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The Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete - MURTY
The Seismic Performance of Reinforced Concrete - MURTY
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The Seismic Performance of
Reinforced Concrete Frame Buildings
ZLWK0DVRQU\,QOO:DOOV
C. V. R. Murty
Svetlana Brzev
Heidi Faison
Craig D. Comartin
Ayhan Irfanoglu
)LUVW(GLWLRQ1RYHPEHU
3XEOLFDWLRQ1XPEHU:+(
2006 Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, California 94612-1934.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the
prior written permission of the publisher, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, 499 14th St., Suite
320, Oakland, CA 94612-1934.
7KLVUHSRUWLVSXEOLVKHGE\WKH(DUWKTXDNH(QJLQHHULQJ5HVHDUFK,QVWLWXWHDQRQSURWFRUSRUDWLRQ7KH
objective of the Earthquake Engineering Research Institute is to reduce earthquake risk by advancing
the science and practice of earthquake engineering by improving understanding of the impact of
earthquakes on the physical, social, economic, political, and cultural environment, and by advocating
comprehensive and realistic measures for reducing the harmful effects of earthquakes.
The printing of this tutorial has been supported by the Bangladesh University of Engineering and
Technology-Virginia Tech Partnership for Reduction of Seismic Vulnerability, with funding from the
U.S. Agency for International Development.
This tutorial was written by a committee of volunteer authors, all of whom participate in EERI and
,$((V:RUOG+RXVLQJ(QF\FORSHGLDSURMHFW$Q\RSLQLRQVQGLQJVFRQFOXVLRQVRUUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV
H[SUHVVHGKHUHLQDUHWKHDXWKRUVDQGGRQRWQHFHVVDULO\UHHFWWKHYLHZVRIWKHLURUJDQL]DWLRQV
Or
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
499 14th Street, Suite 320
Oakland, CA 94612-1934 USA
Telephone: 510/451-0905
Fax: 510/451-5411
E-mail: eeri@eeri.org
Web site: www.eeri.org
ISBN: 1-932884-22-X
EERI Publication Number WHE-2006-03
Cover: )LYHVWRU\5&IUDPHUHVLGHQWLDOEXLOGLQJZLWKXQUHLQIRUFHGPDVRQU\LQOOVWKDWFROODSVHGDERXW
50 km from the epicenter during the M7.7 2001 Bhuj (India) earthquake. The building had parking in
half of the ground story, with apartments in the other half. Most residential buildings are currently
constructed this way in India and many other countries, without formal design for gravity or seismic
ORDGLQJ7KHW\SLFDOFROXPQVL]HLQVXFKEXLOGLQJVLVPPE\PPZLWKGHJUHHKRRNHQGV
LQWKHWLHV7KHVDPHEHDPVODEUHLQIRUFHPHQWGHWDLOLVUHSHDWHGDWDOORRUOHYHOVWKHEXLOGLQJLQWKH
photo shows a vertical split in the middle of the building due to this generic reinforcement detailing at
DOORRUOHYHOV6XFKSRRUGHWDLOLQJUHVXOWVLQODSSLQJRIDOOEHDPDQGVODEUHEDUVDWWKHVDPHORFDWLRQLQ
SODQDWDOORRUVRIWKHEXLOGLQJ7KLVLVDGDQJHURXVSUDFWLFHWKDWFDQUHVXOWLQEXLOGLQJFROODSVHLQDQ
earthquake. Photo: C.V.R. Murty
ii
Acknowledgments
The World Housing Encyclopedia (WHE) project owes its origins to the vision of Chris Arnold, who
originally proposed the idea to the EERI Endowment Fund.
This tutorial has been developed and reviewed by an international team of experts. Primary authors
DUH&950XUW\,QGLD6YHWODQD%U]HY&DQDGD+HLGL)DLVRQ86$&UDLJ'&RPDUWLQ86$
and Ayhan Irfanoglu (U.S.A). Additional input was provided by Ahmet Yakut (Turkey), Durgesh
Rai (India) and Marjorie Greene (U.S.A.). Authors are particularly grateful to Andrew Charleson
(New Zealand) who provided many useful suggestions as a reviewer. In addition, Randolph
Langenbach (U.S.A.) provided useful suggestions regarding the emphasis on alternative systems,
and Eduardo Fierro (U.S.A.) and Cynthia Perry (U.S.A.) provided helpful suggestions on earlier
drafts. Authors of all the various WHE housing reports cited in this tutorial provided much useful
information in their reports, for which all the authors are very grateful:
The web site and WHE database have been designed by a team from John A. Martin and Associates
RI/RV$QJHOHV&$DVDSULPDULO\SURERQRHIIRUW)DU]DG1DHLP7HDP/HDGHU0DUN'D\3URMHFW
0DQDJHU/HDG'HVLJQHUDQG:HEVLWH3URJUDPPHU6FRWW+DJLH'DWDEDVH,QWHUIDFHDQG:HE6HUYHU
3URJUDPPHU.RVWDV6NOLURV6RIWZDUH(QJLQHHUDQG/HDG'DWDEDVH'HYHORSHU
This project would not be possible without the dedication of over 190 earthquake engineering
professionals from around the world who have volunteered their time and expertise to contribute
information on housing construction in their countries and to review information provided by
others. This tutorial is dedicated to all these contributors, whose names are listed on the next two
pages.
C. V. R. Murty
Editor-in-Chief
November 2006
iii
WORLD HOUSING
ENCYCLOPEDIA
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief Managing Editor
C.V.R. Murty Marjorie Greene
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
India U.S.A.
iv
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Tutorial
Reinforced Concrete Frame Buildings
ZLWK0DVRQU\,QOO:DOOV
About the Tutorial
This document is written for building of earthquake ground shaking is
professionals with two key objectives: considered to be a challenge even in
1) to improve the understanding KLJKO\LQGXVWULDOL]HGFRXQWULHVZLWK
of the poor seismic performance of advanced construction technology.
reinforced concrete frame buildings Keeping these challenges in mind, this
ZLWKPDVRQU\LQOOZDOOVDQGWR document proposes two alternative
offer viable alternative construction EXLOGLQJWHFKQRORJLHVFKDUDFWHUL]HG
technologies that can provide a higher by a higher level of seismic safety at
level of seismic safety. Causes for the a comparable cost and construction
unsatisfactory seismic performance FRPSOH[LW\WR5&IUDPHFRQVWUXFWLRQ
of these RC frame buildings lie in (a) WKHVHWHFKQRORJLHVDUHFRQQHGPDVRQU\
the poor choice of a building site, (b) construction and RC frame construction
the inappropriate choice of building with RC shear walls .
architectural forms that offer poor
seismic performance, (c) the absence Considering the enormous number of
of structural design for expected H[LVWLQJ5&IUDPHEXLOGLQJVZLWKLQOOV
earthquake behavior, (d) the lack in regions of moderate to high seismic
of special seismic detailing of key risk across the world, this document also
structural elements, (e) inadequately GLVFXVVHVVRPHJHQHULFVHLVPLFUHWURW
skilled construction labor, (f) poor strategies for these structures that may
quality building materials, and (g) the reduce associated risks.
absence of construction supervision.
The problem is aggravated further by It is important that all those involved
WKHXVHRIXQUHLQIRUFHGPDVRQU\LQOO in the construction process understand
walls, usually made of clay bricks or how these buildings perform during
KROORZFOD\WLOHV7KHHIIHFWRILQOOV earthquakes, what the key challenges
is usually not accounted for in the are related to their earthquake safety,
design, however these walls may and what construction technology
VLJQLFDQWO\DIIHFWWKHZD\LQZKLFK alternatives might be more appropriate.
the building responds to earthquake Authors of this document believe
ground shaking and may even cause that better understanding of these
the building to collapse (as reported critical issues will result in improved
often after several major earthquakes FRQVWUXFWLRQDQGUHWURWSUDFWLFHVIRU
worldwide). buildings of this type, reducing life and
property losses in future earthquakes.
In general, achieving satisfactory
seismic performance of RC frame
buildings subjected to several cycles
vii
$ERXWWKH:+(
The World Housing Encyclopedia
(WHE) is a project of the
Earthquake Engineering Research
Institute and the International
Association for Earthquake
Engineering. Volunteer earthquake
engineers and housing experts from
around the world participate in this
web-based project by developing
reports on housing construction
in their countries. In addition,
volunteers prepare tutorials on
various construction materials and
donate time on various special
projects, such as the creation of
the World Adobe Forum and the
collection of information on various
temporary housing alternatives.
All information provided by the
visit
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volunteers is peer-reviewed. Visit
ing.net for more in www.world-housing.net for more
IRUPDWLRQRQWKH:RUOG information.
+RXVLQJ
(QF\FORSHGLD
viii
Contents
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Alterations
Vertical Additions
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6RIWDQG:HDN6WRULHV
How to Avoid Soft Stories
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Failure modes
Location and amount of horizontal rebars
Stirrups
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Failure modes 27
Vertical rebars
Horizontal ties
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Selection and Control of Materials
Preparation, handling and curing of concrete
Selection and control of steel
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Background d
Advantages
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Background d
Advantages
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Installation of New RC Shear Walls or Steel Braces
Jacketing
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6WUHQJWKHQLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJVZLWK2SHQ*URXQG)ORRU
Short-term Goal = Prevent Collapse
Long-term Goal = Ensure Good Earthquake Behavior
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1. Introduction
Reinforced concrete is one of the the underside of slabs, slender
most widely used modern building vertical elements (columns), and
PDWHULDOV&RQFUHWHLVDQDUWLFLDO DWYHUWLFDOHOHPHQWVZDOOV,Q
stone obtained by mixing cement, most cases, all these elements
sand, and aggregates with water. are cast monolithically that is,
Fresh concrete can be molded beams and columns are cast at the
into almost any shape, giving it construction site in a single operation
an inherent advantage over other in order to act in unison. Fresh
materials. It became very popular concrete is poured into wood or
after the invention of Portland steel forms placed around the steel
cement in the 19th FHQWXU\KRZHYHU reinforcement for different elements
its limited tension resistance in buildings. Such buildings are
initially prevented its wide use in called monolithic (or cast-in-place)
building construction. To overcome RC buildings, in contrast to precast
poor tensile strength, steel bars are RC buildings, wherein each of the
embedded in concrete to form a elements is cast separately (often
composite material called reinforced in a factory environment) and then
concrete (RC). The use of RC assembled together at the building
construction in the modern world site. In monolithic RC buildings, the
stems from the wide availability of connection between the elements is A large number
achieved by providing continuous of RC buildings are be
its ingredients - reinforcing steel
ing built worldwide without
as well as concrete. Except for the reinforcement bars that pass from one
engineering input
production of steel and cement, the element to another. The intersection
production of concrete does not between a beam and a column, known
require expensive manufacturing as beam-column joint, plays a vital
mills. But, construction with role in the capacity of these buildings
concrete does require a certain to resist lateral loads.
level of technology, expertise and
workmanship, particularly in the In RC frames the integral action of
HOGGXULQJFRQVWUXFWLRQ'HVSLWH beams, columns and slabs, provides
this need for sophistication and resistance to both gravity and lateral
professional inputs, a large number loads through bending in beams
of single-family houses or low-rise and columns. RC frames built in
residential buildings across the earthquake-prone regions should
world have been and are being possess ductility, or the ability to
constructed using RC without VXVWDLQVLJQLFDQWGHIRUPDWLRQVXQGHU
any engineering assistance. Such H[WUHPHORDGLQJFRQGLWLRQVWKLV
buildings, in seismic areas, are aspect will be discussed in Chapter
potential death traps. This is the 3. Frames that are designed to resist
motivation behind developing this mainly the effects of gravity loads
tutorial. most often are called non-ductile (or
gravity) frames.The non-ductile RC
A typical RC building (shown in IUDPHZLWKRUZLWKRXWLQOOZDOOVLVD
Figure 1) is generally made of a very common building construction
QXPEHURISODWHOLNHKRUL]RQWDO technology practiced around the globe
HOHPHQWVVODEVULEOLNHKRUL]RQWDO (Figure 2).
elements (beams) connected to
1
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
Figure 1.$W\SLFDO5&IUDPHEXLOGLQJZLWKPDVRQU\LQOOVDQGLWV
components (source: C.V.R. Murty).
2
Chapter 1: Introduction
Figure 2. This Algiers, Algeria, cityscape has many reinforced concrete frame buildings, like many
RWKHUFLWLHVDURXQGWKHZRUOGSKRWR6%U]HY
3
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
4
Chapter 1: Introduction
Figure 4. Examples of RC
KLJKULVHVLQ&DQDGDOHIW
IURP3DRDQG%U]HY
DQG&KLOHULJKWIURP0R-
URQLDQG*RPH]5&
VKHDUZDOOVSURYLGHUHVLV-
tance to earthquake effects
LQWKHVHEXLOGLQJVZKLOHFRO-
umns are designed to resist
gravity loads.
5
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
6
&RQFHSWXDO'HVLJQDQG3ODQQLQJ
Considerations
Building Shape
The behavior of a building during This is because buildings with
an earthquake depends on several simple geometry offer smooth and
factors, including whether its shape direct load paths for the inertia
is simple and symmetric. Some forces induced during earthquake
buildings in past earthquakes have VKDNLQJWRRZWRWKHIRXQGDWLRQ
performed poorly due to highly (see Figure 7b).
irregular shapes (see Figure 6). Since
the building shape is determined One way to reduce irregularity
very early in the development of a is to separate the building into
project, it is crucial that architects simple blocks separated by air Build
and structural engineers work gaps (also known as separation ings with
together during the planning stages joints). This type of design simple shapes
to ensure that unfavorable features DOORZVWKHVLPSO\FRQJXUHG perform
are avoided and a good building better in
buildings to act independently,
FRQJXUDWLRQLVFKRVHQ.H\ HDUWKTXDNHV
thereby avoiding high stress
issues in understanding the role of concentrations at reentrant
EXLOGLQJFRQJXUDWLRQDUHRXWOLQHG corners that often lead to damage.
below. For example, a building with an
L-shaped plan can be divided into
Buildings with simple geometry two rectangular plan buildings
in plan typically perform better using a separation joint at the
during strong earthquakes junction (see Figure 8). But, the
than buildings with re-entrant consequence of this separation
corners from plans with U, V, joint is that the two parts of the
H and + shapes (see Figure 7a). building may pound (or crush)
Figure 6.$EXLOGLQJZLWKDYHU\
irregular shape suffered extensive
GDPDJHLQWKH%KXM,QGLD
HDUWKTXDNHVRXUFH((5,
7
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
Avoid
buildings with
YHUWLFDOVHWEDFNV
and varying story
heights
8
Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
(QVXUHWKDW
buildings have
symmetry in plan
and in elevation
Figure 9.6XGGHQFKDQJHVLQORDGSDWKOHDGWRSRRUSHUIRUPDQFHRIEXLOGLQJVLQ
earthquakes: DVHWEDFNVEZHDNRUH[LEOHVWRULHVFVORSLQJJURXQGGKDQJLQJRU
RDWLQJFROXPQVHGLVFRQWLQXRXVVWUXFWXUDOPHPEHUVVRXUFH0XUW\
Structural
members (e.g.
columns and
walls) should not
be discontinued at
lower levels of
the building
9
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
ncil, New
of a building during an earthquake. It is, of course, important to pay
Twist in buildings, called torsion attention to aesthetics during the
by engineers, causes structural design process. However, this should
elements (e.g. walls) at the same not be done at the expense of good
RRUOHYHOWRPRYHKRUL]RQWDOO\E\ building behavior and adequate
different amounts. As a result of earthquake safety. Architectural
torsion, columns and walls on the features that are detrimental to the
(QVXUHWKDW earthquake performance of buildings
architectural side that moves more experience
more damage (see Figure 12). must be avoided. When irregular
elements do not
alter the structural
architectural features are included,
response of the Many buildings have been severely a considerably higher level of
building affected by excessive torsional engineering effort is required in the
effects during past earthquakes. structural design.
,WLVEHVWWRPLQLPL]HLIQRW
completely avoid) this twist by
ensuring that buildings have
0DVRQU\,QOO:DOOV
symmetry in plan (i.e., uniformly
In some parts of the world, especially
distributed mass and uniformly
in developing countries, masonry
placed vertical members that resist
ZDOOVDUHXVHGDVLQOOZDOOVLQERWK
KRUL]RQWDOHDUWKTXDNHORDGV,WLV
the interior and exterior RC frames
best to locate earthquake resisting
(see Figure 13). The material of the
frames symmetrically along the
PDVRQU\LQOOLVWKHPDLQYDULDQW
H[WHULRUSHULPHWHURIDEXLOGLQJ
ranging from cut natural stones (e.g.,
such a layout increases building
granite, sandstone or laterite) to man-
resistance to torsion/twisting.
/RFDWH
HDUWKTXDNH
resisting frames
symmetrically Figure 12.
DORQJH[WHULRU Vertical members
perimeter of of buildings
building
that move more
KRUL]RQWDOO\
sustain more
damage (source:
Murty 2005).
10
Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
made bricks and blocks (e.g., burnt Some builders mistakenly believe that
clay bricks, solid & hollow concrete WKHSUHVHQFHRIPDVRQU\LQOOLQWKH
blocks, and hollow clay tiles), as frame panels improves earthquake
shown in Figure 14. performance, however the evidence
from past earthquakes proves this The effects of
It is particularly challenging statement is usually wrong (see Figure LQOOZDOOVPXVWEH
to design these buildings to 15). It can only be true if the building considered in the
achieve satisfactory earthquake has been carefully designed by an structural design
performance. Performance of such HQJLQHHUVRWKHLQOOZDOOVSURYLGHWKH
buildings in past earthquakes bracing without failing the frame. A
has revealed that the presence of EDUHIUDPHZLWKRXWLQOOVPXVWEH
PDVRQU\LQOOZDOOV is typically able to resist the earthquake effects
detrimental forthe seismic VHH)LJXUHD,QOOZDOOVPXVWEH
performance of the building. uniformly distributed in the building
0DVRQU\LQOOZDOOVVKRXOGQRWEH VHH)LJXUHE0DVRQU\LQOOV
XVHG81/(66WKH\DUHVSHFLFDOO\ should not be discontinued at any
designed by an engineer to: intermediate story or the ground story
OHYHOWKLVZRXOGKDYHDQXQGHVLUDEOH
x Work in conjunction with the effect on the load paths (see Figure
frame to resist the lateral loads, 16c).
or
x Remain isolated from the frame.
In many parts
RIWKHZRUOG
masonry walls are used
DVLQOOZDOOV
b
Figure 14D$VVRUWPHQWRILQOO
PDVRQU\XQLWVIURP3HUXE7\SLFDO
KROORZFOD\WLOHIURP3HUXSKRWRV
H. Faison)
a
11
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
a b
Figure 15. 5&IUDPHEXLOGLQJZLWKPDVRQU\LQOOVLQ$OJHULDDIWHUWKH%RXPHUGHV
HDUWKTXDNHDPDVRQU\LQOOZDOOVIDLOLQERWKGLUHFWLRQVE0DVRQU\LQOOZDOOIDLOXUH
VKRZLQJGLDJRQDOFUDFNLQJGXHWRFRPSUHVVLRQVWUXWDFWLRQSKRWRV6%U]HY
,QOOZDOOVDFWDVGLDJRQDOVWUXWVDQG ,QWKLVPDQQHUPDVRQU\LQOOZDOOV
increase the stiffness of a RC do not affect the frame performance
frame building. The increase in and frame displacements are not
0DVRQU\LQOO the stiffness depends on the wall restrained. Another advantage of
ZDOOVVLJQLFDQWO\
thickness and the number of WKHLVRODWHGPDVRQU\LQOOLVWKDWWKH
affect the seismic per
IUDPHSDQHOVZLWKLQOOVDQGFDQ walls remain undamaged, thereby
formance of a frame
building EHTXLWHVLJQLFDQWLQVRPHFDVHV reducing post-earthquake repair costs.
(up to 20 times that of the bare RC
frame). The increased stiffness of From the point of view of controlling
the building due to the presence weather conditions inside the
RILQOOVUHGXFHVWKHDELOLW\RIWKH building, the gaps need to be sealed
IUDPHWRH[DQGGHIRUP,QGXFWLOH ZLWKDQHODVWLFPDWHULDOWKHVH
5&IUDPHVPDVRQU\LQOOVPD\ provisions may be expensive and
Con prevent the primary frame elements require good construction details to be
QHGPD (i.e., columns and beams) from
sonry is a viable
executed with precision.
responding in a ductile manner --
alternative to RC instead, such structures may show
IUDPHVZLWKLQOOVIRU Overall, based on the poor earthquake
a non-ductile (brittle) performance. performance of non-ductile RC frame
ORZULVHEXLOGLQJV
This may culminate with a sudden buildings and also load-bearing
and dramatic failure. PDVRQU\EXLOGLQJVFRQQHGPDVRQU\
construction is emerging as a better
However, most RC frame buildings alternative for low-rise buildings
ZLWKPDVRQU\LQOOZDOOVDUHQRW LQGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHV%U]HY
designed and engineered to account 2006, Blondet 2005). This type of
IRUWKHHIIHFWRIWKHLQOOZDOOVRQ construction is much easier to build
building performance, which is why than ductile frames with isolated
this tutorial recommends avoiding LQOOV
,QOOZDOOV this construction and either
must be uni FRQQLQJWKHPDVRQU\RUXVLQJ5&
formly distribut shear walls (see the discussion in Out-of-plane seismic
ed in a building Chapter 5). UHVLVWDQFH RI PDVRQU\ LQOOV
12
Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
a b c
Some columns in RC frames may be There is another special situation in Avoid build
considerably shorter in height than buildings when the short-column ing designs that
effect occurs. Consider a masonry have short or captive
other columns in the same story columns
(see Figure 17). 6KRUWFROXPQV occur wall of partial height with a window
in buildings constructed on a slope above it (see Figure 20). The upper
RULQEXLOGLQJVZLWKPH]]DQLQH portion of the column next to the
RRUVRUORIWVODEVWKDWDUHDGGHG window behaves as a short column
LQEHWZHHQWZRUHJXODURRUVVHH GXHWRWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHLQOO
Figure 18). In past earthquakes, RC wall, which limits the movement
Figure 17.$EXLOGLQJZLWKVKRUW
columns at the basement level in
Cyprus (source: Levtchitch 2002).
13
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
a b
Figure 19. &DSWLYHFROXPQGDPDJHIURPD%RXUPHUGHV$OJHULDHDUWKTXDNH
SKRWR0)DUVLDQGE%KXMHDUWKTXDNHLQ,QGLDVRXUFH((5,
14
Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
There may be a limited number of for in the original design and/or are
unavoidable situations that require undertaken without involvement of
the use of short columns. Such TXDOLHGSURIHVVLRQDOVWKHUHLVDQ
buildings must be designed and increased risk of earthquake damage.
EXLOWWRPLQLPL]HWKHLUYXOQHUDELOLW\
to increased seismic damage. These Vertical Additions
VKRUWFROXPQVVKRXOGEHUHFRJQL]HG
at the structural analysis stage
In some cases, additional stories
LWVHOIWKHSUREOHPRIVKRUWFROXPQV
are added on top of the existing RC
becomes obvious when such
frame building without taking into
members attract large shear forces.
account the load-bearing capacity Building altera
of the existing structure. Building tions can detrimental
0RGLFDWLRQVRI owners usually decide to build these ly affect its performance
additional stories when additional LQDQHDUWKTXDNH
([LVWLQJ%XLOGLQJV living space is needed and municipal
ordinances are lax about height limits.
Alterations In some cases, these extensions are
performed without building permits.
Building alterations are common in Unfortunately, the plans for future
5&IUDPHEXLOGLQJVZLWKLQOOZDOOV building additions do not always
For example, in Algeria, India, account for the additional loads on the
DQG7XUNH\W\SLFDOPRGLFDWLRQV foundations or the additional forces to
include enclosing of balconies to be imposed on the existing RC frame.
LQFUHDVHURRPVL]HVRUGHPROLVKLQJ
interior walls to expand existing In some countries, low-rise one- to
apartments. In some cases, columns three-story buildings are provided
or bearing walls are removed in with the starter reinforcement bars
order to expand the apartment projecting from the columns at the
VL]HDOWHUQDWLYHO\QHZVWDLUVDUH roof level for the future construction
FRQQHFWHGE\SHUIRUDWLQJWKHVODEV of additional stories. In general,
in some cases, walls are perforated unprotected starter bars usually
to create openings. When these become extensively corroded if the
alterations have not been accounted construction of the expanded building
15
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
Figure 223RXQGLQJFDQRFFXULQDGMDFHQWEXLOGLQJVORFDWHGYHU\FORVHWR
each other due to earthquake-induced shaking (source: Murty 2005).
16
Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
a b
Figure 23. D3RXQGLQJEHWZHHQDVL[VWRU\EXLOGLQJDQGDWZRVWRU\EXLOGLQJLQ
*ROFXN7XUNH\FDXVLQJGDPDJHLQWKHFROXPQRIWKHVL[VWRU\EXLOGLQJE'HWDLORI
SRXQGLQJGDPDJHLQDVL[VWRU\EXLOGLQJVKRZQLQJXUHDVRXUFH*XONDQHWDO
2002).
17
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
18
Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
c
b
Figure 27. Building collapses due to the soft story effect: D$ORZULVHFRQFUHWHEXLOGLQJFROODSVHLQWKH
%RXUPHUGHV$OJHULDHDUWKTXDNHSKRWR6%U]HYE$ZHDNVWRU\PHFKDQLVPGHYHORSHGDWWKHUVWRRURI
WKHEXLOGLQJLQDPL[HGIXQFWLRQEXLOGLQJWKHJURXQGRRUZDVXVHGIRUFRPPHUFLDOSXUSRVHVDQGODFNHGWKH
VWLIIQHVVSURYLGHGE\WKHLQOOZDOOVDWWKHXSSHURRUVVRXUFH*XONDQHWDOF6RIWVWRU\FROODSVHLQWKH
&KL&KL7DLZDQHDUWKTXDNHVRXUFH<DRDQG6KHX
c
Figure 28. The building needs to be designed to take into account the effect of the
RSHQVWRU\RQSHUIRUPDQFH7KLVPLJKWLQFOXGHESURYLGLQJZDOOVLQDOOSRVVLEOH
panels in the open story, or (c) choosing an alternative structural system e.g. RC
VKHDUZDOOVWRUHVLVWODWHUDOHDUWKTXDNHORDGVVRXUFH0XUW\HWDO
19
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
20
Chapter 2: Conceptual Design and Planning Considerations
Beam to
column connec
tions are critical to
satisfactory building
performance
Figure 29.7ZRGLVWLQFWGHVLJQDSSURDFKHVUHVXOWLQVLJQLFDQWO\
different earthquake performances (source: Murty 2005).
Columns
should be
stronger than
beams
21
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
Figure 31.&ROODSVHRIDPXOWLVWRU\5&IUDPHEXLOGLQJGXHWRZHDNFROXPQVWURQJ
EHDPGHVLJQLQWKH%KXM,QGLDHDUWKTXDNHSKRWR&950XUW\
Buildings
ZLWKZHDNFROXPQV
DQGVWURQJEHDPVH[
perience damage in their
FROXPQVUVWZKLFKWKHQ
collapse
22
'HWDLOLQJ&RQVLGHUDWLRQV
2Q'XFWLOLW\
Earthquake shaking causes structures can be made to behave
vigorous movement underneath in a ductile manner when designed Steel and
the building and thereby transmits to take advantage of ductile steel concrete are com
energy to the building. The properties. ELQHGWRWDNHDGYDQWDJH
philosophy of earthquake-resistant of each materials best
design is to make the building However, one of the key challenges attributes
absorb this energy by allowing associated with the earthquake-
the damage at desired locations resistant design of reinforced
of certain structural elements. concrete structures is to ensure
This damage is associated with that members behave in a ductile
VLJQLFDQWGHIRUPDWLRQVDQG manner and that the damage occurs
extensive yielding (stretching) of at predetermined locations. This
steel reinforcement in reinforced can be achieved by applying the
concrete members. This behavior is &DSDFLW\'HVLJQ$SSURDFK which can
known as ductile behavior. 'XFWLOLW\ be explained by using the chain
denotes an ability of a structure to analogy (see Figure 33). Consider
VXVWDLQVLJQLFDQWGHIRUPDWLRQV DFKDLQPDGHRIEULWWOHOLQNVZKHQ
under extreme loading conditions. pulled, the failure of any of the
Achieving ductility in RC members links causes a brittle failure of the
is particularly challenging due to chain. However, when a ductile
the different behavior of concrete link is introduced in the chain, a (DUWKTXDNH
and steel: concrete is a brittle ductile mode of failure can take resistant design
material, which crushes when place if the ductile link is made to aims to ensure that
subjected to compression and cracks EHWKHZHDNHVWRIDOODQGIDLOVUVW GDPDJHRFFXUVDWVSHFLF
ZKHQVXEMHFWHGWRWHQVLRQRQWKH In order for the ductile failure to locations
other hand, steel shows ductile take place in this kind of structure,
behavior when subjected to tension. the brittle links must be stronger in
As a result, reinforced concrete comparison to the ductile link.
23
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
24
Chapter 3: Detailing Considerations
When the direction of the load is Since it is not practical to use very
reversed, the situation in the beam long rebars in construction, it is
is just the opposite. Any portion of generally necessary to use smaller
the beam that is expected to be in rebar lengths and join them so that
tension (red polygons) must have they can span the full distances
KRUL]RQWDOUHEDUVWRUHVLVWFUDFNLQJ required. To ensure that the rebar
of the concrete. Under earthquake is strong enough when it is joined
loading, both beam faces require with other pieces, the bars must
rebars, unlike gravity loading RYHUODSE\DVSHFLHGGLVWDQFHV
where the load direction does not depending on the bar diameter.
change and tension develops only This overlapping length is called a
Brittle beam
on one side. Thus, different sections lap splice. Splicing must be avoided
failures due to
of the beam need reinforcement LQUHJLRQVZKHUHKRUL]RQWDOEDUVDUH VKHDURUH[XUH
depending on the loading expected to yield in tension. Top must be avoided
condition. bars should be spliced in the middle
one-third of the effective span (see
In general, it is a good seismic Figure 35). Splicing should be done
design practice to provide a for an adequate length and the
minimum of two bars (with spliced length shall be enclosed by
the total area not less than the closely spaced stirrups. In general,
design area of steel obtained seismic codes prescribe that no
from calculations) at the top and more than 50% of the bars shall be
bottom faces along the full length spliced at any section.
of the beam. At the beam ends, the
amount of bottom steel shall be at
least equal to half of that provided
on the top.
Condition A:
no loading
Closely
spaced stir
rups should be
provided near the
beam ends and at
the lap splices
&RQGLWLRQ%JUDYLW\ORDGLQJ Condition C: earthquake loading
25
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
26
Chapter 3: Detailing Considerations
27
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
/RQJLWXGLQDO
rebar lap splices
should only occur at
the midheight of the
column
28
Chapter 3: Detailing Considerations
+RUL]RQWDO
FORVHGWLHVFRQQH
the concrete core intact
Figure 38. Ties must be in columns so that the
closely spaced at the top building does not lose its
and bottom ends of column vertical load
and at lap splices (source: carrying capacity
Murty 2005).
$OOFROXPQ
MRLQWDQG
beam ties must
KDYH
KRRNV
Figure 39.6WHHOUHLQIRUFHPHQWLQFROXPQVPXVWKDYHWLHVZLWK
q hooks around the vertical bars (source: Murty 2005).
29
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
a b c
Figure 40. Examples of column failure: (a) buckling of vertical column rebars due to inadequately spaced
KRUL]RQWDOWLHVLQ,QGLDVRXUFH((5,EVHYHUHGDPDJHRIDJURXQGRRUFROXPQGXHWRLPSURSHU
FRQQHPHQWRIFRQFUHWHDQGODSSLQJRIODUJHQXPEHURIORQJLWXGLQDOEDUV,QGLDVRXUFH-DLVZDOHWDO
FW\SLFDOLQIUHTXHQWKRUL]RQWDOWLHVZLWKq KRRNVZKLFKZHUHXQDEOHWRFRQQHWKHFRQFUHWHFRUH,QGLD
qKRRNVVKRXOGKDYHEHHQXVHGLQVWHDGVRXUFH-DLVZDOHWDO
-RLQWVPXVW
have enough con
crete strength to trans
Figure 41. Additional cross-ties
mit loads between the
beams and columns DUHUHTXLUHGLQWKHKRUL]RQWDO
direction at regular intervals to
keep the concrete in place and to
prevent the vertical column rebars
from buckling (source: Murty
2005).
30
Chapter 3: Detailing Considerations
31
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
Figure 43.6KHDUIDLOXUHRID5&EHDP
FROXPQMRLQWGXULQJWKH0H[LFR
City Earthquake, due to beam bars
placed outside the column cross-section
VRXUFH((5,
Figure 44.,PSURSHU
reinforcement detailing of a
EHDPFROXPQMRLQWLQ,QGLD
discontinuous beam rebars at
WKHEHDPFROXPQMXQFWLRQ
these rebars are required to
be continuous and provide
FRQQHPHQWWRWKHFRQFUHWH
LQWKHMRLQWUHJLRQQRWHWKH
absence of beam-column ties)
VRXUFH-DLVZDOHWDO
Figure 46.'HWDLOV
of anchorage of beam
EDUVLQH[WHULRUMRLQWV
(source: Murty 2005).
32
Chapter 3: Detailing Considerations
Figure 47.'HWDLOVRIMRLQWUHLQIRUFLQJVKRZLQJWKHLPSRUWDQFHSODFLQJWKHKRUL]RQWDO
beam rebars on the inside of the column reinforcement cage (source: Murty 2005).
33
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
a b
c d
Figure 48. 3UDFWLFDOFROXPQVSURYLGHGWRLVRODWHPDVRQU\LQOOVLQ,QGRQHVLDQSUDFWLFHDSDUWLDOKHLJKWLQOOVE
IXOOKHLJKWLQOOVFFORVHXSGHWDLOVRIDSUDFWLFDOFROXPQDQGGFORVHXSGHWDLOVRIDQFKRULQJSUDFWLFDOFROXPQVLQWR
WKHEHDPDERYHEXWZLWKRXWRIIHULQJDQ\UHVLVWDQFHWRODWHUDOGHIRUPDWLRQRIWKHEXLOGLQJIUDPHVRXUFH0XUW\HWDO
34
Chapter 3: Detailing Considerations
a b
Figure 50.'HVLJQRIQRQVWUXFWXUDOHOHPHQWVVKRXOGDFFRXQWIRUWKHIROORZLQJ
(a) lateral forces transferred to structural elements, and (b) relative lateral
movements up the building height (source: C.V.R. Murty).
the behavior of the building (see disconnected from the rest of the
WKHGLVFXVVLRQRQLQOOZDOOVLQ structural system of the building, and
Chapter 2). In all cases, no addition, rendered non-structural. For example,
attachment, removal of material or in staircase areas of buildings, the
alteration of any kind that would inclined staircase slabs and beams
change the behavior of a structural offer large stiffness and interfere
element from its original design with the otherwise symmetric
intent should be allowed. Design shaking of the building. In such
and installation of all non-structural cases, isolating the diagonal members
elements must meet the applicable to simply rest on and slide in the
VSHFLFDWLRQVDQGFRGHVVHH)LJXUH KRUL]RQWDOGLUHFWLRQVHH)LJXUH
51). ZLOOVLJQLFDQWO\LPSURYHEXLOGLQJ
performance.
In some cases, very stiff and
strong structural elements can be
35
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
Figure 52.'LDJRQDOVODEVDQGEHDPVLQVWDLUFDVHVDWWUDFWODUJHVHLVPLFIRUFHV
and thereby incur damage: the provision of a sliding support is effective in
limiting the magnitude of seismic forces (source: C.V.R. Murty).
36
&RQVWUXFWLRQ&RQVLGHUDWLRQV
Construction quality has a (b) Appropriate and good quality
VLJQLFDQWEHDULQJRQGXFWLOH materials, acceptable by the
applicable material codes, are Proper de
seismic performance of buildings
VLJQFRQVWUXFWLRQ
poor construction leads to poor XVHGLQWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQ
and maintenance are all
earthquake performance. Therefore, (c) The construction is carried out critical to the good perfor
making a competent earthquake as per procedures laid out in the mance of a building in an
resistant structure requires the codes of practice, accompanied by HDUWKTXDNH
successful completion of all steps competent, thorough, and honest
involved in the making of the inspection.
building, namely:
,WLVVLJQLFDQWO\HDVLHUDQGFKHDSHUWR
'HVLJQ: conceptual EXLOGDTXDOLW\FRQVWUXFWLRQWKHUVW
development of a rational time, than to build a poor construction
design based on prevalent and then bear the costs, inconvenience
FRGHVRISUDFWLFH and delays related to replacing the
Construction: physical poorly constructed or defective
construction, i.e., structural elements or systems. The
implementation of the following aspects of construction
FRQFHLYHGGHVLJQDQG have well-established practices that
Maintenance: inspection, are enumerated in relevant national
maintenance, monitoring, and VWDQGDUGVDQGDUHVXPPDUL]HGEHORZ
remodeling over the buildings
lifetime. material quality,
workmanship, and
The above process is like the inspection.
making of a chain: to have a strong
chain, all of the links must be For more in-depth discussion on
VXIFLHQWO\VWURQJ6LPLODUO\WR this topic, readers are referred to
build a good building, all steps in the publication, Built to Resist
the construction stage also must be Earthquakes, which addresses design
performed as per the minimum and construction issues for architects,
VSHFLFDWLRQVODLGRXWLQWKHGHVLJQ engineers and inspectors (ATC/
Issues associated with the design of SEAOC 1999). The following sections
a typical reinforced concrete frame VXPPDUL]HLQEXOOHWIRUPVRPHRI
building are covered earlier in this the major points in understanding
document, while the construction- construction quality.
UHODWHGLVVXHVDUHVXPPDUL]HG 0DWHULDOTXDOLW\
EHORZLVVXHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH ZRUNPDQVKLSDQGLQVSHF
WLRQDOODUHHTXDOO\LPSRUWDQW
maintenance are not dealt with in Material Quality IRUHDUWKTXDNHVDIHW\
this document.
Selection and use of appropriate
The physical construction of a and good quality materials is
RC building can be considered a prerequisite for successful
successful only if: construction.
(a) The building is built according
to the structural drawings
produced during the design
stage
37
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building
g Tutorial
Concrete
should be
prepared in batch
plants
38
Chapter 4: Construction Considerations
Proper
moisture
conditions
should be ensured
Figure 54. Manual mixing and preparation of concrete is the least preferred batch
throughout the
preparation style because of the inability to ensure consistent quality (photo: A. curing of the
,UIDQRJOX concrete
39
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building
g Tutorial
40
Chapter 4: Construction Considerations
41
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building
g Tutorial
42
$OWHUQDWLYHVWR5&)UDPHVZLWK
0DVRQU\,QOOVLQ5HJLRQVRI+LJK
6HLVPLF5LVN
:K\DUH$OWHUQDWLYHV
1HHGHG
,QOOZDOOV
Engineers across the world have ground shaking is considered tend to collapse dur
been designing RC frame buildings to be a challenge even in highly LQJVWURQJVKDNLQJDQG
for many decades now. Experiences therefore are not reliable for
LQGXVWULDOL]HGFRXQWULHVZLWK
HDUWKTXDNHUHVLVWDQFH
from earthquakes across the advanced construction technology.
world have made it amply clear
that earthquake resistance cannot Notwithstanding the above
be guaranteed in a RC building limitations, designers and builders
in which its seismic safety relies in many countries have embraced
on moment resisting frames RC moment resisting frames as the
only (unless these frames are dominantt system for multi-story
specially detailed). The problem is buildings, and construction with this
aggravated further by the use of system is on the rise throughout the
XQUHLQIRUFHGPDVRQU\LQOOV:KLOH world. The authors of this tutorial
LQOOZDOOVDUHUHTXLUHGWRGHQHWKH ZRXOGOLNHWRHPSKDVL]HWKDW5&
functional spaces in a building, their PRPHQWUHVLVWLQJIUDPHVZLWKLQOOV
presence may be detrimental for the should not be relied upon as a system
satisfactory seismic performance. that provides a satisfactory level of
It is not easy to achieve ductile safety for buildings in regions of
EHKDYLRULQ5&IUDPHEXLOGLQJV high seismic risk. Consequently, the
8VHDOWHUQD
special seismic detailing performed alternative building systems discussed
tive structural
with an advanced level of in this chapter are expected to result systems instead of RC
construction skills and quality in a better level of seismic safety than frames
control is required. Constructing the currently practiced non-ductile RC
a RC frame building is not an easy frame building system with masonry
task, and it involves a high level LQOOV
of skills related to constructing
beams, columns, and beam-
to-column joint construction. The Alternatives
Inadequately reinforced beam-
column joints pose a serious threat The two alternative building systems
to basic frame behavior and can DUHFRQQHGPDVRQU\DQG5&IUDPHV
lead to devastating consequences, with RC walls. The former system is
including the collapse of the entire intended for low-rise construction
building. In general, achieving (up to 3-to-4 stories tall), while the
satisfactory seismic performance latter can be used for a wide range
of RC frame buildings subjected of building heights, however it is
to several cycles of earthquake considered to be most economically
43
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
44
&KDSWHU$OWHUQDWLYHVWR5&)UDPHVZLWK,QOOVLQ5HJLRQVRI+LJK6HLVPLF5LVN
7DEOH&RPSDULVRQRI5&)UDPHDQGFRQQHGPDVRQU\EXLOGLQJV
a b
45
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
a b
46
&KDSWHU$OWHUQDWLYHVWR5&)UDPHVZLWK,QOOVLQ5HJLRQVRI+LJK6HLVPLF5LVN
a b
Figure 60. 5&ZDOOOD\RXWPXVWEHV\PPHWULFWRDYRLGXQGHVLUDEOHWZLVWHIIHFWVD
8QV\PPHWULFORFDWLRQRI5&ZDOOVLVQRWGHVLUDEOHDQGE6\PPHWULFOD\RXWRI5&
ZDOOVDERXWERWKD[HVRIWKHEXLOGLQJDQGDORQJWKHSHULPHWHURIWKHEXLOGLQJLVGHVLUDEOH
(source: Murty 2005).
47
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
Figure 62./D\RXWRIPDLQUHLQIRUFHPHQWLQVKHDUZDOOVDVSHU,6
detailing is the key to good seismic performance (source: Murty 2005).
48
&KDSWHU$OWHUQDWLYHVWR5&)UDPHVZLWK,QOOVLQ5HJLRQVRI+LJK6HLVPLF5LVN
49
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
50
5HWURWWLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJV
Introduction
Thus far, this document has focused before an earthquake (as a preventive
on the problems associated with measure) or after an earthquake,
planning and design of new RC when it is usually combined with
frame buildings with masonry the repair of earthquake-induced
LQOOV+RZHYHUDQHQRUPRXV damage. It should be noted that
stock of RC frame buildings exists VHLVPLFUHWURWWLQJLVUHTXLUHGQRW
in countries and regions prone to just for building structures (including
moderate or major earthquakes. foundations) but also for their non-
These buildings are mainly structural components, e.g., building
concentrated in rapidly growing QLVKHVDQGFRQWHQWV:LWKWKHFXUUHQW
urban areas. In many cases, the FRVWVRIEXLOGLQJQLVKHVDQGFRQWHQWV
local population considers them as soaring to over two-thirds of the total
the construction type of choice for EXLOGLQJFRVWVHLVPLFUHWURWWLQJRI
residential apartment buildings. the non-structural components needs
Unfortunately, one of the major to receive due attention to ensure
causes of seismic vulnerability that the loss of property is minimised
associated with these buildings during earthquakes.
is that, in developing countries, a
Seismic
large number of existing RC frame In theory, it would be possible to
UHWURWWLQJLVD
buildings have been designed UHWURWWKHPDMRULW\RIH[LVWLQJ5& PRGLFDWLRQRIWKH
by architects and engineers who frame buildings. However, in a pre- VWUXFWXUDODQGQRQ
may not have formal training in earthquake situation, it is unlikely structural components
seismic design and construction that funding is going to be available in a building that aims
and/or they have been built by WRUHWURWVLJQLFDQWQXPEHURIWKHVH to improve a buildings
inadequately-trained construction buildings in any one community. performance in fu
workers. Consequently, there is a need to WXUHHDUWKTXDNHV
develop strategies and policies for
The estimated number of SULRULWLVLQJEXLOGLQJVWREHUHWURWWHG
vulnerable RC frame buildings according to their importance and
LQVHLVPLF]RQHVDFURVVWKHZRUOG funding resources. This section
is staggering. In an ideal world, GLVFXVVHVVRPHJHQHULFVHLVPLFUHWURW
it would be great to strengthen strategies suitable for RC frame
all these buildings in order to structures.
protect them from the effects of
IXWXUHHDUWKTXDNHVDQGPLQLPL]H ,QVRPHFRXQWULHVSUHVFULSWLYHUHWURW
fatalities and property losses. schemes are being implemented.
6HLVPLFVWUHQJWKHQLQJ (also known Here, no calculations are performed to
as seismic UHWURWWLQJ) represents understand the strength and ductility
DMXGLFLRXVPRGLFDWLRQRIWKH FDSDFLWLHVRIWKHH[LVWLQJEXLOGLQJ
structural components in a building generic prescriptions are made for
with a purpose to improve its all buildings. This is an unacceptable
performance in future earthquakes. approach and can lead to making the
6HLVPLFUHWURWFDQWDNHSODFH existing buildings unsafe.
51
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
52
&KDSWHU5HWURWWLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJV
53
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
1HZVKHDU
walls must be re
inforced in such a way
to act in unison with the
H[LVWLQJIUDPHVWUXFWXUH
54
&KDSWHU5HWURWWLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJV
Figure 66.5HWURWRIH[LVWLQJ5&EXLOGLQJXVLQJQHZ5&VKHDUZDOOVDQG
MDFNHWLQJRIWKHH[LVWLQJFROXPQVDIWHUWKH%RXPHUGHV$OJHULDHDUWKTXDNH
SKRWR0)DUVLGUDZLQJFRXUWHV\RI&7&$OJLHUV
Figure 67.5HWURWRI5&IUDPHV
ZLWKVWHHOEUDFHVVKDNHWDEOH
WHVWLQJDW('HIHQFH-DSDQD
short column failure at the ground
VWRU\OHYHOEUHWURWXVLQJVWHHO
braces (source: C. Comartin).
55
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
x ,QVRPHFDVHVUHWURWZDV
OLPLWHGWRJURXQGRRU
columns only, which may
QRWEHVXIFLHQWLQVRPH
cases, the longitudinal bars
added in the concrete portion
are often left projecting out
without any connection to the
5HWURWXV existing RC beam and column
ing FRPs need to members above, as well as to
EHSHUIRUPHGFDUHIXOO\ the foundations below (see
considering their brittle
Figure 72).
behavior.
x In most cases, the existing
columns were snugly strapped
with steel angles and straps
(see Figure 72) before the
concrete was poured. And,
in many cases, the jacketing
56
&KDSWHU5HWURWWLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJV
-DFNHWLQJ
must be provided
continuously through the
RRUVODEVLQRUGHUWREH
effective
57
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
-DFNHWLQJ
consists of install
ing new steel rein
forcement bars (lateral
WLHVDQGYHUWLFDOEDUV
increasing the column
cross section
58
&KDSWHU5HWURWWLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJV
Figure 73$QH[DPSOHRILPSURSHUUHWURWSUDFWLFHMDFNHWLQJRI5&FROXPQVUHVXOWHGLQ
H[WUHPHO\ODUJHFROXPQVL]HVQRWHWKHDEVHQFHRIFRQWLQXLW\ZLWKUHJDUGVWRXSSHURRUV
and the foundation) (photo: C.V.R. Murty).
59
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
60
&KDSWHU5HWURWWLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJV
Figure 74.&RQJXUDWLRQRI&)53VWULSVDQGDQFKRUGRZHOORFDWLRQV
(source: C.V.R. Murty, adapted from Erdem et al. 2004).
a b
61
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
62
&KDSWHU5HWURWWLQJ5&)UDPH%XLOGLQJV
8VXDOO\DUHWURWPHWKRG EHIRUHHOGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWDNHVSODFH
LQXHQFHVRQHRUPRUHVWUXFWXUDO A thorough seismic analysis needs to be
characteristics. The effects of performed, wherein the analysis model
UHWURWPHWKRGVGLVFXVVHGLQWKLV for an existing structure is developed,
document are listed in Table 2. DQGWKHHIIHFWRIUHWURWRIHDFKH[LVWLQJ
VWUXFWXUDOPHPEHULVTXDQWLHG
New structural members (e.g. RC
5HWURWWLQJ5& shear walls) added to the existing
structure must be incorporated in the
Frames with structural model at the analysis stage.
0DVRQU\,QOOV Several computer analysis software
packages suitable for this purpose are
Implementation commercially available. However, the
Challenges key for success for building owners
and implementing agencies is to
$IHZFRPPRQUHWURWPHWKRGV engage knowledgeable engineers with
VXLWDEOHIRU5&IUDPHVZLWKLQOOV a background in seismic design and
have been discussed in this section. UHWURWDQGVWUXFWXUDOHQJLQHHULQJLQ
The descriptions are meant to general.
SURYLGHDQLQVLJKWLQWRUHWURW
concepts rather than detailed In a post-earthquake situation,
VROXWLRQV5HWURWGHVLJQPXVWEH governments and private sector
GRQHE\TXDOLHGSURIHVVLRQDOV agencies are faced with a daunting
task associated with handling massive
Figure 77. Long-term solution for open ground story buildings: continuous RC
VKHDUZDOOVSURYLGHGDORQJWKHEXLOGLQJKHLJKWWRRYHUFRPHWKHUHGXFHGVWLIIQHVVDQG
strength caused by the open ground story structure (source: Murty 2005).
63
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
5HVXOWVLQWKHLQFUHDVHRI
5HWURWVWUDWH 5HWURILW0HWKRG 6WUHQJWK 6WLIIQHVV 'XFWLOLW\
gies need to be care Installing new RC walls YES SIGNIFICANT SIGNIFICANT
fully evaluated for their Strengthening existing YES SIGNIFICANT VERY SMALL
LQXHQFHRQWKHstrength, masonry infills with CFRPs
stiffness and Jacketing YES MODERATE MODERATE
ductility of a build
ing
projects focused on rehabilitating PRGLFDWLRQVHQKDQFHPHQWVRI
hundreds or even thousands of H[LVWLQJVWUXFWXUDOHOHPHQWV
buildings. However, it must be x Estimating the time required
UHFRJQL]HGWKDWHDFKEXLOGLQJLV WRFRPSOHWHWKHUHWURWIRUD
XQLTXHDQGWKDWVHLVPLFUHWURW VSHFLFEXLOGLQJGHSHQGLQJRQ
VFKHPHVLGHQWLHGIRURQH5& LWVVL]HDQGFRQVWUXFWLRQW\SH
frame building may not be relevant and
WRDQRWKHU5HWURWUHTXLUHPHQWV
x Finding the construction labor
depend on many factors, including
with the set of skills required
WKHVHLVPLFKD]DUGRIWKHEXLOGLQJ
IRUWKHUHWURWLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
Road maps site, local soil conditions, expected
DUHUHTXLUHGWR seismic performance, and type
The above challenges highlight
estimate the human and age of the structure. Thus,
an urgent need for a dialog
UHVRXUFHVDQGHTXLSPHQW PDVVUHWURWWLQJVWUDWHJLHVDUHQRW
UHTXLUHGIRUVHLVPLF between all stakeholders within
meaningful in the case of RC frame
UHWURWWLQJRIYXOQHUDEOH countries and regions at risk
buildings, unless the buildings have
RC frame buildings in from earthquake disasters. Road
WKHVDPHGHFLHQFLHVDQGIDLOXUH
KLJKVHLVPLFULVNDUHDV maps are required to estimate the
modes.
worldwide. required human resources and
equipment, and establish effective
Another challenge associated with construction management systems
LPSOHPHQWLQJUHWURWRI5&IUDPH IRULPSOHPHQWLQJVHLVPLFUHWURWWLQJ
EXLOGLQJVZLWKLQOOVOLHVLQWKH projects of vulnerable RC frame
limited expertise related to both buildings in pre- or post-earthquake
design and construction of seismic situations across the world.
UHWURWSURMHFWV5HWURWWLQJLVDQ
advanced process and, in most
cases, requires a higher level of
In most expertise than that required for
FDVHVUHWURW design and construction of new
design and construc buildings. Developing countries
WLRQRIUHWURWPHDVXUHV DUHPRUHVLJQLFDQWO\IDFHGZLWK
LQH[LVWLQJEXLOGLQJV this problem, particularly in a post-
UHTXLUHVDKLJKHUOHYHO earthquake situation. Some of the
RIH[SHUWLVHWKDQWKDW challenges which implementing
UHTXLUHGIRUGHVLJQDQG
agencies are faced with due to the
construction of new
lack of expertise and experience
buildings
include:
x )LQGLQJRXWUHWURWFRVW
estimates for various types
of structures (RC frames,
PDVRQU\EXLOGLQJVHWF
x Identifying equipment
required for undertaking
64
7. Conclusions
This document highlights the poor earthquakes, even though the
seismic performance of RC frame required additional factors are only
buildings with masonry infills, incremental in nature, including the
and documents the underlying costs. For instance, the column ties
design and construction factors need to be provided with 135 bends
causing such performance. at the ends of the hooks, as opposed
There is a significant concern to 90 bends in RC frames made in
in the earthquake engineering non-seismic areas. The additional
community that many of these effort and cost are nominal, but the
buildings, already built and consequences of not making this
standing throughout the world, change can be catastrophic. When
are potential death traps in future special attention cannot be paid to
earthquakes. And even the new design, detailing and construction, RC
ones being built can be potentially frames alone should not be used to
dangerous if attention is not paid to resist lateral loads. Alternative lateral
the critical design, construction and load resisting systems are required. Architects,
management issues. building owners,
This tutorial on RC frame buildings construction manag-
encourages the use of the following ers, designers, engi-
Technical Challenges two alternative structural systems to neers, and municipal
agencies
resist lateral loads:
all play important roles in
The design and construction of (a) RC shear walls continuous improving performance
RC frame buildings require many from the foundation to the of RC frame buildings
small but vital factors to make these roof provided in medium-to- with masonry infills in
buildings earthquake-resistant. As highrise RC frame buildings; earthquakes
discussed in this document, the and
primary challenges in RC frame (b) Confined masonry
construction are to ensure: construction, a combination
(a) that columns are stronger of RC confining elements (tie-
than the beams beams and tie-columns) and
(b) that the rebars in the beam- masonry walls, is suitable for
column joints allow proper low-rise buildings (one-to-
concreting in the joint four stories high).
region
(c) that the beams are ductile,
through the proper rebar Stakeholders
detailing, and
(d) that the frame is not too There are several important players
weak or flexible in the in drawing the needed attention
horizontal direction, either to these issues. Readers of this
in any one story or in the document should evaluate how they
whole. can use their role in the construction
process to encourage safe design and
In general, it is very difficult construction. This enormous problem
to design, detail and construct can become more manageable if
RC frames to perform well in each individual with a role in the
65
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
66
5HIHUHQFHV
American Concrete Institute, (2002), Applied Technology Council and SEAOC
Design and Construction Joint Venture, (1999), Built To Resist
of Externally Bonded FRP Earthquakes. ATC/SEAOC Training
Systems for Strengthening Curriculum: The Path to Quality
Concrete Structures, ( ACI Seismic Design and Construction.
440.2R-02) American Concrete Applied Technology Council,
Institute, Farmington Hills, Redwood City, California.
Michigan, USA.
Blondet, M. ed, (2005), Construction and
American Society of Civil Maintenance of Masonry Houses
Engineers/Structural For Masons and Craftsmen,3RQWLFLD
Engineering Institute, (2006). Universidad Catolica del Peru, Lima,
Seismic Rehabilitation of Peru, (http://www.world-housing.
Existing Buildings, ASCE/SEI net/Tutorials/Tutorial.asp).
41-06.(Supplement available
early 2007.) Washington DC: Bostenaru, M.D., (2004), Early Reinforced
American Society of Civil Concrete Frame Condominium
Engineers. %XLOGLQJZLWK0DVRQU\,QOO:DOOV
Designed for Gravity Loads only,
American Society of Civil WHE Report 96 (Romania), World
Engineers/Structural Housing Encyclopedia (www.world-
Engineering Institute, 2003. housing.net), Earthquake Engineering
Seismic Evaluation of Existing Research Institute and International
Buildings, ASCE Standard Association for Earthquake
No. 31-03. Washington DC: Engineering.
American Society of Civil
Engineers, 444 pages. Bostenaru, M, and Sandu,I. (2002),
Reinforced concrete cast-in situ
Anthoine, A. and Taucer, F., shear wall buildings (OD-type,
(2006), Seismic Assessment with fagure plan, WHE Report
of a Reinforced Concrete 78 (Romania) World Housing
Block Masonry House. Encyclopedia (www.world-housing.
PROARES Project in El net). Earthquake Engineering Research
Salvador. European Laboratory Institute and International Association
for Structural Assessment, for Earthquake Engineering.
Joint Research Centre of
the European Commission, %U]HY6&RQQHG0DVRQU\
EUR22324 EN, Ispra, Italy. Construction: A Guide for Architects
and Builders, Department of Civil
Applied Technology Council, Engineering, Indian Institute of
(1989), Procedures for Technology Kanpur, India.
Postearthquake Safety
Evaluation of Buildings, EERI, (2000), Annotated Slide Collection.
ATC-20, Applied Technology CD Publication. Earthquake
Council, Redwood City, Engineering Research Institute,
California. Oakland, CA.
67
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
68
References
Gulkan, P., Ascheim,M. and Jaiswal, K., Sinha, R., Goyal, A., (2003),
Spence,R., (2002), Reinforced Reinforced Concrete Frame
concrete frame building with %XLOGLQJZLWK0DVRQU\,QOO:DOOV
PDVRQU\LQOOV:+(5HSRUW Designed for Gravity Loads. WHE
64 (Turkey), World Housing Report 19 (India). World Housing
Encyclopedia (www.world- Encyclopedia (www.world-housing.
housing.net), Earthquake net). Earthquake Engineering
Engineering Research Institute Research Institute and International
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for Earthquake Engineering. Engineering.
69
Reinforced Concrete Frame Building Tutorial
70
:+(78725,$/6
developed by volunteers in the World Housing Encyclopedia project of EERI and IAEE
available for free download at http://www.world-housing.net/Tutorials/Tutorial.asp
or hard copies can be purchased from EERI online bookstore at www.eeri.org
27+(5:+(38%/,&$7,216
71