35 respectively.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 117
y1[m]
0.005
-0.005
-0.01
Figure 34
y2[m]
0.005
-0.005
-0.01
Figure 35
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 118
m2
.
y2
c
. y2
y
A
Figure 36
To develop the expression for the force necessary to move the point A according
to the assumed motion 2.169, let us consider the damper c shown in Fig. 36. If the
point A moves with the velocity y and in the same time the mass m2 moves with the
velocity y 2 , the relative velocity of the point A with respect to the mass m2 is
v = y y 2 (2.180)
Therefore, to realize this motion, it is necessary to apply at the point A the following
force
FA = c (y y 2 ) (2.181)
Hence, according to the equation 2.169 and 2.179 we have
FA = 100( dtd (0.01 sin 30t + 0.01 sin 35t) +
dtd (2. 6 103 cos 30t + 7. 8 104 sin 30t+
1. 1 103 cos 35t + 1. 4 104 sin 35t)) =
= 27. 648 cos 30t + 34. 503 cos 35t 8. 064 sin 30t 4. 1405 sin 35t[N]
(2.182)
FA[N]
40
20
-40
-60
Figure 37
P
l 1 J1 E 1
B
MB
y1
RB
Figure 38
According to Fig. 38
RB = P
MB = P l1 (2.183)
where P is dependent on the instantaneous displacement y1 . This relationship is
determined by the formula 2.159
Problem 30
The link 1 of a mass m1 , shown in Fig. 39, can move along the horizontal
slide and is supported by two springs 3 each of stiness k. The ball 2 of mass m2
and a radius r is hinged to the link 1 at the point A by means of the massless and
rigid rod 4. All motion is in the vertical plane. The equation of motion, in terms of
the coordinates x and (see Fig. 40) have been formulated in page 81 to be
x + kx = 0
m (2.187)
where
m1 + m2 m2 R 2k 0 2x
m= , k= , x= I = m2 r2 ,
m2 R m2 R2 + I 0 m2 gR 5
(2.188)
At the instant t = 0, the link 1 was placed to the position shown in Fig. 41 and
released with the initial velocity equal to zero.
For the following data:
m1 = 2 kg
m2 = 1 kg
R = 0.1 m
r = .05 m
k = 1000 N/m
a = 0.01 m
Produce:
1. the natural frequencies of the system
2. the normalized natural modes
3. the dierential equation of motion in terms of the normal coordinates
4. the equation motion of the system along the coordinates x and due to
the given initial conditions.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 121
k 3 r k
R
4
2
Figure 39
1 x
k
o
x
k 3
r R
2
G
Figure 40
1 a
k
o
x
k 3
r R
2
Figure 41
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 122
Solution
1. The natural frequencies and the natural modes
According to the given numerical data the moment of inertia of the ball, the
inertia matrix and the stuness matrix are
2
I = 1 0.052 = 0.001 kgm2
5
2 + 1 1 0.1 3.0 . 1
m = = (2.189)
1 0.1 1 0.12 + 0.001 . 1 .0 11
1000 0 1000.0 0
k = =
0 1 10 0.1 0 1.0
According to 2.96 (page 100) one can write the following set of equations
( 2n m + k)X = 0 (2.190)
where stands for the natural frequency and X is the corresponding natural mode.
Hence for the given numerical data we are getting
3.0 2n + 1000.0 . 1 2n X 0
2 2 = (2.191)
. 1 n .0 11 n + 1.0 0
This set of equations has non-zero solution if and only if its determinant is equal to
zero. Hence the equation for the natural frequencies is.
3.02n + 1000.0 . 1 2
n = .0 234n 14.02n + 1000.0 = 0 (2.192)
2
. 1n .0 11n + 1.0
2
Its roots:
22. 936 22. 936 9. 091 3 9. 091 3
yield the wanted natural frequencies
1 = 9. 0913 2 = 22. 936 [s1 ] (2.193)
For n = 1 = 9. 0913 the equations 2.191 become linearly dependent. Therefore,
one of the unknown can be chosen arbitrarily (e.g. X1 = 1) and the other may be
produced from the first equation of the set 2.191.
X1 = 1
3.0X1 21 + 1000.0X1 . 121 1 = 0 (2.194)
1
1 = 2
3.0 9.092 + 1000.0) = 90.99
. 1 9.0913
These two numbers form the first mode of vibrations corresponding to the first
natural frequency 1 .Similar consideration, carried out for the natural frequency
2 = 22. 936,yields the second mode.
X2 = 1
1
2 = 2
3.0 22.9362 + 1000.0 = 10.991 (2.195)
. 1 22.936
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 123
Hence
3.0 . 1 1
21 = 1 90. 99 = 112. 27
. 1 .0 11 90.99
1 = 112. 27 = 10. 596 (2.199)
Division of the eigenvector X1 by the factor 1 yields the normalized mode 1 .
1 1 9. 4375 102
1 = = (2.200)
10. 596 90.99 8. 5872
The normalized eigenvectors must be orthogonal with respect to both the inertia
matrix and the stiness matrix. Indeed.
T m =
9. 4375 102 8. 5872 3.0 . 1 9. 4375 102 . 68507
=
. 68507 7. 5296 . 1 .0 11 8. 5872 7. 5296
1 0
= (2.203)
0 1
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 124
and
T k =
9. 4375 102 8. 5872 1000 0 9. 4375 102 . 68507
=
. 68507 7. 5296 0 1 10 0.1 8. 5872 7. 5296
82. 647 0 (9. 091)2 0 21 0
= = = (2.204)
0 526. 02 0 (22. 935)2 0 22
x = (2.205)
into 2.187 and premultiplying them from the left hand side by T we are getting the
dierential equations of motion in terms of the normal coordinates .
(T m)
+(T k) = 0 (2.207)
Taking advantage of the orthogonality conditions, the equations of motion are of the
following form
1 0 (9. 091)2 0
+
=0 (2.208)
0 1 0 (22. 935)2
or
1 + (9. 091)2 1 = 0
2 + (22. 935)2 2 = 0 (2.209)
The general solution of the above set of the dierential equations, according to 1.36
is
v01
1 = sin 1 t + 01 cos 1 t
1
v02
2 = sin 2 t + 02 cos 2 t (2.210)
2
Where 01 and 02 stand for the initial position whereas v01 and v02 stand for the
initial velocity of the system along the normal coordinates. These initial conditions
must be formulated along the normal coordinates. It can be obtained by transforming
the initial conditions from the physical coordinates to the normal coordinates.
01 1 Xo 1 a 1.142 .1039 0.01
= = =
02 o 0 1.3024 1.4313 102 0
.01142
= (2.211)
1.3024 102
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 125
v01 0
= (2.212)
v02 0
Introduction of the above initial conditions into the equations 2.210 results in motion
of the system along the normal coordinates
0.005
-0.005
-0.01
Figure 42
0.2
[rad]
0.15
0.1
0.05
-0.1
-0.15
Figure 43
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 126
Problem 31
F=Fo cos t
L
B
A
1 M, I A
k c E,J
C D
3 2
l
Figure 44
The rigid beam 1 of mass M, length L and the moment of inertia about
its point of rotation IA , is supported by means of the spring of stiness k and the
damper of the damping coecient c as shown in Fig. 44. The beam 2 is massless
and the Youngs modulus E and the second moment of area J determine its dynamic
properties. Its end D is fixed and the particle 3 of mass m is attached to the end C.
Derive an expression for the fixing moment and the fixing force at the point
D due to the exciting force F that is applied to the system at the point B.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 127
Problem 32
1 2
O1
O2
s1 s2 a
k1 c k2
A
b
G2
m1 I O1 G1 m 2 I O2
F1 cos 1 t k F2 cos 2 t
Figure 45
The two rods, 1 and 2, are suspended in the vertical plane as shown in Fig. 45.
Their mass and their moment of inertia about their points of rotation are respectively
m1 , IO1 , and m2 , IO2 . These rods are connected to each other by means of springs
of the stiness k, k1 , k2 and as well as the damper of the damping coecient c. The
centres of gravity of these rods are denoted by G1 and G2 respectively. Vibrations of
the system are excited by the two harmonic forces of amplitudes F1 , F2 and frequencies
1 and 2 .
Produce
1. the dierential equation of the small vibrations of the system in the matrix form
Answer:
M x + Cx + Kx= F
Io1 0 ca2 ca2 k1 a2 + kb2 + m1 gs1 kb2
M= ; C= 2 2 ; K= ;
0 Io2 ca ca kb2 k2 a2 + kb2 + m2 gs2
1 F1 b 0
x= ; F= cos 1 t + cos 2 t
2 0 F2 b
2. the expression for the forced vibrations of the rods
Answer:
X = X1 + X2
F1 b
X1 - particular solutionof equation M x + Cx + Kx = cos 1 t
0
0
X2 - particular solutionof equation M x + Cx + Kx = cos 2 t
F2 b
3. the expression for the dynamic reaction at the point A.
Answer:
RA = 2 ak2 ; 2 - the lower element of the matrix X
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 128
Problem 33
b
3 1
a
m M m1,IA
c1
G
h
C
A B
2
c2 k1
m2
k2
D
Figure 46
The rigid beam 1 (see Fig. 46) is hinged at the point A and is supported at
the point C by means of the spring of stiness k1 and the damper of the damping
coecient c1 . Its mass and its moment of inertia about A are m1 and IA respectively.
The motor 3 is mounted on this beam. It can be approximated by a particle of the
mass M that is concentrated at the point G that is located by the dimensions h and
a. The rotor of this motor rotates with the constant velocity . Its mass is equal
to m and its unbalance is . To attenuate the vibrations of the beam the block 2
of mass m2 was attached. The damping coecient of the damper between the beam
and the block is denoted by c2 and the stiness of the supporting spring in denoted
by k2 .
Produce
1. the dierential equation of motion of the system and present it in the standard
matrix form.
Answer:
M x + Cx + Kx = F
IA + M(h2 + a2 ) 0 c1 b2 + c2 a2 c2 a k1 b 0
M= ; C= ; K= ;
0 m2 c2 a c2 0 k2
m 2 h2 + a2
x= ; F= cos t
x 0
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 129
- the angular displacement of the beam1; x - the linear displacement of the block
2
2. Produce the expression for the interaction forces at the point A and D.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 130
Problem 34
l l F l
A B C D
G
k k
Figure 47
Three uniform platforms each of the length l, the mass m and the moment
of inertia about axis through its centre of gravity IG are hinged together to form a
bridge that is shown in Fig. 47. This bridge is supported by means of two springs
each of the stiness k. This system has two degree of freedom and the two generalized
coordinates are denoted by and . There is an excitation force F applied at the
hinge C. This force can be adopted in the following form
F = Fo cos t
Produce:
1. the dierential equations of motion of the system and present them in the standard
form
Answer:
M x + Kx = F
2 1
3
6 2 1 0 2 0
M= ml ; K = kl ; x = ; F= cos t
16 32 0 1 Fo l
2. the equation for the natural frequencies of the system
Answer:
|K 1 n | = 0
3. the expression for the amplitude of the forced vibrations of the system
Answer:
2 1 0 A
X = [ M + K] cos t =
Fo l B
4. the expression for the interaction force between the spring attached to the hinge
B and the ground
Answer:
R = Akl cos t
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 131
Problem 35
1 L
A
m1,IA
x k c 2
k1 y
Figure 48
Problem 36
c3 k3 3
m3
2
r 4
m2,I2
k2 1
k1
m1
c1
B
Figure 49
In Fig. 49 the physical model of a winch is shown. The blocks 1 and 3 are
rigid and their masses are respectively m1 and m3 respectively. The rigid pulley 2
has radius r, mass m2 and the moment of inertia about its axis of rotation I2 . The
elastic properties of the rope 4 are modeled by two springs of stiness k1 and k2 . The
point A moves with respect to the axis y according to the following equation.
y = a cos t
Produce:
1. the dierential equation of motion of the system and present it in the following
matrix form.
x + Cx + Kx = F
M
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 133
Answer:
m1 0 0 c1 0 0
M = 0 m2 + m3 0 ; C = 0 c3 0
0 0 I2 0 0 0
k1 k1 k1 r 0 x1
K = k1 k1 + k2 + k3 k1 r k2 r F = k3 cos t; x = x2
k1 r k1 r k2 r (k1 + k2 ) r2 0
x1 - the linear displacement of the block 1
x2 - the linear displacement of the pulley 2 and the block 3
- the angular displacement of the pulley 2
2. the expression for the amplitudes of the forced vibrations of the system
Answer:
The particular solution xp of the equation M x + Cx + Kx = F
The first element xp1 of the matrix xp represents displacement of the block 1
3. the expression for the interaction force at point B.
Answer
RB = c1 x p1
Problem 37
I1 I2 I3
D2
T3
D1
k1 k2 k3
Figure 50
Answer:
I1 ke ke 0 1
M= I2 ; C = 0; K = ke ke + k3 k3 ; x = 2
I3 0 k3 k3 3
k1 k2
where ke = k1 +i2 k2
2. the expression for the amplitudes of the forced vibrations of the system
3. the expression for the toque transmitted through the shaft k1.
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 135
Problem 38
M=Mocost
O Y
c1 q1
1
l
G1
A
a
b c
c q2
c2
k k B
2
G2
Figure 51
Two rigid bodies 1 and 2 were hinged together at the point A to form the
double pendulum whose physical model is shown in Fig.51. These bodies possess
masses m1 and m2 and the moments of inertia about the axis through their centers
of gravity (G1, G2) are I1 and I2 respectively. The system has two degrees of freedom
and the generalized coordinates are denoted by q1 and q2 . Vibrations of the pendulum
about the horizontal axis Z are excited by the harmonic moment M applied to the
body 1.
Produce:
1. the dierential equation of small oscillations of the pendulum and present it in the
following matrix form
x + Cx + Kx = F
M
ANALYSIS OF MULTI-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM 136
1 2
U1
U2
B
1 B
A 2
m1 A
m2
F2
t t
Ui2
Ui1
F1 Ui
x1 x2
Figure 52
1 2
x1
x2
3 x3 x4 4
3 1 2 4
U1o U2o
1
t 2
t U1 t
x1 U2
x2
a4
3 a 4o
t
3 t
a 3o 4
a3
x3 t x3 t
Figure 53
Let us consider the rotating machine shown in Fig. 53. According to the
above discussion, if the rotor of this machine can be approximated by a rigid body,
the unbalance forces can be represented by forces U1 and U2 in two arbitrarily chosen
plane. These two arbitrarily chosen planes,denoted in Fig. 53 by nubers 1 and 2, are
called balancing plane. Although the selection of the balancing planes is arbitrary,
there are numerous practical considerations for proper selection. For long rotors, for
example, the balancing planes should be chosen as far apart as possible. Furthermore,
these plane should oer an easy access and allow additional weights to be attached.
These unbalance forces excite vibrations of this machine. Let us arrange for these
vibrations to be recorded in two arbitrarily chosen planes. These planes, marked in
Fig. 53 by numbers 3 and 4, are called measurement planes. Let a3 and a4 be the
complex displacements measured in the measurement plasen along the coordinates
x3 and x4 with help of the two transducers 3 and 4. The transducer 5, which is
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 139
called key phasor, creates a timing reference mark on the rotor. This mark, shown
in Fig. 53 by N, allows the phases of the unbalance forces (1 , 2 ) and the phases
of the recorded displacements ( 1 , 2 ) to be measured. The equation 2.84 oers
the relationship between the unknown unbalance forces U1 and U2 and the measured
displacements a3 and a4 .
a3 R31 (i) R32 (i) U1
= (2.215)
a4 R41 (i) R42 (i) U2
where
If the transfer functions Ri,j (i) would be known, this relation would allow the un-
know magnitudes of the unbalance as well as their phases to be determined. In order
to identify the transfer functions two additional tests are required.
Test (1)
3 1 2 4
(1) U (1)
m (1)
(1)
Uo
(1)
U1o U2o
1
t 2
t U1 t
x1 U2
x2
a (1)
4
(1) a (1)
4o
3
(1)
a 3o 4(1)
(1)
a3
x3 t t
Figure 54
An additionl trial weight of mass m(1) (see Fig 54) is attached in the balancing
plane 1 at the known (with respect to the key phasors mark) phase (1) and the know
distance (1) . The system is now excited by both the residual unbalance forces (U1
and U2 ) and the centrifugal force produced by the trial weight U (1) . The amplitude
of this force U (1) is
Uo(1) = m(1) (1) 2 (2.217)
The response of the system is recorded in both measurment planes so the amplitudes
(1) (1) (1) (1)
a3o and a4o as well as the phases 3 and 4 can be obtained. There is the following
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 140
3 1 2 4
(2) U
(2)
m (2)
(2)
Uo
(2)
U1o U2o
1
t 2
t U1 t
x1 U2
x2
a (2)
4
(2) a (2)
4o
3
(2)
a 3o 4(2)
(2)
a3
x3 t t
Figure 55
An additional trial weight of mass m(2) (see Fig 55) is attached in the balancing
plane 2 at the known (with respect to the key phasors mark) phase (2) and the know
distance (2) . The system is now excited by both the residual unbalance forces (U1
and U2 ) and the centrifugal force produced by the trial weight U (2) . The amplitude
of this force U (2) is
Uo(2) = m(2) (2) 2 (2.220)
The response of the system is recorded in both measurement planes so the amplitudes
(2) (2) (2) (2)
a3o and a4o as well as the phases 3 and 4 can be obtained. There is the following
relationship between the measured parameters and the transfer functions.
" #
(2)
a3 R31 (i) R32 (i) U1
= (2.221)
(2)
a4 R41 (i) R42 (i) U2 + U (2)
The formulated equations 2.215, 2.218 and 2.221 allow the unknown transfer functions
and the wanted unbalances U1 and U2 to be computed. To achieve that let us subtract
the equations 2.215 from 2.218
" # !
(1)
a3 a3 R31 (i) R32 (i) U1 + U (1) U1
(1) =
a4 a4 R41 (i) R42 (i) U2 U2
" # (1)
(1)
a3 a3 R31 (i) R32 (i) U
(1) =
a4 a4 R41 (i) R 42 (i) 0
" #
(1)
a3 a3 R31 (i)U (1)
(1) =
a4 a4 R41 (i)U (1)
where a3 and a4 represent the know response of the system without the additional
weights.
1
U1 R31 (i) R32 (i) a3o ei 3 U1o ei1
= = (2.226)
U2 R41 (i) R42 (i) a4o ei 4 U2o ei2
The amplitudes U1o and U2o determine the weights m1 and m2 that should be attached
in the balancing planes
U1
m1 =
r1 2
U2
m2 = (2.227)
r2 2
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 142
These weights, to balance the rotor, should be place at angular position (see Fig. 56)
1 = 180o + 1
2 = 180o + 2 (2.228)
1 2
x1
x2
5
3 x3 x4 4
3 1 2 4
m1 m2
1 2
r1 r2
U1o U2o
t 1
2
x1 t U1 t U2
x2
Figure 56
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 143
a) b)
mr 2 cos t x x
mr 2
t mr 2 cos t K
mr M
M
Figure 57
M x + Kx = mr 2 cos t (2.230)
x + 2n x = q cos t (2.231)
u 2 0.002 2
q= = = .0000 2 2 (2.232)
M 100
allows the amplitude of the forced vibrations of the ventilator A to be predicted.
q .0000 2 2
A= 2 = (2.233)
n 2 3002 2
Its values, as a function of the angular speed of the rotor is shown in Fig. 58
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 144
0.0001
A1[m]
Figure 58
As it can be seen from this diagram, the ventilator develops large vibration in
vicinity of its working speed = 314 rad/s and has to pass the critical speed during
the run up. Such a solution is not acceptable. One of a possible way of reducing
these vibration is to furnish the ventilator with the absorber of vibration shown in
fig 59
a) b)
mr 2 cos t x x
mr 2
t mr 2 cos t K
mr M
M
y
k c
y
k c
m
Figure 59
M x + (K + k)x ky + cx cy = u2 cost
y kx + ky cx + cy = 0
m (2.234)
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 145
x + cx + kx = qeit
m (2.238)
x = Aeit (2.239)
and than introduces it into the equation 2.238 one obtains the formula for the am-
plitude of the forced vibration
A = (2 m+ic + k)1 q (2.240)
Remarkable results we are getting if parameters k and m of the absorber fulfill the
following relationship r
k
= = 314 (2.241)
m
To show it let us assume
m = 25 kg
and compute the value of the stiness k from the formula 2.241
k = m 2 = 25 3142 = 2. 4649 106 N/m
Introduction of this data into equation 2.240 and the zero damping results in the
following response A1 and A2 of the system along the coordinates x and y respectively.
A1
A= =
A2
1
2
100 0 0 0 11.5 2. 46 0.002
2 + i + 106
0 25 0 0 2. 46 2. 46 0
(2.242)
0.0001
A1[m]
Figure 60
One can notice that the amplitude of vibration for the working speed = 314
rad/s is equal to zero. But the ventilator still has to pass resonance in vicinity of
= 240 rad/s. To improve the dynamic response, let us analyze the influence of the
damping coecient c.
A1
=
A2
1
2 100 0 c c 3 11.5 2. 46 6 0.002 2
= + i 10 + 10
0 25 c c 2. 46 2. 46 0
(2.243)
The amplitudes of the forced vibration of the ventilator for dierent values of the
damping coecient c, computed according to the formula 2.243 are collected in the
Table 1. It can be noticed, that by increasing the damping coecient c one can lower
amplitude of vibrations in all region of frequency. The best results of attenuation of
vibrations can be achieved if the two local maxima are equal to each other. This case
is shown in the last raw of the table 1. Application of the absorber of vibrations oers
a safe operation in region of the angular speed 0 < < 500 rad/s. The amplitude is
less than 0.00004 m. Damping coecient lager then 5000 results in increment of the
amplitude of the ventilators forced vibrations. If the damping tends to infinity, The
relative motion is ceased and the system behaves like the undamped system with one
degree of freedom.
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS 147
Table 1
0.0001
m = 25
A1[m]
k = 2. 46 106
c=0
0 100 200 300 400 [1/s]
0.0001
m = 25 A1[m]
k = 2. 46 106
c = 1000 0
0 100 200 300 400 [1/s]
0.0001
m = 25 A1[m]
k = 2. 46 106
c = 2500
0
0 100 200 300 400 [1/s]
0.0001
m = 25
A1[m]
k = 2. 46 106
c = 5000
0
0 100 200 300 400 [1/s
]
0.0001
m = 25 A1[m]
k = 1.75 106
c = 5000
0
0 100 200 300 400 [1/s]
Chapter 3
VIBRATION OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS
f(z,t)
T z
y(z,t)
z 2
y(z,t) y(z,t) + y(z,t) dz
T z z2
z dz
A(z), (z)
T
y
Figure 1
Strings are elastic elements that are subjected to tensile forces (see Fig. 1).
It is assumed that the tensile force T is large enough to neglect its variations due to
small motion of the string around its equilibrium position. In the Fig. 1 A(z) stands
for area of cross-section of the string and (z) is its density. Motion of the string is
caused by the unit vertical load f (z, t) that in a general case can be a function of
time t and the position z. Let us consider element dz of the sting. Its position is
determined by the coordinate z and its mass dm is
The free body diagram of this element is shown in Fig. 1. According to the second
Newtons law
2 y(z, t) y(z, t) y(z, t) 2 y(z, t)
dm = T +T + dz + f (z, t)dz (3.2)
t2 z z z 2
MODELLING OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 149
Introduction of Eq. 3.1 into Eq. 3.2 and its simplification yields
2 y(z, t) 2 y(z, t)
A(z) (z) dz T dz = f (z, t)dz (3.3)
t2 z 2
If one divide this equation by A(z) (z)dz it takes form
2 y(z, t) 2
2 y(z, t)
= q(z, t) (3.5)
t2 z 2
where
T f (z, t)
2 = ; q(z, t) = (3.6)
A A
Modelling of rods
f(z,t)
z
F(z,t) F(z,t) + F(z,t) dz
z
y(z,t) dz
E(z), A(z), (z)
z dz
F(z,t)
F(z,t) + F(z,t) dz
z
F(z,t) z
Figure 2
MODELLING OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 150
Rods are elastic elements that are subjected to the axial forces. Let as consider
a rod of the cross-section A(z), Youngs modulus E(z) and the density (z). Motion
of the rod is excited by the axial force f (z, t) that, in a general case, can be a function
of position z and time t. Let us consider the highlighted in Fig. 2 element dz. Its
instantaneous position is determined by the displacement y(z, t). Application of the
second Newtons law to the free body diagram of the element yields.
2 y(z, t) F (z, t)
dm = F (z, t) + F (z, t) + dz + f (z, t)dz (3.7)
t2 z
The axial force F (z, t) is related to the elongation of the element by Hookes law
y(z,t)
z
dz y(z, t)
F (z, t) = A(z)E(z) = A(z)E(z) (3.8)
dz z
Upon introducing the above expression into Eq. 3.7 one may obtain
2 y(z, t) y(z, t)
dm A(z)E(z) dz = f (z, t)dz (3.9)
t2 z z
2 y(z, t) 2
2 y(z, t)
= q(z, t) (3.12)
t2 z 2
where
E f (z, t)
2 = ; q(z, t) = (3.13)
A
Modelling of shafts
Shafts are elastic elements that are subjected to torques. Let us assume that the
torque (z, t) is distributed along the axis z and is a function of time t (see Fig. 3).
The shaft has the shear modulus G(z), the density (z), the cross-section area A(z)
and the second moment of area J(z). Due to the moment (z, t), the shaft performs
the torsional vibrations and the instantaneous angular position of the cross-section
at z is (z, t). The angular position at the distance z + dz is by the total dierential
(z,t)
z
dz greater. Let us consider the element dz of the shaft. Its moment of inertia
about the axis z is
Z Z
dI = r dA (z)dz = (z)dz r2 dA = J(z) (z)dz
2
(3.14)
A A
MODELLING OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 151
T(z,t) + T(z,t) dz
T(z,t) z
z dz
(z,t)
(z,t)
(z,t) + dz
(z,t) z
z
Figure 3
Owning to the generalized Newtons law we can write the following equation
2 (z, t) T (z, t)
dI 2
= T (z, t) + T (z, t) + dz + (z, t)dz (3.15)
t z
After introduction of Eq. 3.14 and an elementary simplification the equation 3.15
takes form
2 (z, t) T (z, t)
J(z) (z) = (z, t) (3.16)
t2 z
If we introduce the relationship between the torque T (z, t) and the deflection (z, t)
If J(z), (z) and G(z) are constant, the equation of motion takes form.
2 (z, t) 2
2 (z, t)
= q(z, t) (3.19)
t2 z 2
where
G (z, t)
2 = ; q(z, t) = (3.20)
J
3.1.2 Modelling of beams
f(z,t)
f(z,t)
y(z,t)
V(z,t) + V(z,t) dz
G z
M(z,t)+
V(z,t) M(z,t)dz
z
M(z,t)
dz/2
E(z),J(z), A(z), (z)
z dz
Figure 4
Beams are elastic elements that are subjected to lateral loads (forces or mo-
ments that have their vectors perpendicular to the centre line of a beam). Let us
consider a beam of the second moment of area J(z), cross-section A(z), density (z)
and the Youngs modulus E(z). The beam performs vibrations due to the external dis-
tributed unit load f (z, t). The instantaneous position of the element dz is highlighted
in Fig. 4. The equation of motion of the beam in the z direction is
2 y(z, t) V (z, t)
dm 2
= +V (z, t) V (z, t) dz + f (z, t)dz (3.21)
t z
If one neglect the inertia moment associated with rotation of the element dz, sum of
MODELLING OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 153
Simplification of the above equation and omission of the terms of order higher then
one with respect to dz, yields the relationship between the bending moment M and
the shearing force V.
M(z, t)
V (z, t) = (3.23)
z
Since mass of the element dz is
and taking into account Eq. 3.23, one can get the equation of motion in the following
form
2 y(z, t) M 2 (z, t)
A(z) (z) + = f (z, t) (3.25)
t2 z 2
The mechanics of solids oers the following relationship between the deflection of the
beam y(z, t) and the bending moment M(z, t).
2 y(z, t)
M(z, t) = E(z)J(z) (3.26)
z 2
Introduction of equation 3.26 into equation 3.25 yields
2 y(z, t) 2 2 y(z, t)
A(z) (z) + 2 E(z)J(z) = f (z, t) (3.27)
t2 z z 2
If the following parameters of the beam A, J, E and are constant, motion of the
beam is governed by the following equation
2 y(z, t) 4
2 y(z, t)
+ = q(z, t) (3.28)
t2 z 4
where
EJ f (z, t)
2 = ; q(z, t) = (3.29)
A A
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 154
Introduction of the predicted solution 3.32 into equation 3.31 yields the following
ordinary dierential equation
or
Y II (z) + 2n Y (z) = 0 (3.34)
where
n
n = (3.35)
The general solution of this equation is
where r
A
n = n for strings (3.37)
T
r
n = n for rods (3.38)
E
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 155
r
n = n for shafts (3.39)
G
The values for the parameter n as well as the constants Sn and Cn should be chosen
to fulfill the boundary conditions. Some of the boundary conditions for strings, rods
and shafts are shown in the following table.
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 156
Table 3.1
z
l
for z = 0 Yn = 0
for z = l Yn = 0
y
string
z
l for z = 0 F = AEYnI = 0
for z = l F = AEYnI = 0
free-free rod
z for z = 0 Yn = 0
l
for z = l F = AEYnI = 0
fixed-free rod
k
z for z = 0 Yn = 0
l for z = l F = AEYnI = kYn
z for z = 0 Yn = 0
l
for z = l Yn = 0
fixed-fixed rod
z
l for z = 0 T = GJYnI = 0
for z = l T = GJYnI = 0
free-free shaft
z for z=0 Yn = 0
l
for z=l T = GJYnI = 0
fixed free shaft
z for z=0 Yn = 0
l
for z=l Yn = 0
fixed-fixed shaft
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 157
1 (z)
0.5
-0.5 z
l=1
-1
Figure 5
2n Y (z) 2 Y II (z) = 0
Hence
Premultiplying the equation 3.48 by Yj (z) and the equation 3.49 by Yi (z) and then
integrating them side by side one can get
Z l Z l
2 2
i Yi (z)Yj (z)dz + YiII (z)Yj (z)dz = 0
0 0
Z l Z l
2j Yj (z)Yi (z)dz + 2 YjII (z)Yi (z)dz = 0 (3.50)
0 0
It is easy to show that for any boundary conditions the second expression is equal to
zero
I l l
Yi (z)Yj (z) 0 YJI (z)Yi (z) 0 = YiI (l)Yj (l)YiI (0)Yj (0)YJI (l)Yi (l)+YJI (0)Yi (0) = 0
(3.53)
Hence, Z l
Yj (z)Yi (z)dz = 0 (3.54)
0
The above property of the eigenfunctions is called orthogonality condition.
Since the equation 3.31 is of second order with respect to time, to fulfill initial con-
ditions we need second set of linearly independent solution. It the same manner as
it was done in the previous section one may prove that the following functions form
the required linearly independent set of solution.
Hence, the general solution of the equation 3.31 eventually may be adopted in the
following form.
X
y(z, t) = Sn Yn (z) sin n t + Cn Yn (z) cos n t (3.58)
n=1
This solution has to fulfill the initial conditions. The initial conditions determine the
initial position Y0 (z) and the initial velocity V0 (z) of the system considered for the
time t equal to zero.
y(z, 0) = Y0 (z) y(z, 0) = V0 (z) (3.59)
t
To produce the constant Sn and Cn let us introduce the solution 3.58 into the above
initial conditions. This operation results in the following two equations.
X
Y0 (z) = Cn Yn (z)
n=1
X
V0 (z) = Sn n Yn (z) (3.60)
n=1
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 160
To determine the unknown constants Sn and Cn , let us multiply the above equations
by Ym (z) and then integrate them side by side
Z l X
Z l
Y0 (z)Ym (z)dz = Cn Yn (z)Ym (z)dz
0 n=1 0
Z l X Z l
V0 (z)Ym (z)dz = Sn n Yn (z)Ym (z)dz (3.61)
0 n=1 0
Taking advantage of the developed orthogonality conditions 3.54 the wanted constants
Sn and Cn are
Rl
Y0 (z)Yn (z)dz
Cn = 0 R l
Y 2 (z)dz
0 n
Rl
1 0 V0 (z)Yn (z)dz
Sn = Rl (3.62)
n Yn2 (z)dz
0
For the example considered in the previous section the above formulae, according to
3.47, take form
Rl
Y0 (z) sin n zdz
Cn = R0 l
n
l2
0
sin l z dz
Rl
1 0 V0 (z) sin n zdz
Sn = R l n l2 (3.63)
n sin z dz
0 l
3.2.2 Free vibrations of beams
For the uniform beam the equation of motion was derived to be
2 y(z, t) 4
2 y(z, t)
+ = q(z, t) (3.64)
t2 z 4
This equation can be classified as linear partial dierential equation of two variables
( z and t ) with constant coecients ( 2 ). Its order with respect to time is 2 and
with respect to z is equal to 4. The general solution, a function of two variables, is
sum of the general solution of the homogeneous equation and the particular solution
of the non-homogeneous equation. If the external excitation q(z, t) = 0, the equation
3.64 describes the free vibration of the beam due to a non-zero initial conditions.
The free vibrations (natural vibrations) are governed by the homogeneous
equation of 3.64.
2 y(z, t) 4
2 y(z, t)
+ =0 (3.65)
t2 z 4
Introduction of the predicted solution 3.66 into equation 3.65 yields the following
ordinary dierential equation
2n Y (z) + 2 Y IV (z) = 0 (3.67)
or
Y IV (z) 4n Y (z) = 0 (3.68)
where
2n A 2
4n =
2 = (3.69)
EJ n
The standard form of its particular solution is
Y (z) = erz (3.70)
Introduction of this solution into the equation 3.68 yields the characteristic equation
r4 = 4n (3.71)
Its roots
r1 = n r2 = n r3 = i n r2 = i n (3.72)
determine the set of the linearly independent particular solution.
Y1 (z) = e n z Y2 (z) = e n z Y3 (z) = ei n z Y1 (z) = ei n z (3.73)
Alternatively, one can choose their combinations as the set of the independent solu-
tions
e n z e n z e n z + e n z
Y1 (z) = = sinh n z Y2 (z) = = cosh n z
2 2
ei n z ei n z ei n z + ei n z
Y3 (z) = = sin n z Y2 (z) = = cos n z (3.74)
2 2
A graphical interpretation of these functions for n = 1 is given in Fig. 6.
Y (z)
4 1
Y (z)
2
2 Y (z)
3
Y (z)
4
-4 -2 0 2 4 z
-2
-4
Figure 6
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 162
O for z =0 Y (0) = 0
z
l for z =0 Y I (0) = 0
Y
for z =l M(l) = EJY II (l) = 0
for z =l V (l) = EJY III (l) = 0
fixed-free beam
O
z
for z =0 Y (0) = 0
l for z =0 M(0) = EJY II (0) = 0
Y
for z =l Y (l) = 0
for z =l Y I (l) = 0
pined-fixed beam
O
z
k k
for z =0 M(0) = EJY II (0) = 0
for z =0 V (0) = EJY III (0) = kY (0)
l
for z =l M(l) = EJY II (l) = 0
Y for z =l V (l) = EJY III (l) = +kY (l)
elasticaly supported beam
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 163
0 1 0 Bn 1
cosh n l sin n l cos n l Cn = sinh n l An (3.85)
sinh n l cos n l sin n l Dn cosh n l
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 164
20
cosh n l cosn l -1=0
10
0 l 1 l 2 l 3 l
0 5 10 15 n l
-10
-20
Figure 7
2
Y0 (z)
a)
1
-1
-2
2
b)
Y0 (z)
1
-1
-2
2
c)
1 Y (z)
1
-1
-2
2
Y2 (z)
d)
1
-1
-2
2
Y3 (z) e)
1
-1
-2
Figure 8
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 166
where Yn (z) and n are uniquely determined and Sn is an arbitrarily chosen constant.
In the same manner we can show that the function
is the linearly independent particular solution too. It follows that the following linear
combination
X
n=
Yn (z) (Sn sin n t + Cn cos n t) (3.92)
n=1
where
Y1 (z) = 1.0 sinh 4.73z + 1.0178 cosh 4.73z 1.0 sin 4.73z + 1.0177 cos 4.73z
Y2 (z) = ..................... (3.93)
.....................
is the general solution of the equation 3.65. The constants Sn and Cn should be
chosen to fulfill the initial conditions.
2n Y (z) + 2 Y IV (z) = 0
Hence
Premultiplying the equation 3.94 by Yj (z) and the equation 3.95 by Yi (z) and then
integrating them side by side one can get
Z l Z l
2 2
i Yi (z)Yj (z)dz + YiIV (z)Yj (z)dz = 0
0 0
Z l Z l
2j Yj (z)Yi (z)dz + 2 YjIV (z)Yi (z)dz = 0 (3.96)
0 0
(3.99)
The expression
l 2 II l 2 III l 2 II l
Yi (z)Yj (z) 0 + Yi (z)Yj (z) 0 + Yj (z)Yi (z) 0 Yj (z)Yi (z)0
2 III I I
(3.100)
depends exclusively on boundary conditions. It is easy to show that for any possible
boundary conditions this expression is equal to zero. Hence,
Z l
Yj (z)Yi (z)dz = 0 (3.101)
0
The above property of the natural modes is called orthogonality condition and play
a very important role in further development of the theory of vibrations.
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 168
3.2.3 Problems
Problem 39
G1, A1, 1, J1
G2, A2, 2, J2
z
l1 l2
Figure 9
For the shaft shown in Fig. 9 produce equation for its natural frequencies.
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 169
Solution
For
0 < z < l1 (3.102)
motion of the system, according to 3.19, is governed by the following equation
2 1 (z, t) 2
2 1 (z, t)
1 =0 (3.103)
t2 z 2
where
G1
21 = (3.104)
1
Similarly, one may say that within range
2 2 (z, t) 2
2 2 (z, t)
2 =0 (3.106)
t2 z 2
where
G2
22 = (3.107)
2
Both parts of the shaft must have the same natural frequencies. Therefore the par-
ticular solution of the above equations must be of the following form
Introduction of these solutions into the equations of motion yields, according to 3.34,
2
II
1 (z) + n1 1 (z) = 0 (3.110)
2
II
2 (z) + n2 2 (z) = 0 (3.111)
where
n n
n1 =
n2 = (3.112)
1 2
These two equations are coupled together by the following boundary conditions
for z = 0 1 (0) = 0
for z = l1 1 (l1 ) = 2 (l1 )
for z = l1 G1 J1 I1 (l1 ) = G2 J2 I2 (l1 )
for z = l1 + l2 I2 (l1 + l2 ) = 0 (3.113)
The first boundary condition reflects the fact that the left hand end of the shaft is
fixed. The second and the third condition represent the continuity of the angular
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 170
displacement and continuity of the torque. The last condition says that the torque
at the free end is zero. Since the general solution of equation 3.110 and 3.111are
n n
1 (z) = Sn1 sin z + Cn1 cos z (3.114)
1 1
n n
2 (z) = Sn2 sin z + Cn2 cos z (3.115)
2 2
the formulated boundary conditions results in the following set of equations
Cn1 = 0
Sn1 sin n1 l1 + Cn1 cos n1 l1 Sn2 sin n2 l2 Cn2 cos n2 l2 = 0
Sn1 G1 J1 n1 cos n1 l1 Cn1 G1 J1 n1 sin n1 l1 + (3.116)
Sn2 G2 J2 n2 cos n2 l1 + Cn2 G2 J2 n2 sin n2 l1 = 0
+Sn2 n2 cos n2 (l1 + l2 ) Cn2 n2 sin n2 (l1 + l2 ) = 0
This homogeneous set of equations has the non-zero solutions if and only if its char-
acteristic determinant is equal to zero.
0 1 0 0
sin n l1 cos n
l
1 1
sin n2 l2 cos n2 l2
1 = 0
G1 J1 cos l1 G1 J1 n sin n l1
n n
G2 J2 n2 cos n2 l1 G2 J2 n2 sin n2 l1
1 1 1 1
0 0 n
cos n2 (l1 +l2 ) n2 sin n2 (l1 +l2 )
2
(3.118)
Solution of this equation for the roots n yields the wanted natural frequencies of the
shaft.
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 171
Problem 40
E,A ,
l
2
Figure 10
The uniform rod 1 , shown in Fig. 10, is connected to the block 2 of mass
m. Compute the natural frequencies and the corresponding natural modes of this
assembly.
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 172
Solution
The equation of motion of the rod, according to Eq. 3.12, is
2 y(z, t) 2
2 y(z, t)
=0 (3.119)
t2 z 2
where
E
2 = (3.120)
To produce the boundary conditions let us consider the block 2 with the adjusted
infinitesimal element (see Fig. 11).
l
F(l,t) y
y(l,t)
m
z
Figure 11
y(0, t) = 0 (3.123)
into the equation of motion 3.119 and the boundary conditions 3.124 yields the ordi-
nary dierential equation
n
Y II (z) + 2n Y (z) = 0; n = (3.126)
with boundary conditions
Y (0) = 0
(3.127)
m2n Y (l) AEY I (l) = 0
or 2
m n sin n z AE n cos n z Sn = 0 (3.130)
Hence, the characteristic equation, after taking advantage of 3.126, is
n n n
m 2n sin z AE cos z = 0 (3.131)
or after simplification
n AE
tan l =0 (3.132)
n m
For the following numerical data
l = 1m
E = 2.1 1011 N/m2
A = 25 104 m2
3
= 7800kg/m
q
= E = 5188.7m/s
mr = A l = 19.5kg - mass of the rod
m = 20kg - mass of the block
the characteristic equation takes the following form
5059.0
n
f (n ) = tan =0 (3.133)
5188.7 n
Its solution f ( = 0 is shown in Fig. 12.
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 174
1
f( n )
0.5
-0.5
-1
Figure 12
1 Y (z)
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
Figure 13
1 Y2 (z)
0.5
-0.5
-1
Figure 14
1 Y3 (z)
0.5
-0.5
-1
Figure 15
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 176
Problem 41
Produce natural frequencies and the corresponding natural modes for the fixed-
elastically supported beam shown in Fig. 16
Figure 16
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 177
Solution
According to the equation 3.65, the equation of motion of the beam is
2 y(z, t) 4
2 y(z, t)
+ =0 (3.138)
t2 z 4
Its particular solution can be sought in the following form
the above solution has to fulfill boundary conditions. At the left hand end the dis-
placement and gradient of the beam have to be equal to zero. Hence,
The right hand end, with the forces acting on it, is shown in Fig. 17. Equilibrium
dz
O
z z
M(z,t)| z=l V(z,t)| z=l
k
l
k y(z,t)|z=l
y
Figure 17
conditions for the element dz which have to be fulfill for any instant of time, forms
the boundary conditions associated with the right hand end
2 y(z, t)
M(z, t)|z=l = E(z)J(z) =0 (3.142)
z 2 z=l
M(z, t) 2 y(z, t)
V (z, t)|z=l = = EJ = ky(z, t)|z=l (3.143)
z z=l z z 2 z=l
Introduction of the solution 3.139 into the above boundary conditions yields
Yn (z)|z=0 = 0
YnI (z)z=0 = 0
YnII (z)z=l = 0
YnIII (z)z=l Yn (z)|z=l = 0 (3.144)
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 178
where
EJ
= (3.145)
k
According to the equations 3.76 to 3.79 the expressions for the natural modes Yn (z)
and their derivatives are
Bn + Dn = 0
An + Cn = 0
An n sinh n l + Bn n cosh n l Cn n sin n l Dn 2n cos n l = 0
2 2 2
The non-zero solution of this set of equations exists if and only if its characteristic
determinant is equal to zero.
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
sinh l cosh l sin l cos l = 0 (3.150)
n n n n
cosh l
3 3
n sinh n l 3
n cos n l n sin n l
3
n n
sinh l cosh n l sin n l cos n l
n
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 179
200
100
0 2 4 6 8
n
-100
-200
Figure 18
1 = 2.942m1
2 = 4.884m1 (3.152)
3 = 7.888m1
For each of these roots the set of equations 3.149 becomes linearly dependant. Hence
one of the unknown constants can be chosen arbitrarily (e.g. Dn = 1) and the last
equation can be crossed out. The three remaining equations allow the constants An ,
Bn , and Cn to be computed.
An
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 Bn = 0 (3.154)
Cn
sinh n l cosh n l sin n l cos n l 0
1
0 1 0 An 1 0
1 0 1 Bn + 0 = 0 (3.155)
sinh n l cosh n l sin n l Cn cos n l 0
1
An 0 1 0 1
Bn = 1 0 1 0 (3.156)
Cn sinh n l cosh n l sin n l cos nl
For the first three roots the numerical values of these constants are
A1 .883 A2 1.02 A3 1.0
B1 = 1.0 ; B2 = 1.0 ; B3 = 1.0 (3.157)
C1 .883 C2 1.02 C3 1.0
Introducing them into the first function of 3.146 and remembering that Dn = 1, we
are getting the corresponding natural modes
Y1 (z) = .883 sinh 2.942z 1.0 cosh 2.942z .883 sin 2.942z + 1 cos 2.942z
Y2 (z) = 1.02 sinh 4.884z 1.0 cosh 4.884z 1.02 sin 4.884z + 1 cos 4.884z
Y3 (z) = 1.0 sinh 7.888z 1.0 cosh 7.888z 1.0 sin 7.888z + 1 cos 7.888z (3.158)
The graphical interpretation of these natural modes is given in Fig. 19
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 181
1 Y2 (z) Y3 (z)
Y1 (z)
-2
Figure 19
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 182
Problem 42
, G, Jo 1 2 2
z
k k
l
L
Figure 20
The left hand end of the shaft 1 shown in Fig. 20 is fixed. Its right hand end is
supported by means of the massless and rigid beam 2 of length L that is connected to
two springs each of the stiness k. Produce the equation for the natural frequencies
of the shaft.
Answer:
2 kL2 cot n l + 1 = 0 where 2 = G
GJo n
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 183
Problem 43
2 2
, G, Jo 1
Figure 21
Two rigid discs 2 (see Fig. 21) are joined together by means of the shaft 1 of
the length l. The moment of inertia of each disc about the axis z is I.
Produce the equation for the natural frequencies of the assembly.
Answer:
n n
n cos n l n sin n l n sin n l n cos n l = 0
p I2n
where n = n G n = GJ o
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 184
Problem 44
l, E, J, A,
z
l
Figure 22
Problem 45
, E, A
Figure 23
Problem 46
l, E, J, A,
z
Figure 24
ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS 186
Problem 47
1 2 3
Figure 25
The left hand ends of the two shafts (1 and 2) depicted in the Fig. 25 are
welded to a motionless wall. Their right hand ends are welded to the plate 3. The
moment of inertia of the plate about the axis z is I z . This assembly performs the
torsional vibration about axis z. The dynamic properties of the shafts are defined
by their density 1 and 2 , their shear modulus G 1 and G 2 and the second polar
moment of area J O1 and J O2 respectively.
Produce the equation for the natural frequencies of the assembly described.
The dierential equation of motion of a shaft is.
2 (z, t) 2
2 (z, t)
=0
t2 z 2
where
G
2 =
G - shear modulus
density
Answer: q q
JO1 1 JO2 2 G1 G2
1 cot 1 l+ 2 cot n2 l = 1; where; 1 =
n
Iz
; 2 = Iz
; 1 = 1
; 2 = 2
Chapter 4
APPROXIMATION OF THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM BY
DISCRETE MODELS
The theory developed in the previous chapter provides a deep inside into the dynamic
behavior of the continuous system. However, the utilization of this theory for the
solution of an engineering problem encounters often a great deal of diculties. In
the engineering design such elements like shafts or beams has a variable cross-section
along its length (see Fig. 1) and can be divided into a number of uniform sections.It
n m
z=ln
y
Figure 1
follows that the equation of motion for each uniform section has to be joint together
with help of the continuity conditions. In case of a beam, the equations of motion of
the uniform elements n and m can be described by two dierential equations of the
form 3.28 (page 153
2 yn (z, t) 4
2 yn (z, t)
n = qn (z, t) (4.1)
t2 z 4
2 ym (z, t) 4
2 ym (z, t)
m = qm (z, t) (4.2)
t2 z 4
where, according to 3.29
En Jn fn (z, t) Em Jm fm (z, t)
2n = ; qn (z, t) = 2m = ; qm (z, t) = (4.3)
An n An n Am m Am m
Each of them could be solved within their uniformity range. These equations have to
fulfill the following continuity conditions
yn (z, t)|z=ln = ym (z, t)|z=lm
yn (z, t) ym (z, t)
= (4.4)
z z=ln z z=lm
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 189
In the engineering applications number of these conditions is large and the solution
of equations of motion of the beam, although still possible, is unpractical and te-
dious. Therefore, in most of the engineering problems the continuous systems are
approximated by the multi-degree-of-freedom systems. Process of determination of
the inertia matrix and the stiness matrix of a continuous system is called discretiza-
tion. This process is demonstrated in the next sections taking beam as an example
but it can be apply to any continuous element.
1 2 ......... n .............................................................. N
yn
y
n
Figure 2
l i-1 li l i+1
..... .....
a)
li
kT i
b)
k Mi
l i-1 /2 l i/ 2
mi c)
Gi
Ii
mi m i+1
k T i -1 k T i+1
Ii I i +1
.....
k Mi-1 k Mi k Mi+1
.....
z d)
Figure 3
E,Ji G,Ai
li li
Ti y
Mi Mi a) ri c)
Ti
ri
e i Ti ye i
Mi Mi
b) Ti kT i d)
2e i
k Mi
Figure 4
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 191
yields
GAi
kTi = (4.8)
li
The right hand part of the segment li1 and the left hand part of the subsequent
segment li , form a section (Fig. 3c). Each section is considered rigid and its inertia
properties are represented by mass mi and moments of inertia Ii . In this way a
complete symmetry is obtained that gives simple programming for computer analysis.
Application of the Lagranges equations to the physical model is shown in Fig.
3d) results in the following equations of motion.
y + ky = 0
m (4.9)
where
M1,1 .. 0 0 0 .. 0
. .. . . . .. .
0 .. Mi1,i1 0 0 .. 0
m=
0 .. 0 Mi,i 0 .. 0
(4.10)
0 .. 0 0 Mi+1,i+1 .. 0
. .. . . . .. .
0 .. 0 0 0 .. MN,N
K1,1 .. 0 0 0 .. 0
. .. . . . .. .
0 .. Ki1,i1Ki1,i 0 .. 0
k=
0 .. Ki,i1 Ki,i Ki,i+1 .. 0
(4.11)
0 .. 0 Ki+1,i Ki+1,i+1 .. 0
. .. . . . .. .
0 .. 0 0 0 .. KN,N
y1
:
yi1
yb =
yi
(4.12)
yi+1
:
yN
N =I +1 (4.13)
mi 0
Mi,i = (4.14)
0 Ii
kTi1 kTi1 zri1
Ki,i1 = (4.15)
+kTi1 zli kMi1 + kTi1 zri1 zli
+kTi1 + kTi +kTi1 zli + kTi zri
Ki,i = (4.16)
+kTi1 zli + kTi zri +kMi1 + kTi1 zl2i + kTi zr2i
kTi +kTi zli+1
Ki,i+1 = (4.17)
kTi zri kMi + kTi zli+1 zri
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 192
yi
yi = (4.18)
yi
The geometrical interpretation of the vector of coordinates 4.18 is given in Fig. 5.The
element 1 element i element N
Oi
z
node 1 node i node N
yi
yi
Figure 5
coordinates yi , yi are associated with nodes which are located at the centre of gravity
of the rigid elements.
Fi
Mi element i
Oi z
ai node i
yi
Fi yi
Figure 6
z
1
yi1
E i Ji Ai i yi2
yi1
li 2
yi2
y
Figure 7
Ei , Ji , Ai , and i stand for Young modulus, second moment of area about the neutral
axis, area of cross-section and the unit mass of the element. The dierential equation
of the statically deflected line of the element in the plane yz is
d4 y(z)
Ei Ji
=0 (4.20)
dz 4
Integration of the above equation four times yields
1 1
y(z) = C1 z 3 + C2 z 2 + C3 z + C4 (4.21)
6 2
The constants of integration Cj (j = 1, 2, 3, 4) must be chosen to fulfill the following
boundary conditions
dy(z) dy(z)
y(z)|z=0 = yi1 ; = yi1 y(z)|z=li = yi2 ; = yi2 (4.22)
dz z=0 dz z=li
The parameters yi1 and yi2 are called nodal displacements and the parameters i1
and i2 are called nodal rotations. The nodes are denoted by numbers 1 and 2.
Introduction of the solution 4.21 into the above boundary conditions results in the
following set of algebraic equations that is linear with respect to the constants Cj .
0 0 0 1 C1 yi1
0
1 3 102 1 0 C2 = yi1 (4.23)
li l li 1 C3 yi2
6 2 i
1 2
l
2 i
li 1 0 C4 yi2
Its solution yields the integration constants Cj .
1 6
C1 0 0 0 1 yi1 li3
(2yi1+ li yi1 2yi2 + li yi2 )
C2 0 0 1 0 yi1 2
= li2
(3yi1 2li yi1 + 3yi2 li yi2 )
C3 = 1 li3 1 2
l li 1 yi2 yi1
6 2 i
1 2
C4 l
2 i
li 1 0 yi2 yi1
(4.24)
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 194
After introduction of Eq. 4.24 into the equation of the deflected line 4.21 one may
get it in the following form.
" 2 3 # " 2 3 #
z z z z z
y(z) = 1 3 +2 yi1 + 2 + li yi1
li li li li li
" 3 # " 3 #
2 2
z z z z
+ 3 2 yi2 + + li yi2
li li li li
= {H(z)}T {y} (4.25)
where 2 3
1 3 z
+ 2 z
li
2 3
li
H
1
z
2 lz + lz li
H2 li li i i
{H(z)} = = 2 3 (4.26)
H
3
3 lz 2 lz
H4 li
i i 3
2
z + z li
l li i
yi1
yi1
{y} = (4.27)
y
i2
yi2
Functions H1 , H2 , H3 , H4 (see Eq. 4.26) are known as Hermite cubics or shape func-
tions. The matrix {y} contains the nodal coordinates. As it can be seen from Eq.
4.25 the deflected line of the finite element is assembled out of terms which are linear
with respect to the nodal coordinates.
If the finite element performs motion with respect to the stationary system of
coordinates xyz, it is assumed that the motion in the plane yz can be approximated
by the following equation.
y(z, t) = {H(z)}T {y (t)} (4.28)
As one can see from the equation 4.28, between two subsequent nodes, the dynamic
deflection line is approximated by the static deflection line. It should be noted that
this assumption is acceptable only if the considered element is reasonably short.
The following mathematical manipulations are aimed to replace the continues
mathematical model of the element considered
4 y(z, t) 2 y(z, t)
Ei Ji i =0 (4.29)
z 4 t2
by its discreet representation along the nodal coordinates
[mi ] {
y (t)} + [ki ] {y (t)} = 0. (4.30)
In the above equations i stands for the unit mass of the finite element and [mi ] and
[ki ] stands for the inertia and stiness matrix respectively. These two matrices are
going to be developed from the two following criteria:
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 195
1. The kinetic energy stored in the continues physical model of the finite
element must be equal to the kinetic energy stored in its discreet physical model.
2. The potential energy stored in the continues physical model of the finite
element must be equal to the potential energy stored in its discreet physical model.
The kinetic energy stored in the continues physical model of the finite element
is
Z 2
1 li y(z, t)
T = dz
2 0 i t
Z
1 li y(z, t) y(z, t)
= dz
2 0 i t t
Z
1 li
= i {y (t)}T {H(z)} {H(z)}T {y (t)} dz
2 0
Z li
1 T T
= {y (t)} i {H(z)} {H(z)} dz {y (t)}
2 0
Z li H12 H1 H2 li H1 H3 H1 H4 li
1 H22 li2 H2 H3 li H2 H4 li2
= {y (t)}T H2 H1 li dz {y (t)}
2 i H3 H1 H3 H2 li H32 H3 H4 li
0
H4 H11 li H4 H2 li2 H4 H3 li H42 li2
(4.31)
It is easy to see that the last row of Eq. 4.31 represents kinetic energy function
of the discreet physical model (compare with Eq. 2.138 page 107) along the nodal
coordinates yi1 yi1 yi2 yi2 with the following matrix of inertia.
2
Z li H 1 H 1 H2 li H1 H 3 H 1 H 4 li
H2 H1 li H22 li2 H2 H3 li H2 H4 li2
mi = i dz
H3 H1 H3 H2 li H 2
3 H 3 H 4 li
0
2 2 2
H4 H1 li H4 H2 li H4 H3 li H4 li
13 11 9 13
35 210 i
l 70
420 i
l
11 li 1 2
li 13
li 140 1 2
li
= i li 210 105 420
9
70
13
420 i
l 13
35
210 li
11
13 1 2 11 1 2
420 li 140 li 210 li 105 li
13 11 9 13
35 210 i
l 70
420 li
11 li 1 2
l 13
l 140 1 2
li
= mi
210 105 i 420 i (4.32)
9
70
13
420 i
l 13
35
11
210 i
l
13 1 2 11 1 2
420 li 140 li 210 li 105 li
To take advantage of the second criterion let us produce expression for the
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 196
potential energy function for the continues physical model of the finite element.
Z 2 2
1 li y(z, t)
V = Ei Ji dz
2 0 z 2
Z 2 2
1 li y(z, t) y(z, t)
= Ei Ji dz
2 0 z 2 z 2
Z 2 2 T !
1 li d H(z) d H(z)
= Ei Ji {y (t)}T {y (t)} dz
2 0 dz 2 dz 2
" Z li 2 2 T #
1 d H(z) d H(z)
= {y (t)}T Ei Ji dz {y (t)}
2 0 dz 2 dz 2
00 2 00 00 00 00 00 00
Z li H1 H1 H2 li H1 H3 H1 H4 li
1 T
H 00 H 00 li (H 00 )2 l2 H 00 H 00 li H 00 H 00 l2
= {y (t)} Ei Ji 200 100 2 i 2 3 2 4 i dz {y (t)}
2 H H H3 H2 li (H3 )2 H3 H4 li
00 00 00 00 00
0 3 1
00 00 00 00 00 00 00
H4 H1 li H4 H2 li2 H4 H3 li (H4 )2 li2
(4.33)
As one can see from Eq. 4.33, to fulfill the second criterion, the stiness matrix along
the nodal coordinates yi1 yi1 yi2 yi2 must be as follows.
00 2 00 00 00 00 00 00
Z li H1 H1 H2 li H1 H3 H1 H4 li
H 00 H 00 li 00 00
(H2 )2 li2 H2 H3 li
00
H2 H4 li2
00 00
ki = Ei Ji 200 100 dz
H H 00 00
H3 H2 li (H3 )2
00
H3 H4 li
00 00
0 3 1
00 00 00 00 00 00 00
H4 H1 li H4 H2 li2 H4 H3 li (H4 )2 li2
12 6li 12 6li
Ei Ji
6li 4li2 6li 2li2
= 3 12 6l
(4.34)
li i 12 6li
6li 2li2 6li 4li2
i + ki yi = Ryi
mi y (4.35)
The vector Ri represents the interaction forces between the neighborhood elements.
T
Ryi = Ryi1 Ryi1 Ryi2 Ryi2 (4.36)
In exactly the same manner one can create mathematical model for the next
to the right hand side element of the shaft, say element j.
j + kj yj = Ryj
mj y (4.37)
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 197
where
13 11 9 13
35
l
210 j 70
420 lj
11
l 1 2
l 13
l 1 2
140 lj
mj = mj
210 j 105 j 420 j
9
70
13
l
420 j
13
35
11
210 lj
13 1 2 11 1 2
420 lj 140 lj 210 lj l
105 j
12 6lj 12 6lj
Ej Aj 6lj 4lj2 6lj 2lj2
kj = (4.38)
lj3 12 6lj 12 6lj
6lj 2lj2 6lj 4lj2
T
yj = yj1 yj1 yj2 yj2 (4.39)
T
Ryi = Ryj1 Ryj1 Ryj2 Ryj2 (4.40)
These two equations of motion (4.35 4.37), associated with the two elements i and j,
have to fulfill the compatibility (continuity and equilibrium) conditions. These condi-
tions allow to join those two elements to create one mathematical model representing
both elements. In the case considered here, the compatibility conditions between the
two elements i and j correspond to the left hand side node of the element i and the
right hand side node of the element j. For these nodes the continuity conditions take
form
yi2 yj1 yij
= = (4.41)
yi2 yj1 yij
and the equilibrium conditions are
Ryi2 Ryj1 0
+ = (4.42)
Ryi2 Ryj1 0
where
ij =
m
13 11 9 13
m
35 i
lm
210 i i
m
70 i
420 li mi 0 0
11
lm 1 2
l mi 13
lm 1 2
140 li mi 0 0
210 i i 105 i 420 i i
9
m 13
lm 13
(m + m ) 11
(l m + l m ) 9
m 13
lm
70 i 420 i i 35 i j 210 i i j j 70 j 420 j j
13
420 li mi 1 2
140 li mi 11 1 2 2
(li mi + lj mj ) 105 (li mi + lj mj ) 13
lm 1 2
140 lj mj
210 420 j j
0 0 9
m 13
lm 13
m 11
210 lj mj
70 j 420 j j 35 j
13 1 2 11 1 2
0 0 420 lj mj 140 lj mj 210 lj mj 105 lj mj
(4.44)
DISCRETE MODEL OF THE FREE-FREE BEAMS 198
kij =
12 Eli3Ai 6 Eli2Ai 12 Eli3Ai 6 Eli2Ai 0 0
Ei Ai
i i
Ei Ai
i
Ei Ai
i
Ei Ai
6 l2 4 l 6 l2 2 l 0 0
i i i i
129 i3 i 6 i2 i 12( i3 i + 3 ) 6( i2 i + 2 ) 12 3
E A E A E A Ej A j E A Ej A j E j Aj E A
6 jl2 j
li li li lj li lj lj
E A E A E A E A
j
6 Ei2Ai 2 EilAi 6( Eli2Ai + jl2 j ) 4( EilAi + jl j ) 6 jl2 j 2 jl j
li i i j i j j j
E A E A E A E A
0 0 12 jl3 j 6 jl2 j 12 jl3 j 6 jl2 j
j j j j
E A E A E A E A
0 0 6 jl2 j 2 jl j 6 jl2 j 4 jl j
j j j j
(4.45)
T
yij = yi1 yi1 yij yij yj2 yj2 (4.46)
T
Rij = Ryi1 Ryi1 0 0 Ryj2 Ryj2 (4.47)
Repetition of the described procedure to all elements of the shaft results in
the mathematical model of the shaft in the plane yz.
y + ky = 0
m (4.48)
The geometrical interpretation of the nodal coordinates appearing in the Eq. 4.46 is
given in Fig. 8.
element 1 element i element N-1
Oi
z
node 1 node i node N
yi yi
Figure 8
The coordinates yi and yi are associated with nodes that are located at the
ends of the finite elements.
ai Fi
z
1
yi1
Ei Ji Ai i yi2
yi1
li 2
yi2
y
Figure 9
2 3 T
1 3 ai
+ 2 ai
li l
2 i 3
yi1
ai
li
2 al i + al i li
i i yi1
y(ai , t) = {H(ai )}T {y (t)} = 2 3 (4.50)
3 al i 2 al i
yi2
i 2 i 3
yi2
ai + ai l
li li i
Introduction of the above expression into the expression for the virtual work yields
2 3 T
1 3 ai
+ 2 ai
li li
2 3
y
ai
2 l a i
+ l a i
li
i1
li i i yi1
Wi = Fi 2 3 (4.51)
3 ai
2 ai
yi2
yi2
li l
i 3
2
ai + ai li
lli i
O Oi
yi z
byi
Bi
y yi
Figure 10
Let us assume that the free-free beam is rigidly supported upon several sup-
ports Bi (see Fig. 10). The instantaneous position of these supports is determine
with respect to the stationary system of coordinates xyz by coordinates byi (t) . Let
us denote by b vector of such coordinates.
.
..
b = byi (t) (4.54)
..
.
in such a way that its upper part yb contains coordinates along which the shaft is
rigidly supported and its lower part yr contains all the remaining coordinates
yb
y= (4.56)
yr
y + ky = F
m (4.57)
b + mbr y
mbb y r + kbb yb + kbr yr = Fb
b + mrr y
mrb y r + krb yb + krr yr = Fr (4.59)
CONDENSATION OF THE DISCREET SYSTEMS 201
Motion of the beam along the coordinates yb is determined by the boundary condi-
tions 4.54. Hence, the vector yb in the mathematical model 4.59 must be replaced by
b.
+ mbr y
mbb b r + kbb b + kbr yr = Fb
r + krb b + krr yr = Fr
mrb b + mrr y (4.60)
The second equation governs motion of the supported beam and can be rewritten as
follows
mrr y b krs bb
r + krr yr = Fr mrb b (4.61)
The last two terms represent the kinematic excitation of the beam cause by motion
of its supports. The vector b, in a general case, contains elements that are known
functions of time. Hence the above equation can be solved for motion along the
coordinates yr . Let
yr = Yr (t) (4.62)
be a solution of this equation. This solution approximate motion of the beam along
the remaining coordinates yr .
The vector Fb in the first equation of the set 4.60 represents forces of the
interaction between the moving beam and its supports. These interaction forces can
be now determined.
+ mbr Y
Fb = mbb b r + kbb b + kbr Yr (t) (4.63)
y + cy + ky = F
m (4.64)
can be too large to carry out the necessary analysis of the mathematical model. In this
section a procedure for reducing the size of mathematical models will be developed.
Let us assume, that the equation 4.64 is arranged in such a way that the
coordinates, which are to be eliminated due to the condensation procedure ye , are
located in the upper part of the vector y and these, which are to be retained for
further consideration yr , are located in its lower part.
ye
y= (4.65)
yr
Partitioning of the equations 4.64 yields
mee mer y
e cee cer y e kee ker ye Fe
+ + = (4.66)
mre mrr y
r cre crr y r kre krr yr Fr
To eliminate the coordinates ye from the mathematical model 4.66, one have to
determine the relationship between the coordinates ye and the coordinates yr . One
CONDENSATION OF THE DISCREET SYSTEMS 202
of many possibilities is to assume that the coordinates ye are obeyed to the static
relationship.
kee ker ye 0
= (4.67)
kre krr yr 0
Hence, upon partitioning equation 4.67 one may obtain
ye = hyr (4.69)
where
h = k1
ee ker (4.70)
Once the relationship is established, one may formulate the following criteria of con-
densation:
1. Kinetic energy of the system before and after condensation must be the
same.
2. Dissipation function of the system before and after condensation must be
the same.
3. Potential energy of the system before and after condensation must be the
same.
4. Virtual work done by all the external forces before and after condensation
must be the same.
4.3.1 Condensation of the inertia matrix.
According to the first criterion, the kinetic energy of the system before and after
condensation must be the same. The kinetic energy of the system before condensation
is
1 T T
mee mer y e
T = y e y r
2 mre mrr y r
1 T
= y e mee y e + y eT mer y r + y rT mre y e + y rT mrr y r (4.71)
2
Introduction of 4.69 yields
1 T T T T
T = [hy r ] mee hy r + [hy r ] mer y r + y r mre hy r +y r mrr y r
2
1 T T
= y r h mee hy r +y Tr hT mer y r +y Tr mre hy r +y Tr mrr y r
2
1 T T
= y r h mee h + hT mer +mre h + mrr y r (4.72)
2
Hence, if the kinetic energy after condensation is to be the same, the inertia matrix
after condensation mc must be equal to
4.4 PROBLEMS
Problem 48
Produce the natural frequencies and the corresponding natural modes for the
fixed-elastically supported uniform beam shown in Fig. 11.
Figure 11
The exact solution of this problem is presented in page 177 for the following
data
E = 2.1 1011 N/m2
= 7800kg/m3
A = 0.03 0.01 = 0.0003m2
3
J = 0.030.01
12
= 2.5 109 m4
k = 10000N/m
l = 1m
11 2.5109
= EJk
= 2.110 10000 = 0.0525
Use this data to produce the solution by means of approximation of this beam with
10 finite elements.
PROBLEMS 205
Solution
To create the mathematical model of the free-free beam, it was divided into
ten finite elements as shown in Fig. 12. The computed mathematical model is
O
z
y1 y2 y11
1 2 11
Figure 12
y + ky = 0;
m y = {y1 , 1 , y2 , 2 , ......, y11 , 11 }T (4.84)
The influence of the spring can be represented by the force ky11 acting along the
coordinate y11 (see Fig. 13).
y11
O 11
y -ky11
Figure 13
This force should be introduced to the right hand side of the equation 4.84.
0 0 0 .... .... 0 y1
0 0 0 .... .... 0
1
y + ky =
m .... = .... ....
.... .... .... ....
= k1 y (4.85)
ky11 0 0 .... k 0 y11
0 0 0 .... 0 0 11
y + ks y = 0
m (4.86)
PROBLEMS 206
where
0 0 .... .... 0
0 0 .... .... 0
ks = k + k1 = k+
.... .... .... .... ....
(4.87)
0 0 .... k 0
0 0 .... 0 0
To introduce the boundary conditions associated with the left hand side of the beam,
let us partition the above mathematical model in such a manner that all the coordi-
nates involved in this boundary conditions are included in the vector y1 .
m11 m12 y
1 ks11 ks12 y1
+ =0 (4.88)
m21 m22 y
2 ks21 ks22 y2
where
y1 = {y1 , 1 }T y2 = {y2 , 2 , ...., y11 , 11 }T (4.89)
R y11
11
M
O
y1=0 y2 z
1=0 2
l
y -ky11
Figure 14
and
R1 = {R, M}T (4.91)
Introduction of 4.90 and 4.91 into 4.88 yields
m11 m12 0 ks11 ks12 0 R1
+ = (4.92)
m21 m22 y
2 ks21 ks22 y2 0
2 + ks12 y2 = R1
m12 y (4.93)
2 + ks22 y2 = 0
m22 y (4.94)
PROBLEMS 207
The second equation 4.94 is the equation of motion of the supported beam. It was
solved for the natural modes and the natural frequencies. Results of this computation
is shown in Fig. 15 by boxes and in the first column of the Table below. This results
are compare with natural modes (continuous line in Fig. 15) and natural frequencies
(second column in the Table) obtained by solving the continuous mathematical model
( see problem page 176). The equation 4.93 allows the vector of the interation forces
R1 to be computed.
O
2 k z
l
y
1
Y1(z) Y2(z) Y3(z)
-1
-2
Figure 15
Table
natural frequenciesof natural frequencies of
the descreet system the continuous system
[1/sec] [1/sec]
1 129.5 129.65
2 357.6 357.3
3 933.4 932.0
PROBLEMS 208
Problem 49
1 2 3 4
x1 x2 x3 x4
Figure 16
1 2 3
a3 Z
X a2 sin t
Figure 17
The motion of these supports with respect to the inertial system of coordinate
XZ is given by the following equations
X1 = 0
X2 = a2 sin t
X3 = a3 (4.97)
Solution
Partitioning of the equations 4.95 with respect to the vector of boundary
conditions 4.97 results in the following equation
x + kx = R
m (4.98)
where
m11 m12 x
1 k11 k12 x1 R1
+ = (4.99)
m21 m22 x
2 k21 k22 x2 R2
m11 m12 m13 m14
m11 = m21 m22 m23 ; m12 = m24 ; m21 = m41 m42 m43 ; m22 = m44
m31 m32 m33 m34
(4.100)
k11 k12 k13 k14
k11 = k21 k22 k23 ; k12 = k24 ; k21 = k41 k42 k43 ; k22 = k44
k31 k32 k33 k34
(4.101)
x1 R1
x1 = x2 ; x2 =x4 ; R1 = R2 ; R2 =0 (4.102)
x3 R3
or
1 + m12 x
m11 x 2 + k11 x1 + k12 x2 = R1 (4.103)
1 + m22 x
m21 x 2 + k21 x1 + k22 x2 = 0 (4.104)
Introduction of boundary conditions 4.97 into the equation 4.104 yields
x1 x1
m44 x4 + k44 x4 = m41 m42 m43 x2 k41 k42 k43 x2 (4.105)
x3 x3
where
x1 0 x1 0
x2 = a2 2 sin t ; x2 = a2 sin t (4.106)
x3 0 x3 a3
or
m44 x4 + k44 x4 = (m42 a2 2 k42 a2 ) sin t k43 a3 (4.107)
The static deflection is due to the time independent term k43 a3 in the right hand
side of the equation 4.107.
x4 = xs (4.109)
k43 a3
xs = (4.111)
k44
Its graphical representation is given in Fig. 18
1 2 3 4
a3 Z
X xs
Figure 18
The forced response due to motion of the support 2 (X2 = a2 sin t) is repre-
sented by the particular solution due to the time dependant term.
m44 x4 + k44 x4 = (m42 a2 2 k42 a2 ) sin t (4.112)
For the above equation, the particular solution may be predicted as follows
x4 = xd sin t (4.113)
Implementation of the solution 4.113 into the equation 4.112 yields the wanted am-
plitude of the forced vibration xd .
(m42 a2 2 k42 a2 )
xd = (4.114)
2 m44 + k44
The resultant motion of the system considered is shown in Fig. 19
1 2 3 4
a3 xs Z
X a2 sin t xd sin t
Figure 19
This motion causes interaction forces along these coordinates along which the
system is attached to the base. These forces can computed from equation 4.103.
1 + m12 x
m11 x 2 + k11 x1 + k12 x2 = R1 (4.115)
In this equation x1 stands for the given boundary conditions
x1 0 x1 0
x1 = x2 = a2 sin t 1= x2 = a2 2 sin t
;x (4.116)
x3 a3 x3 0
PROBLEMS 211
and x2 represents, known at this stage, motion of the system along the coordinate 4
d2
x2 = x4 = xs + xd sin t x
2 = x4 = (xs + xd sin t) = xd 2 sin t; (4.117)
dt2
Hence, the wanted vector of interaction forces is as follows
0 0
R1 = m11 a2 2 sin t +k11 a2 sin t +m12 (xd 2 sin )+k12 (xs +xd sin t)
0 a3
(4.118)
Part II
EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATION
212
Chapter 5
MODAL ANALYSIS OF A SYSTEM WITH 3 DEGREES OF
FREEDOM
1 2 4 5 3 6 7 8
9 10 12
Figure 1
The vibrating object 2, 3, and 4 (see Fig.1) is attached to the base 1. It consists
of the three rectangular blocks 2 joint together by means of the two springs 3. The
spaces between the blocks 2 are filled in with the foam 4 in order to increase the
structural damping. The transducer 5 allows the acceleration of the highest block to
be measured in the horizontal direction. The hammer 6 is used to induce vibrations
of the object. It is furnished with the piezoelectric transducer 7 that permits the
impulse of the force applied to the object to be measured. The rubber tip 8 is used
MODELLING OF THE OBJECT 214
to smooth and extend the impulse of force. Both, the acceleration of the object and
the impulse of the force can be simultaneously recorded and stored in the memory
of the spectrum analyzer 10. These data allow the transfer functions to be produced
and sent to the personal computer 11 for further analysis.
x3 m3
k3
c3
x2 m2
k2
c2
x1 m1
k1
c1
Figure 2
The base 1, which is considered rigid and motionless, forms a reference system
for measuring its vibrations. The blocks 2 are assumed to be rigid and the springs 3 are
by assumption massless. Motion of the blocks is restricted to one horizontal direction
only. Hence, according to these assumptions, the system can be approximated by
three degrees of freedom physical model. The three independent coordinates x1 , x2
and x3 are shown in Fig.2. Magnitudes of the stuness k1 , k2 and k3 of the springs
can be analytically assessed. To this end let us consider one spring shown in Fig. 3
The dierential equation of the deflection of the spring is
d2 x FH
EJ 2
= M Fz = Fz (5.1)
dz 2
Double integration results in the following equation of the bending line.
dx FH F
EJ = z z2 + A (5.2)
dz 2 2
FH 2 F 3
EJx = z z + Az + B (5.3)
4 6
MODELLING OF THE OBJECT 215
z
x(H)
M=FH/2
F
w t
EJ
H
x F z
M=FH/2
Figure 3
Taking advantage of the boundary conditions associated with the lower end of the
spring, one can arrived to the following expression for the bending line.
1 FH 2 F 3
x= z z (5.4)
EJ 4 6
Hence, the deflection of the upper end is
1 FH 2 F 3 1
x(H) = H H = F H3 (5.5)
EJ 4 6 12EJ
Therefore the stiness of one spring is
F 12EJ
k= = (5.6)
x(H) H3
where
wt3
J= (5.7)
12
Since we deal with a set of two springs between the blocks, the stiness ki shown in
the physical model can be computed according to the following formula.
24Ei Ji
ki = (5.8)
Hi3
5.2.2 Mathematical model
Application of the Newtons equations to the developed physical model results in the
following set of dierential equations
x + cx + kx = F
m (5.9)
where
m1 0 0 c1 + c2 c2 0
m = 0 m2 0 ; c = c2 c2 + c3 c3
0 0 m3 0 c3 c3
k1 + k2 k2 0 x1 F1
k = k2 k2 + k3 k3 ; x = x2 ; F = F2 (5.10)
0 k3 k3 x3 F3
The vector F represents the external excitation that can be applied to the system.
x = X cos t (5.11)
x + kx = F
m (5.12)
results in a set of the algebraic equations that are linear with respect to the vector
X. 2
m + k X = 0 (5.13)
Solution of the eigenvalue and eigenvector problem yields the natural frequencies and
the corresponding natural modes.
1 , 2 , 3 (5.14)
= [1 , 2 , 2 ] (5.15)
For detailed explanation see pages 100 to 103
5.3.2 Equations of motion in terms of the normal coordinates - transfer
functions
If one assume that the damping matrix is of the following form
c =m+k (5.16)
the equations of motion 5.9 can be expressed in terms of the normal coordinates
= 1 x (see section normal coordinates - modal damping page 103)
n + 2 n n n + 2n n = Tn F(t), n = 1, 2, 3 (5.17)
ANALYSIS OF THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL 217
The response of the system along the coordinate xp due to the harmonic excitation
Fq eit along the coordinate xq , according to the formula 2.130 (page 105), is
X
N
pn qn Fq
it
xp = e (5.18)
2
n=1 n
2 + 2 n n i
Hence the acceleration along the coordinate xp as the second derivative with respect
to time, is
XN
pn qn Fq
2 it
xp = e (5.19)
2 + 2 n n i
2
n=1 n
It follows that the transfer function between the coordinate xp and xq , according to
2.132 is
xp xp
Rpq (i) = it
= 2 =
Fq e Fq eit
XN
2 pn qn (2n 2 ) 2pn qn n n i
= + q = 1, 2, 3
n=1
( 2n 2 )2 + 4 2n 2n 2 ( 2n 2 )2 + 4 2n 2n 2
(5.20)
The modal damping ratios 1 , 2 and 3 are unknown and are to be identified by fitting
the analytical transfer functions into the experimental ones. Since the transducer
5 (Fig. 1) produces acceleration, the laboratory installation permits to obtain the
acceleration to force transfer function. The theory on the experimental determination
of the transfer functions is given in the section Experimental determination of the
transfer functions (page 98).
5.3.3 Extraction of the natural frequencies and the natural modes from
the transfer functions
The problem of determination of the natural frequencies and the natural modes from
the displacement - force transfer functions was explained in details in section
Determination of natural frequencies and modes from the transfer functions (page
105). Let us do similar manipulation on the acceleration - force transfer function.
First of all let us notice that
2 2
pn qn ( ) pn qn i
if = n Rpq (i n ) = 2 n
+ q = 1, 2, 3 (5.21)
4 2n 2n 2 2 n n
Since the real part of the transfer function is equal to zero for = n , its absolute
value is equal to the absolute value of the imaginary part.
pn qn
=
|Rpq (i n )| q = 1, 2, 3 (5.22)
2 n
and phase for = n
Im(Rpq (in ))
= arctan = arctan = 90o (5.23)
Re(Rpq (i n ))
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 218
Hence, the frequencies corresponding to the phase 90o are the wanted natural
frequencies n .
Because n and pn are constants, magnitudes of the absolute value of the
transfer functions for = n represents the modes 1n , 2n , 3n associated with the
n th natural frequency. An example of extracting the natural frequency and the
corresponding natural mode from the transfer function is shown in Fig. 4
transfer functions m/N (modulus)
0.00025
0.0002
0.00015 R(1,1)
R(1,2)
0.0001 R(1,3)
0.00005
3
R(1,1)
2
R(1,2) /2
1 R(1,3)
0 natural frequency natural mode
-1
-2 /2
-3
-4
1500 1600 1700 1800 frequency rad/s
2
1
Figure 4
The blocks were weighted before assembly and their masses are
m1 = 0.670kg
m2 = 0.595kg
m3 = 0.595kg
The formula 5.7 and 5.8
24EJ wt3
ki = ; J = (5.24)
Hi3 12
allows the stiness ki to be computed.
The following set of data is required
E = 0.21 1012 N/m2
w = ......................m to be measured during the laboratory session
t = ......................m to be measured during the laboratory session
H1 = ......................m to be measured during the laboratory session
H2 = ......................m to be measured during the laboratory session
H3 = ......................m to be measured during the laboratory session
The damping coecients ci are dicult to be assessed. Alternatively the damping
properties of the system can be uniquely defined by means of the three modal damp-
ing ratios 1 , 2 and 3 (see equation 5.17). = 1 corresponds to the critical damping.
Inspection of the free vibrations of the object lead to the conclusion that the damp-
ing is much smaller then the critical one. Hence, as the first approximation of the
damping, let us adopt the following damping ratios
1 = 0.01
2 = 0.01
2 = 0.01
5.4.2 Measurements of the transfer functions
According to the description given in section Experimental determination of the trans-
fer functions (page 98) to produce the transfer function Rpq (i) you have to measure
response of the system along the coordinate xp due to impulse along the coordinate
xq . Since the transducer 5 (Fig. 1) is permanently attached to the mass m3 and the
impulse can be applied along the coordinates x1 , x2 or x3 , the laboratory installation
permits the following transfer functions to be obtained.
The hammer 6 should be used to introduce the impulse. To obtain a reliable result,
10 measurements are to be averaged to get one transfer function. These impulses
should be applied to the middle of the block. The spectrum analyzer must show the
waiting for trigger sign before the subsequent impulse is applied.
As the equipment used is delicate and expensive, one has to observe the fol-
lowing;
1. always place the hammer on the pad provided when it is not used
2. when applying the impulse to the object make sure that the impulse is not
excessive
Harder impact does not produce better results.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 220
m1 , m2 , m3 , H1 , H2 , H3 , w, E (5.26)
t, 1 , 2 , 3 (5.27)
Use the parameter t to shift the natural frequencies (increment of t results in shift
of the natural frequencies to the right). Use the parameters i to align the picks of
the absolute values of the transfer functions (increment in the modal damping ratio
results in lowering the pick of the analytical transfer function). Work on one (say
R33 (i) transfer function only.
WORKSHEET 221
5.5 WORKSHEET
1. Initial parameters of physical model
Measure the missing parameters and insert them to the table below
Mass of the block length of the spring
m1 = 0.670kg H1 = ..................m
1 1
Mass of the block length of the spring
m2 = 0.595kg H2 = ..................m
2 2
Mass of the block length of the spring
m1 = 0.595kg H3 = ..................m
3 3
damping ratio Youngs
1 = 0.01 E = 0.21 1012 N/m2
of mode 1 modulus
damping ratio width of the
2 = 0.01 w = .....................m
of mode 2 springs
damping ratio thickness of the
3 = 0.01 t = .....................m
of mode 3 springs
Run program Prac3 and choose menu Input data to enter the above data.
Set excitation coordinate 3, response coordinate 3.
Save the initial data.
2. Experimental acceleration-force transfer functions R33 (i)
Choose menu Frequency response measurements
Set up the spectrum analyzer by execution of the sub-menu Setup analyzer
Choose sub-menu Perform measurement, execute it and apply 10 times im-
pulse along the coordinates 3
Choose sub-menu Time/Frequency domain toggle to see the measured trans-
fer function
Choose sub-menu Transfer TRF to computer and execute it
Exit menu Frequency response measurements
Choose Response display/plot to display the transfer functions
3. Identification of the thickness t and the modal damping ratios i
You can see both the experimental and analytical transfer function R33 (i).
By varying t, 1 , 2 , 3 in the input data, try to fit the analytical data into the
experimental one. Use the parameter t to shift the natural frequencies (increment
of t results in shift of the natural frequencies to the right). Use the parameters i
to align the picks of the absolute values of the transfer functions (increment in the
modal damping ratio results in lowering the pick of the analytical transfer function).
program designed by Dr. T. Chalko
WORKSHEET 222