UNIT -IV

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC):

Mixing methods at site,
structural design for repairs,
causes of failure in concrete structures, pressure-grouting.
Cracks over openings, sinking and sagging balconies,
repairs to decayed floors and floor joints, example: Jack arch., madras roof
terrace, foundation sinking, repairs to walls. Propping, shoring, strutting and
under pinning.

Unit - V
Unusual problems:
Repairs to large span rooms, water proofing the roof terraces,
leakages from toilets, case studies and site visits.
causes of failure in concrete structures
Incorrect Selection of Materials
The concrete mix required should be selected to meet the
environmental or soil conditions where the concrete is to be placed. The
minimum grade that should be used for reinforced concrete is grade 30.
Higher grades should be used for some foundations and for structures
near the sea or in an aggressive industrial environment. If sulphates are
present in the soil or ground water, sulphate-resisting Portland cement
should be used.
Errors in Design Calculations and Detailing
An independent check should be made of all design calculations to
ensure that the section sizes, slab thickness etc. and reinforcement sizes
and spacing specified are adequate to carry the worst combination of
design loads. The check should include overall stability, robustness and
serviceability and foundation design.
Incorrect detailing is one of the commonest causes of failure and cracking in concrete structures. First the overall
arrangement of the structure should be correct, efficient and robust. Movement joints should be provided where
required to reduce or eliminate cracking. The overall detail should be such as to shed water.
Internal or element detailing must comply with the code requirements. The provisions specify the cover to
reinforcement, minimum thicknesses for fire resistance, maximum and minimum steel areas, bar spacing limits and
reinforcement to control cracking, lap lengths, anchorage of bars etc.
Poor Construction Methods
The main items that come under the heading of poor construction methods resulting from bad workmanship and
inadequate quality control and supervision are as follows. The Following guidance on many of the aspects Failures
in Concrete Structure discussed below.

(a) Incorrect placement of steel

Incorrect placement of steel can result in insufficient cover, leading to corrosion of the reinforcement. If the bars
are placed grossly out of position or in the wrong position, collapse can occur when the element is fully loaded.
(b) Inadequate cover to reinforcement
Inadequate cover to reinforcement permits ingress of moisture, gases and other substances and leads to corrosion
of the reinforcement and cracking and spalling of the concrete.
(c) Incorrectly made construction joints
The main faults in construction joints are lack of preparation and poor compaction. The old concrete should be
washed and a layer of rich concrete laid before pouring is continued. Poor joints allow ingress of moisture and
staining of the concrete face.
(d) Grout leakage
Grout leakage occurs where formwork joints do not fit together properly. The result is a porous area of concrete
that has little or no cement and fine aggregate. All formwork joints should be properly sealed.
(e) Poor compaction
If concrete is not properly compacted by ramming or vibration, the result is a portion of porous honeycomb
concrete. This part must be hacked out and recast. Complete compaction is essential to give a dense, impermeable
concrete.
(f) Segregation
Segregation occurs when the mix ingredients become separated. It is the result of
1. dropping the mix through too great a height in placing. Chutes or pipes should be used in such cases.
2. using a harsh mix with high coarse aggregate content
3. large aggregate sinking due to over-vibration or use of too much plasticizer Segregation results in uneven concrete
texture, or porous concrete in some cases.
(g) Poor curing
A poor curing procedure can result in loss of water through evaporation. This can cause a reduction in strength if
there is not sufficient water for complete hydration of the cement. Loss of water can cause shrinkage cracking.
During curing the concrete should be kept damp and covered.
(h) Too high a water content
Excess water increases workability but decreases the strength and increases the porosity and permeability of the
hardened concrete, which can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. The correct water-to-cement ratio for the mix
should be strictly enforced.
Chemical Attacks on Concrete Structures
There are different types of chemical attacks that considerably
affect strength of the structure. Various types of chemical attacks
and their influence on the structure are discussed
Chloride Chloride ions penetrate concrete during and after
construction. High concentration of chloride corrodes steel bars
and deteriorates concrete.
Sulfate It disintegrates concrete and create path for harmful
substances to attack reinforcements.
Carbonation Carbonation attack and deteriorate steel bars
Alkali silica reaction Alkali silica reaction produces a gel which its
volume increases and consequently disintegrates concrete.
Acids It strongly affect concrete and removes part of set cement

There are various types of exterior or mechanical factors that

influence concrete failure for example restraints against
movement, abrasion, wetting and drying, freezing and thawing,
overloading, structural alteration, fire resistance and settlement.
 Procedure of grouting for repair of concrete cracks in structures are:
1. Holes are drilled in structure along cracks and in an around hollow spots.
2.If there are several cracks, holes can be drilled in a staggered manner at 500 to 750mm spacing in both
directions covering adequately the area proposed to be grouted. Holes spacing can be altered as per site
conditions.
3. G.I. pieces (12 to 20mm dia x200mm) with one end threaded or PVC nozzles are fixed in the holes with rich
cement mortar.
4. All the cracks and annular space around G.I. pipes are sealed with rich cement mortar.
5. All the cracks are cut open to a ‘V’ shaped groove, cleaned & sealed with rich cement mortar.
6. All the grout holes should be sluiced with water using the same equipment a day before grouting as per
following sequence; so as to saturate the masonry. All holes are first plugged with proper wooden plugs or locked
in the case of PVC nozzles. The bottom most plug and the two adjacent plugs are removed and water
injected in the bottom most hole under pressure. When the clear water comes out through the adjacent
holes the injection of water is stopped and the plugs in the bottom most hole and the one immediately above
are restored. The process of grouting of concrete cracks is repeated with other holes till all the holes are
covered. On the day of grouting all the plugs are removed to drain out excess water and restored before
commencing grouting. The same sequence as described above is adopted for injecting the cement grout also. The
grout is kept fully stirred/ agitated under pressure throughout the grouting. The grouting is carried out till
refusal and/ or till grout starts flowing from the adjacent hole. A proper record of the quantity of grout
injected into every hole should be maintained. After grouting, curing should be done for14 days. Tell tales are
/provided for checking the effectiveness of grouting. Only such quantities of material for preparing grout should be
used, as can be used within 15 minutes of its mixing. Grouting equipment must be cleaned thoroughly after use.
sinking and sagging balconies It is a common phenomenon, specially in
repetitive mass construction, the balconies projected outside are found sagging.
The balconies are constructed as cantilever overhung from the masonry walls 1.2 to
2.0 m. The cantilever slab might have been designed properly; but in most cases
during construction top tensile steel at the support are displaced reducing the lever
arm and, thereby, reducing the moment of resistance.
Cracks occur on the top at the support and the slab gradually sags and ultimately it
simply hangs. In such cases, the balcony shall have to be demolished with a part of
the slab beyond the masonry support and the whole redone after redesigning and
constructing carefully.
Alternatively, the balcony may be repaired in a mixed way by inserting brackets,
either of m.s. sections or of R.C.C. If the length of the balcony is more and cannot
be supported on two brackets, more brackets may be introduced and, if required,
m.s. or R.C.C. small size beams may be introduced below the balcony slab and over
the brackets.
The work is to be started from the ground floor. The level of the balcony slab shall have to be corrected by using jack
at the tip. When the balcony slab is in horizontal position, the brackets with the beams as necessary shall have to be
placed in position. After positioning the members and fixing them with the existing masonry wall, the brackets with
the fixings shall have to be cured as usual.
After repairing of the balcony as detailed, the same shall be supported by props from the ground floor so that it can
take the load that would be coming during repairing of the balcony above.
In the same procedure, the balcony of next floor above shall be done and so on.
Jack Arch Roof
Jack arch Roof construction can be done in brick or concrete. The arch
of the Jack arch roof is either made of brick or of concrete. The arch is
supported on the lower flange of mild steel joists (RSJs). The rolled
steel joists are supported at their ends on the walls or on the
longitudinal girders. They are spaced at a distance of 1m to 1.5m
center to center.
The rise of the arch is kept equal to 1/12th of the span. Layer of concrete is then poured over the roof to straighten
the roof. The concrete layer thickness over the crown of the arch is not less than 15cm.
Due to the super-imposed load on the arch, tension develops at the ends of the arch. Steel tie rods are placed at the
ends of an arch with a suitable spacing of 1.8m to 2.4m.
The two main causes of Jack-arch roof leakage are: Poor quality of cement, Inappropriate grade of sand, Repair of
the roof.
The Jack Arch roof leakage problem has to be fixed and should be so done so as to avoid future recurring water
leakage problem. This can be achieved by waterproofing the roof in 4 steps.
1.The old cement mortar and tiles are to be removed so that the new cement mortar settles and becomes firm over
the rough roof surface.
2.After scraping of the cement mortar, fresh cement mortar is laid and left to dry.
3.After the drying of cement mortar, waterproofing is done to avoid any kind of further leakage. Waterproofing
material is mixed in a drum of water and splashed over the cement mortar layer. We must make sure that every
corner of the roof is to be covered with this waterproofing material.
4.After the process of waterproofing, tiling is done with the help of a suitable adhesive.
Repairs to walls
Common Causes of Cracks in Masonry Walls:
Settlement of masonry wall occurs due to downward pressure from the loads on wall.
Settlement is usually easily dealt with via cosmetic repair. There is a situation where
settlement of walls can cause subsidence.
Subsidence occurs due to the removal of earth beneath the foundations. Where it can
prove difficult and costly to repair. If the drains connected to a building shear or crack due
to settlement, the subsequent leakage can cause subsidence by washing away the subsoil.

Types of Cracks in Masonry Walls and Causes

1. Expansion Cracks in Masonry Wall
2. Cracks Above Openings in Masonry Walls
3. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Tie Failure
4. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Subsidence
5. Wall Cracks due to Ground Heave
1. Expansion Cracks in Masonry Wall
Causes of Expansive Cracks
Walls are affected by temperature and moisture
change. Materials can suffer from initial shrinkage
and/or subsequent expansion and contraction.
This movement gives rise to the expansion cracks in
masonry walls. The crack shown in the picture is shown
as vertical, which is often the case. However, the crack
sometimes follows the line of least resistance and can
end up stepped.

The expansive cracks are often seen above window and door openings where the opening itself relieves the crack.
This type of crack has a consistent width and it is this that distinguishes from other more serious cracks.
Repair of Expansive Cracks
Expansive crack is of no real structural significance, although it may allow water into the cavity in brick built houses,
and subsequence cause deterioration of the wall ties.
Therefore filling the crack with a mastic or sealastic compound is recommended.
However, for more severe cracking it is advisable to form an expansion joint.
This would be cut into the wall, filled with a compressible material with a waterproof stopper to the outside.
On some modern buildings these are formed at construction stage and then hidden behind rainwater downpipes.
2. Cracks Above Openings in Masonry Walls
Four causes of cracks above openings in masonry walls are:
Removal of windows or doors with inadequate propping,
Inadequate bearings,
Loads applied directly over the opening,
No lintels.
Cause-1: Removal of windows or doors with inadequate propping
The most common reason for this type of cracks in wall is the
removal of existing window frames to install PVC.
Repair of Cracks
The best repair is to reset the lintel and repoint or rebuild the
brickwork above, and refit the window. The poor repair is to do
nothing more than repoint the cracks, as the brickwork is now
resting on the new frame. However, collapse of the brickwork
above the opening will be likely when the window is next replaced.
Cause-2: Cracks due to Inadequate Bearings
The correct overhang (bearing) of the lintels above openings is
150mm (6 inches) each side. If the bearings are insufficient the
lintel will drop and the cracks will appear.
Repair of Cracks due to Inadequate Bearing
Replacement of the lintel is recommended. However, once again
repointing will suffice until the window or door is replaced.
Cause-3:Cracks due to loads applied above
the opening
This often occurs above first floor lintels
where the roof purlins have been installed
directly above the window openings. The
load imposed is too great for the lintel to
cope with and the downward pressure
causes the cracking.
Repair: Once again replacement of the lintel
is recommended. The severity and age of
these cracks would decide whether simple
repointing would suffice until the window is
replaced.
Cause-4: Cracks in Masonry Wall due to No
Lintels
In some properties no lintels are provided
relying on the timber frame of the window to
support the masonry above, but once the
window is replaced the cracks occur.
Repair
New lintels need to be installed and the
cracks repaired.
3. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Tie Failure
Wall ties are metal ties that are built into both solid and cavity walls built in stretcher bond to hold the outside skin
of brickwork to the inside. Failure normally occurs when the ties rust. When the metal ties rust they expand causing
the cracking normally seen every sixth course horizontally in the mortar joints.
Repair
Replacement wall ties are essential. The cracking is an early indication of failure. Without replacement, collapse of
the wall could occur. Repointing and removal of the existing ties is recommended.

4. Cracks in Masonry Wall due to Subsidence

This is the worst and most serious type of cracks in masonry walls and consequently the most difficult to repair.
Subsidence can occur due to a variety of reasons: Mining activity
Leaking underground drainage
Tree root activity
Peak subsoil
Clay subsoil
Running sand
The list is endless; however, the basic problem is the same; the foundations of the house are moving. The cracks are
normally the first indication of a problem; often they are raking cracks (widest at the top) and can occur to corners
of the building or from the top to the bottom of the walls.
Repair of Cracks due to Subsidence
This will normally involve some form of underpinning. However, specialist advice from a structural engineer will be
required.
5. Wall Cracks due to Ground Heave
The pattern of crack is similar to subsidence crack,
however, the crack will be widest at the base of
the wall. The most common cause of ground heave
is expansion of clay subsoils. On older properties
with shallow foundations the clay can expand and
contract dependent upon the weather conditions.
If the clay becomes waterlogged it can expand and
push the foundations upwards causing the cracks.
The removal of trees can also cause ground heave,
which is why trees that are too close to the
property should be taken down in stages, slowly
over a number of years to allow gradual ground
movement.
Repair of Cracks due to Ground Heave
In extreme cases underpinning and/or deeper
foundations will be the only solution. This is
however, a drastic measure. In cases of ground
heave problems the solution will be to remove as
much of the clay from around the foundation as
possible and to replace it with hardcore.
Propping, shoring, strutting and under pinning.
Formwork failures are the cause of many damages and building failures that occur during concrete construction,
usually when fresh concrete is being filled. Generally, some unexpected event causes one member to fail, then
others become overloaded or misaligned, and the entire formwork structure collapses.
The main causes of formwork failure are given under:
Inappropriate stripping and shore exclusion,
Lack of awareness to formwork deep details,
Uneven soil under a muddy area,
Shaking or vibration,
Insufficient bracing,
Inadequate arrangement of concrete placement,
There are numerous factors that may direct to the failure of formwork during and after concrete filling.
During steelwork, Improper bracing can cause formwork breakdown as a load of fresh concrete is less lasting
supported by the formwork system.
An unexpected occurrence can make members fail, and ensuing overfilling of other members consequences in the
failure of the complete formwork structure.
Furthermore, inaccuracies in the gathering detail are another factor behind concrete formwork failure.
Due to contained weakness and overstress would happen, which weakens the formwork system. In addition,
workmanship errors due to rapidity, unconcern, or lack of knowledge is one more cause of failure.
In conclusion, formwork failures can lead to loss of human life, postponement in construction, and hike in
construction expenditure.
So that knowing the causes of failure and considering its proper avoidance strategies are considered essential.
UNIT-IV
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/what-factors-causes-failure-of-concrete-structures/19495/
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/repair-rehabilitation-concrete-structure-failure-damage/13870/
https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/different-failures-in-rcc-building-case-studies/12159/
https://www.structuralguide.com/underpinning/

UNIT-V
https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/different-failures-in-rcc-building-case-studies/12159/
https://happho.com/repair-leakages-concrete-roofs-terraces/
https://happho.com/reduce-risk-leakage-bathroom/