Definition of Differential Settlement

Differential settlement refers to the the unequal

settling of a building's piers or foundation that can
result in damage to the structure. The damage
occurs when the foundation sinks in different areas
at different times.
Differential or uneven settlement can occur if the
loads on the structure are unevenly distrbuted,
variations in the soil properties or due to
construction related variations.
Settlement Limits

• Total settlement is the magnitude of downward movement.

Differential settlement is non-uniform settlement. It is "the
difference of settlement between various locations of the structure.
• Angular distortion between two points under a structure is equal, to
the differential settlement between the points divided by the
distance between them.
• Theoretically speaking, no damage will be done to a structure if it
settles uniformly as a whole regardless of how large the settlement
may be. The only damage would be to the connections of the
underground utility lines. However, when the settlement is non-
uniform (differential), as is always the case, damage may be caused
to the structure.
Settlement Limits

The tolerable, settlements of different structures, vary considerably. Simple-

span frames can take considerably greater distortion than rigid frames. A
fixed-end arch would suffer greatly if the abutments settle or rotate.
For road embankments, storage silos and tanks a settlement of 300mm -
600mm may be acceptable, but for machine foundations the settlement may
be limited to 5mm 30mm. Different types of construction materials can
withstand different degrees of distortion. For example, sheet metal wall
panels do not show distress as readily as brick masonry.
To reduce differential settlement, the designer may limit the total settlement
and use the following equation for the calculation of the differential
settlement:
(ΔHdiff) max = ½ ΔHtotal
 Guidelines to limiting values are suggested by a number of
sources, but following routine limits appear to be conventionally
acceptable (Skempton and Mac Donald, 1956)

Sands
Maximum total settlement = 40 mm for isolated footings = 40 to 65 mm for rafts
Maximum differential settlement between adjacent columns = 25 mm

Clays
Maximum total settlement = 65 mm for isolated footings = 65 to 100 mm for
rafts
Maximum differential settlement between adjacent columns = 40 mm.
The differential settlement may also be evaluated in terms of the angular
distortion given by: (ΔHdiff) = Δ/L
Where Δ = relative settlement between the two points and L = Horizontal
distance between the two points. Based on a large number of settlement
observations and performance of structures, the suggested limits for tolerable
differential settlements are show in table below.
 Angular distortion Type of limit and structure

1/150 Structure damage of general

buildings expected
1/250 Tilting of high rigid buildings
may be visible
1/300 Cracking in panel walls
expected . Difficulties with
overhead cranes
1/500 Limit for buildings in which
cracking is
not permissible
1/600 Overstressing of structural frames
with diagonals
1/750 Difficulty with machinery sensitive
to settlement
Causes

• Differential settlement is primarily due to the

condition of the soil upon which the structure
sits.

• Soil has the capacity to expand or contract

based upon the temperature or weather
conditions. It can also shift or wash away due
to poor drainage, heavy rainfall, soil drying
unevenly, or changes in the water table.
Effects

•The settlement causes cracks in a structure's

foundation, slab or supporting piers.

• These cracks lead to cracks in the building's

interior walls and uneven settling of the
building's doors, windows and trim.
Prevention and Solutions

The best way to prevent damage from differential

settlement:-
To thoroughly analyze the soil and make necessary
amendments before construction begins.
It may be necessary to reinforce the structure's piers or
foundations if a problem occurs after the building has
been constructed.
Short Discussion

You are required to list sign of foundations settlement

available in any building, geotechnical structures or
infrastructures.

Please discuss in pair

 Signs of Foundation Settlement

When the foundation to your home or office building has settled,

it means that there has been movement of the building below
the position in which it was built.

The most common reasons for changes in the foundation include

:-
a) shifting soil
b) changes in the soil or even changes in the moisture.

Most houses experience some settling after construction, but

these are normally not significant. Knowing signs of
foundation settlement can help you address the issue in
your home or avoid purchasing a home with severe
foundation movement.
Signs of foundations settlement

Cracks
Settlement cracks often occur in the foundation or the house slab or on
the ceilings and walls. Small cracks are often because of minor
foundation settlement or even because of expansion and contraction of
the settlement. Large cracks, however, can represent a more significant
concern. Cracks can warrant concern if they exceed one-quarter of an
inch in width.

Windows, Doors and Plumbing

Foundation settlement may make it difficult to open or close
doors and windows because the door frame does not fit the
door and causes some sticking. Gaps between the windows
and doors with the frame may also occur. A door or window
may not close all the way. Plumbing lines can also be affected
by a poor foundation as well as mechanical equipment.
Building crack
Examples of prediction of settlement

1- Tilted Chimney
A tilted chimney is a sign that the foundation of
a building or home has settled; however, it can
be difficult to recognize unless it is severe. A
slight shift in the chimney may not be as
noticeable, but it is a sign of a shifting or
settling foundation.
Examples of prediction of settlement

2- Loose Nails and Wallpaper

When nails begin to loosen or wallpaper starts to
separate from the walls, it can be a sign of a
foundation problem. Nails and wallpaper shift if
the walls move and they do not bind or attach to
the wall any more. Bending or bowing walls can be
a sign of the age of the home, settling of the
foundation, deterioration of the home or
shrinkage.
3-Slanted flooring
Slanted or sloped flooring may be a result of
foundation settlement in a specific area of the
building's foundation or other structural
issues, such as rotting or termite damage. In
some cases, the foundation causing the
sloping floor may need to be jacked up so that
new footers can be installed.
How to Repair Cracks in Concrete Pavements
It is not possible to pour concrete that will not develop
cracks or incur damage during use.
Many factors that contribute to cracks and damage can be
avoided when the concrete is prepared and poured.
Proper subgrade preparation and support, providing
adequate expansion joints and correctly consolidating,
finishing and curing the concrete can prevent most damage.
Even so, cracks can occur and they need to be repaired
before they become worse.
Nonprofessionals can repair concrete cracks with a
reasonable amount of effort and time
Instructions For Deep Cracks

1 -Gauge the depth of the crack to determine whether it is less than a 1/2-
inch deep. If it is, wear safety goggles, work gloves and a dust mask to
clean the crack using a stiff wire brush and whisk broom, then clean the
area around the crack.
2 -Paint the crack with a latex bonding agent, available at home
improvement stores, to improve the bond when the mortar mix is
applied.
3 -Fill the crack with concrete repair mortar mix, available at home
improvement stores, while the latex bonding agent is still wet. Mix and
apply the mortar according to the label directions on the mix.
4 -Allow the patch to dry and settle for 24 hours. Apply more mortar mix if
necessary and trowel smooth.
5 -Paint the patch and the area immediately surrounding it with a water-
based polyurethane sealer, available at home improvement stores, to
protect the patch from water seepage and staining.
Instructions For Deep Cracks

6- Wear safety goggles, work gloves and a dust mask to clean the crack. If it
is more than 1/2-inch deep and 1 inch wide, use a hammer and chisel to
remove loose chunks of concrete. Be sure to remove all weak areas
around the crack that are crumbling or in danger of breaking off.

7- Use a stiff wire brush to abrade the crack and sweep it out thoroughly to
remove all debris. Paint the crack with a water-based polyurethane
sealer, available at home improvement stores.
8- Fill the crack with concrete repair mortar mix, according to label
directions, while the sealer is still wet. Smooth with a trowel and let it
set for 24 hours. Add more filler, if needed.

9- Paint the patch area and the area immediately surrounding it with a
water-based polyurethane sealer.