BUILDING FAILURES

A COMPILATION
by

Ar. V. Vamshidhar
faculty
dept of architecture
spa, jnafau
BUILDING FAILURE

Building failure occurs when the building loses its ability to

perform its intended (design) function. ... In practice, this
corresponds to extensive damage, partial or total collapse of
the building, resulting in repair costs that are high relative to
the replacement value of the building
 Some of the main causes for building collapses are
SOME OF THE MAIN CAUSES FOR BUILDING COLLAPSES

bad design,
faulty construction,
foundation failure,
extraordinary loads,
unexpected failure modes
or a combination of causes.

But collapses also occur due to natural disasters such

as

earthquakes,
floods,
hurricanes,
cyclones
and fires.
 CAUSES FOR DECAY AND DAMAGE IN OLD BUILDINGS

• Weather and its effects are the fundamental

cause of decay, leading to problems such as
damp, mould, woodworm and fungi.

• Wood, brick and stone are the three most

common building materials, and each of these
reacts differently to the effects of weathering.
• Most of the historic buildings use building
materials which are easily available locally.
• Such building materials include timber, stone,
brick and plaster.
• In the care and conservation of historic
buildings, understanding the nature of the
building materials and accurate diagnosis of
defects is most important
 Causes to the Common Problems:

Fungal Stain or mould usually occurs when there

is a presence of water or high moisture
content in masonry wall.

Erosion of Mortar Joints Basically, the main

function of a mortar joint is to even out
irregularities of individual blocks, whether
they be of stones or bricks.
• Causes to the erosion of mortar joints include a presence of salt crystallization,
scouring action of winds; and disintegrating effects of plant growing on a wall or
water penetration leading to the concentrations of moisture and dampness
• Peeling paint usually occurs on building facades, mainly on plastered walls,
columns and other areas which are exposed to excessive rain and dampness.
Some buildings located near the sea may face a much greater risk once the
signs of peeling paint are visible on the exterior walls
• Defective Plastered Rendering In many historic buildings, defective plastered
rendering occurs mostly on external walls, columns and ceiling
• Racking of Walls / Leaning Walls Apart from distributing loads from roofs and
floors to foundations, external walls may be harmful to a building if they are
structurally unsound.
• Cracks in wall, either vertical or diagonal, are common symptoms of structural
instability.
• Dampness Penetration
• penetration through walls can be a serious
matter, particularly to the buildings which are
located close to water sources. It can cause
not only deterioration to the building
structures but damages to furnishings and
contents as well. The main cause of dampness
is water which may enter a building by a
number of different routes.
Unstable Foundations

Foundations are a part of a building which

distributes loads from roofs, walls and floors
on to the earth below. Most of the common
problems occured in the foundations
depend on the geology of the ground upon
which a building stands and is surrounded
by, structural failures; and presence and
height of a water table. Besides, inherent
failures may also happen in a building in
which it has to cope and carry any unsettled
problems of the foundations. A famous
example is the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy
 FACTORS THAT GOVERN BUILDING DEFECTS OR PROBLEMS.

• Climatic Conditions and Location of Building

Buildings that are located near the sea or rivers tend to have common building
defects
• Building Type and Change in Use
Most historic buildings that maintain their original functions or uses appear to have less
problem internally, even though there were symptoms of building defects found on the
external fabric. Buildings that change their use and spaces should consider the effect of
the new use on the existing structure.
Maintenance of Building
• Building maintenance organized through a rigorous programme of cyclical
maintenance plays a major role in preventing building defects. Historic buildings
that neglect building maintenance may fall into several defects which may lead to
structural failures.
 BRICK FAILURES

Brick is a small rectangular block

typically made of fired or sun-dried
clay, used in building.
FACTORS GOVERNING STRENGTH
OF BRICK MASONRY
brick strength
mortar strength
 bricklayer workmanship,
brick uniformity,
method used to lay brick.

PROPERTIES OF THE MORTAR THAT

AFFECT BOND STRENGTH :
air content,
water retention,
composition,
sand grading,
shrinkage,
admixtures
Exposed brick work
general defects in brickwork which
occur at construction site.
 4. Joints in the brick masonry are deeper and
1. The inferior quality bricks are used inspitediffer with the specification in the contract.
of the quality mentioned in the contract. 6. Vertical joints in brick work are empty.
2. No prior investigation is made to verify the7. The mortar does not contain enough
efflorescence level and water absorption in strength. If motar is scratched with a screw
the bricks driver, the mortar could be fully raked out
easily.
10. Mortar is blended improperly on a platform 8. Raking of joints is incomplete when mortar
or in a machine. looks green.
11. The brick layers are irregular and alignment
is not correctly horizontal.
12. The brick work is not carried in plumb.
14. The brick courses on edge is not
accomplished where needed.
15. There are gaps amid door frames/window
frames and masonry.
16. Heavy efflorescence is seen in the
brickwork.
EFFECTS OF WORKMANSHIP ON MASONRY STRENGTH
Masonry has a very long tradition of building by craftsmen, without
engineering supervision of the kind applied to reinforced concrete
construction.
FAILURE TO FILL BED JOINTS
It is essential that the bed joints in
brickwork should be completely
filled.
 BED JOINTS OF EXCESSIVE THICKNESS
Increase in joint thickness has the effect of
reducing masonry strength
 bed joints of 16–19 mm thickness will result
in a reduction of compressive strength of up
to 30% as compared with 10mm thick joints.
EXPOSURE TO ADVERSE WEATHER AFTER
LAYING
Newly laid brickwork should be protected from
excessive heat or freezing conditions until the
mortar has been cured.
Excessive loss of moisture by evaporation or
exposure to hot weather may prevent
complete hydration of the cement and
consequent failure to develop the normal
strength of the mortar.
 Cracks in brickwork
• What Causes Cracks in Brick Walls?
• Climate and seasonal changes – Changes in temperature,
humidity level, and precipitation can cause the soil
surrounding your home to expand and contract. ...

Water damage – Leaking pipes, clogged cutters, and

flooding can all wreak havoc on a brick wall

Tress in close proximity – Certain types of trees have

expansive root structures that can contribute to the
problem of brick wall cracking and necessitate
foundation repair in severe cases.
• Types of wall cracks
– Depending on their location
– Depending on their direction
– Depending on their depth

• Depending on their location

• Depending on their location crack walls can be classified as:
• Interior wall cracks – a type of cracks inside your house. They can appear
on plasterboard, ceiling, etc.
• Exterior wall cracks – they appear on the outside of your house, on brick
walls, masonry, concrete, etc.
• Foundation wall cracks – these are cracks that appear in the foundation
walls and are the ones that can cause serious problems.
• How can you prevent brick walls from cracking?
• To prevent brick walls from cracking make sure you’re taking the proper
care of your house’ walls.
• Use expansion joints in the brick walls
• Expansion joints will prevent the wall from cracking when exposed to
temperature changes and moisture exposure.
• Remove all temporary shims
• Make sure all temporary shims used when building the property are
removed from the walls. Most of the shims are made of stainless steel
and removing them will prevent the wall from rusting and cracking,
• Don’t use incompressible materials in the joints
• Fireboard, veneer and similar materials are not flexible. Avoid using them
in the joints to prevent cracking.
• Repairing damaged bricks
• Consult a good bricklayer accustomed to
working with old buildings.
• Carefully cut out and turn the brick round to
hide the decay.
• Make up the face of the damaged brick with a
tinted lime mortar.
• Cut out and replace severely damaged bricks.
• How to repair cracked brick walls step-by-step
• Step 1. Remove the cracked mortar from the brick wall
Remove the old cracked horizontal mortar from the joints
using a raking bar. Be careful not to damage the bricks
and don’t go deeper than 1.5 – 2 cm in the wall.
• Remove the vertical joints at the end of the bricks as well.
To do so, use a chisel and a hammer, Tap the chisel with
the hammer until you crack the mortar. Don’t go deeper
than 1.5 – 2cm. Use wire-brush and gently scrub the
empty joints to make sure all the excess mortar is
removed.
• tep 2. Spray the brick wall
• After all the mortar is removed, you’ll need to spray the wall with water. A dry
brick wall will suck up all the water from the new mortar, causing the wall to crack
all over again.
• Step 3. Patch the joints with mortar
• After the mortar is mixed well and matches your wall colour, take a brick jointer
and push the mortar into the joints. Be careful not to leave any empty holes.
• When mixing the mortar, don’t make it too hard. As we mentioned, bricks tend to
expand depending on the weather conditions and if the mortar is too hard it will
crack again and can cause even further damage.
• Step 4. Point the brick wall
• Put some water on the pointer and push it into the joint to flatten the mortar.
• Frost attack will be a potential problem
where brick walls become saturated.
Saturation can occur because of the failure of
the design to protect brickwork or where an
inappropriate brick type has been selected in
an exposed position. It is also possible that
individual bricks may be of poor quality,
having been inadequately fired or because
they contain impurities.
• Porosity
• As the void content of a material increase so does its
ability to absorb water by capillary action. The ability
to absorb moisture depends on the size of voids and
how accessible the voids are to the water at the
surface. Timber, for example, has a large void content
but surface water is absorbed quite slowly. In general,
there is no direct correlation between porosity and
other properties such as durability. Nevertheless, it is a
useful quantity to calculate
• fflorescence
• Efflorescence is a common sight in new brickwork. It is
caused by soluble salts in solution being brought to the
surface as water in the wall dries out. It is usually a
harmless, temporary problem, often occurring
in spring following a wet winter. The main concern is the
unsightly appearance caused by the white staining that
it produces. Persistent efflorescence may indicate
a design or construction fault that allows
the brickwork to become, and to remain, saturated.
Brick is relatively maintenance free, but
occasional cleaning, spot checks for water
damage, and repointing are necessary in order
to ensure long-lasting structural integrity. The
least aggressive approach should be your first
plan of action when it comes to cleaning brick.

Brick pointing What to look for:

Featured snippet from the web
Pointing, in building maintenance, the
technique of repairing mortar joints
between bricks or other masonry elements.
When aging mortar joints crack and
disintegrate, the defective mortar is removed
by hand or power tool and replaced with fresh
mortar, preferably of the same composition as
the original.
Crumbling (spalling) bricks
Loose, cracked or missing pointing
Water spilling onto brickwork from gutters
Internal or external damp patches
The use of inappropriate mortars, paints an
sealants for maintenance work
Cracks through the brickwork
Walls that bulge
• Where brick ‘slips’ have been
used to cover the edge of the
floor slap, these often buckle
badly and spall, and may
completely dislodged.
• Similar defect appear when
natural stone or RCC is used for
RCC structures.
Buckling of brick slips.
Creep and shrinkage of concrete frame
and expansion of brickwork causes
spalling of bricks and buckling of slips if
adequate compression joints are not
provided
 • Entry of moisture has occurred
mainly at joints and, with glazed
windows, has soaked into the
framing where putty or glazing
beads have come away from the
glass.
• Some window frames used have
been insufficiently robust and
Wet rot in windows have distorted through moisture
movement,This distortion
To prevent this to a large extent permit the entry of
The internal and external faces
moisture,when the moisture
of the frame should be painted
with a relatively impervious stays it will lead to rotting.
high-gloss paint
 Rain penetration at
window jamb

a) Gap, caused by shrinkage of frame from wall, not

sealed with mastic.
b) DPC, not projecting into cavity, can be bridged by
mortar droppings.
c) DPC bridged by plaster if inside face of frame is flushed
with inside face of external leaf.
• Damage by condensation
on inside of window frame.
• The need to slope the
surface of the sill here is as
necessary as it is on the
outside, so that
condensation does not feed
into the window assembly
• Removal of condensed
water.
• The use of weather groove
in the sill is the common
method of preventing
penetration of moisture.
 • The use of weather groove
in the sill is a common
method of preventing
penetration of moisture.
• Pressed steel lintel is used
in most cases which also
acts as the DPC and is
available in lengths.
• The lintels are of galvanized
steel and other protective
Sill must be accurately coatings may also be
placed so that weather applied
groove is over the cavity
and not the inner leaf.
Separation between roof deck and parapet. Free-standing
kerb needed when deck and parapet are likely to be
subject to markedly different movements.
• Parapets are severely
exposed to rain and, also, to
wide changes in
temperature.They are likely
to be attacked by sulphates
and frost.
• Brick parapet may also be
subject to moisture
expansion.
• For parapets all brick used
should be low in sulphates.
• The coping material must Rain penetration through
be of high durability to parapet wall.
withstand the severe
exposure.
Common faults in parapet details.
a)Brickwork becomes wetter and
more susceptible to frost and sulphate
attack.
b)Rain can run down underside of
cavity tray and into roof.
CONCRETE FAILURES

Despite its durability, concrete can be damaged

and degraded by a long list of factors. To name
just a few…
•Insufficient reinforcement
•Chloride attack
•Chemical damage
•Carbonation
•Weather exposure
•Impact damage
•Excessive loads
•Structural damage
•Fire damage
•Seismic damage
•Blast damage
One of the main causes for concern is corrosion
of the steel within the concrete. This is such a
big problem because rust can easily occupy ten
times the volume of steel, which creates
significant tensile stresses and leads to
cracking, staining and spalling.
Steps for Concrete Damage Repair in
Reinforced Concrete Structures
1. Determine Causes of Concrete Defects
The determination of causes that led to the
defect should be done properly in order to
tackle the problem. If the cause of damage is
eliminated or declined to a great extent, the
repaired structural member would be more
durable and have a longer service life without
the need for maintenance.
However, if the responsible factor of concrete
damage is not tackled, then the same concrete
defect can repeat itself in the future and may
result in the waste of money and efforts.
Assess the Extent of Concrete Damage
Evaluation of the extent of damage to concrete
helps to understand the severity of damage and
its effect on the life and serviceability of the
structure. If the degree of concrete damage is
known, a proper decision can be made on
whether the structural element needs
replacement or repairing. It also helps to take
precautionary measures to stop the damage in
future for the known cause of the damage.
Extent of concrete damage assessment involves
the determination of how much concrete has
been deteriorated and how this deterioration
affects the service life of the structure i.e. how
much concrete has lost its strength or load-
carrying capacity.
Select Concrete Repair Method
After adequate information about the damaged
area; size; and its severity, and repair
construction time period is achieved, then
proper economical and successful selections
regarding repair materials and method of
repairing can be selected.
This information would also determine when
the standard repair materials cannot be
expected to perform well and when
nonstandard materials should be considered.
Prepare Damaged Concrete for Repair
Preparation of the old concrete for application
of the repair material is of primary importance
in the accomplishment of durable repairs. The
very best of repair materials would give
unsatisfactory performance if applied to
weakened or deteriorated old concrete.
The repair material must be able to bond with
sound concrete. It is essential that all of the
unsound or deteriorated concrete be removed
before new repair materials are applied.
Apply Suitable Repair Method
There are many different standard concrete
repair methods and materials available based
on the type of damage. Suitable methods and
materials should be used based on types of
concrete damage.
7. Cure Repaired Concrete
Suitable curing regime should be considered
for the repaired concrete area in order for
concrete damage to gain the required strength
and durability. If concrete is not adequately
cured, then repair works, cost, and time
invested to repair the defected zone goes waste.
Various repair materials need different curing
condition, for instance, some material may
require extensive water curing whereas some
materials may need less, and there are materials
that need adequate protection with no water
exposure till they achieve desired strength.
 TIMBER FAILURES

• The term 'wood' is used

to refer to the substance • The term 'timber' is used to refer to
that makes up the tree. the wood at any stage after the tree
has been felled. Wood usable for use
as structural member.
 TIMBER ROOFING SYSTEM

A timber roof truss is a structural framework

of timbers designed to bridge the space above a
room and to provide support for a roof.
■ Trusses usually occur at regular intervals, linked
by longitudinal timbers such as purlins.
The space between each truss is known as a
Seasoning is the process of
drying timber to remove the
bound moisture contained in
walls of the wood cells to
produce seasoned timber.
Seasoning can be achieved
in a number of ways, but the
aim is to remove water at a
uniform rate through the
piece to prevent damage to
the wood during drying
 FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF TIMBER

• Density of wood
• Moisture in wood has a very large effect on. ...
• Timbers of young tree has a very low density

Hardness. A good quality timber should be hard enough to

resist deterioration.
Strength. It should have sufficient strength to resist heavy
structural loads.
Toughness. It should have enough toughness to resist shocks
due to vibrations. ...
Elasticity. ...
Durability. ...
Defects. ...
Fibres and Structure. ...
Appearance and Colour.
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• TYPICAL PROBLEMS
• Timber failure may be attributed to insect infestation, fungal
attack, or shakes and splits caused during the drying out of
unseasoned timber.
• The three most common repair types would usually deal with:
• beam end repairs, due to timber being embedded or in
contact with damp masonry
• losses of cross sectional area due to fungal or insect attack
• longitudinal cracks appearing due to changes in moisture
content of the timber.
• A common problem is decay brought about by moisture, often owing
to a leak, poor maintenance or condensation. This allows fungi (dry rot
for example) or wood-boring insects (such as woodworm and
deathwatch beetle) to colonise the timber and by their action reduce
its strength.

• Over-loaded structural members fail by cracking, bending or crushing.

The over-loading may arise either as a result of weakening following
decay, or because they were designed poorly or frugally, or because
they were meant to take a different set of loads than they are
currently bearing. For example, a roof structure designed for thatch or
slate may not be capable of supporting the weight of heavy tiles.
• REPAIR OPTIONS

• . For centuries repairs have been fashioned using carpentry methods or with
blacksmith-made splints, brackets and ties, and these ancient repairs certainly add
character and help tell the story of the building.

• In more recent times we have also utilised modern materials such as steel, epoxy resins,
carbon fibre rods and wire rope to reinforce structures.

• Building repairs can also be effected by completely replacing timbers with new timber
or, where used appropriately and sympathetically, materials such as steel or reinforced
concrete.

• It may also be possible to reduce the loads through the design of secondary structures
and in-fills such as brick panels, or packing-up under partly decayed timbers.
• Wood surfaces are pre-
treated and coated for
decorative purposes or to
increase durability. When
formulating primers, glazes
and varnishes, knowledge of
the surface chemical
properties of these materials
and of the different types
of wood is very helpful
 REPAIR OF WOOD ATTACKED BY INSECTS

• 1. Locate and cure the cause of damp; defective gulleys and drains, broken
roof tiles, bridged or defective damp-proof courses, blocked airbricks,
leaking gutters, radiators, rainwater pipes and defective plumbing may be
the cause and should be rectified.

• 2. Cut away and burn all infected timber and some 18 inches (0·5 metres) of
apparently sound timber since this may have fungus strands in it.

• 3. Ensure ventilation to hollow floors, clear airbricks and ventilators which

have been stopped up. Ensure that these are sufficient in size, number and
properly placed to allow adequate ventilation.

• 4. Earth and rubbish which has risen above the damp course on the outer
walls or sleepers should be removed.
JACK ARCH
ROOF
• Repairing of Jack arch roof will depend upon the extent of damage
undergone with respect to:

• i. Infilling materials — concrete,

• ii. Arch, and
• iii. Joists.
• Thorough inspection and investigation need be carried out to ascertain
the damage.
• The loose infilling materials are removed first and if the arch and the joists
are found in good condition, they need not be disturbed. After total
removal of the infilling materials — which is generally 150 mm over the
crown — a cast in situ R.C.C. slab of thinner section may be laid.
• The two main causes of Jack-arch roof leakage are:
• Poor quality of cement
• Inappropriate grade of sand

• Repair of the roof

• The Jack Arch roof leakage problem has to be fixed and should be so done so as to avoid future recurring water
leakage problem. This can be achieved by waterproofing the roof.
• Here are the four simple steps to repairing and waterproofing the Jack Arch Roof:
• Step one:
• The old cement mortar and tiles are to be removed so that the new cement mortar settles and becomes firm over
the rough roof surface.
• Step two:
• After scraping of the cement mortar, fresh cement mortar is laid and left to dry.
• Step three:
• After the drying of cement mortar, waterproofing is done to avoid any kind of further leakage. Waterproofing
material is mixed in a drum of water and splashed over the cement mortar layer. We must make sure that every
corner of the roof is to be covered with this waterproofing material.
• Step four:
• After the process of waterproofing, tiling is done with the help of a suitable adhesive.
• In cases of damaged arches, if the damage is not heavy and can be restored, the arch
may be repaired by wedging from the bottom. When the arched are restored, a thin
cast in situ R.C.C. slab may be laid as before. But if the arches are damaged beyond
repair, it is better to demolish those and remove the whole thing keeping the R.S.J.s
only in position, provided of course the joists are in good condition.

• After removal of the filling materials and the arches, cast in situ R.C.C. slab may be laid
over the R.S.J.s. The section of the slab would be thinner as the spacing of the R.S.J.s
are 1.0 to 1.5m. The R.S.J.s, If found partially corroded or for better protection and
aesthetic view, may be encased and integrated with the slab over them.
MADRAS TERRACE ROOF
 REPAIR TO MADRAS TERRACE ROOF

• Cracked portions must be refilled with

cement, coarse sand mortar 1:4.
• After that the cracked portion must be
plastered with cement mortar 1:4.
• Repaired surface should be kept moist up to 7
days and if adjoining bricks show cracks, these
bricks should be replaced by new bricks.
• Apply roof flashing technique to prevent water leakage from the roof. Roof
flashing is a metal sheet installed at roof valleys/ gutter, chimneys,
skylights, ridges, roof-wall intersections to prevent water leaks.
SINKING AND
SAGGING OF
BALCONIES
 REASONS FOR BALCONY FAILURES
1. LACK OF DRAINAGE
Without proper drainage, water can overflow and cause various problems.
An edge-wrap drainage system must be kept clear of debris so there are
no clogs and water can drain into the gutter.

2. CRACKS AND LEAKS

Cracks in the grout, concrete, or other surface materials invite
water damage. Concrete spalling can indicate serious damage; the cracked
or flaking concrete can create leaks.

3. POOR CONSTRUCTION PLANNING

To protect a balcony from damage, it must be properly constructed. The
planning stage must factor in how each component will be installed and the type of
membrane to be used.

Taking shortcuts during construction, a lack of building skills, or poor coordination

among contractors can put your balcony and family, friends, or neighbors at risk.
LACK OF MAINTENANCE

Water leaks and structural issues can occur with insufficient building
maintenance. Spotting problems such as water stains on the balcony’s
underside, peeling paint, missing grout, or weak structural joints can allow a
contractor to address them before failure.
Proper maintenance can also avoid many issues from occurring in the first place.
Maintaining a balcony membrane can prevent water leakage and further damage

PONDING

Ponding can be caused by blocked drainage, an improper balcony surface

slope, or structural sagging or settlement.
Leaves, twigs, and dirt that build up should be cleaned to allow water to drain.
Regular cleaning of your balcony can prevent expensive and time-consuming
repairs.
• Alternatively, the balcony may be repaired in a mixed way by
inserting brackets, either of m.s. sections or of R.C.C. If the
length of the balcony is more and cannot be supported on two
brackets, more brackets may be introduced and, if required, m.s.
or R.C.C.
 SHUTTERING

Shuttering is a
vertical temporary
arrangement which
is arranged to bring
concrete in a
desired shape.

or. Formwork which
supports vertical
arrangement is
known
as shuttering.
SCAFFOLDING

also called scaffold or staging, is a

temporary structure used to support a work
crew and materials to aid in the
construction, maintenance and repair of
buildings, bridges and all other man-made
structures.
PROPPING 

is a system of structural members used temporarily to support loads during construction. The forces arising from these loads must be fully
resolved, using props or columns to provide all the support needed for the work under construction, such as beams, formwork, etc
SHORING,
form of prop or support, usually temporary, that is used during the
repair or original construction of buildings and in excavations. 

WHEN IS SHORING USED

When a wall shows signs of bulging out due to

bad workmanship.

•When we have to repair a crack on the wall

due to unequal settlement of foundation.

•When an adjacent structure is to be

dismantled.

•When openings are to be made or enlarged in

the wall.
• Types of Shoring

Raking Shores   
Flying Shores
Dead Shores
1. Raking Shores

In this method, inclined

members, called rakers are
used to give lateral support
to the wall as shown
Flying or Horizontal Shores
Flying shores are a support system which provides horizontal support to two parallel
party walls when removal or collapse of the intermediate building takes place.
All types of shoring system of supporting the unsafe structure in which the shores do
not reach the ground are the flying shores.
It consists of well plates, needles cleats,
struts, horizontal shore straining pieces
and folding wedges. When the distance
between the walls is more, a compound or
double flying shore
3.Dead or Vertical Shores
• Dead shore is a shoring system in which a dead
shore in the form of vertical member support
horizontal needles which transfer the load of
the wall, roofs and floors etc.

• This type of shoring is use for the

following purposes:
• To rebuild the defective lower part of the wall.
• To rebuild or deepen the existing foundation.
• To make large opening in the existing wall at
lower level for underpinning and such type of
work.
STRUTTING
Temporary or permanent auxiliary structure to support retaining
walls horizontally at excavation sites. Strutting systems usually
consist of tubes as compression struts and H beams as waling to
redistribute the horizontal forces over the struts.
• UNDERPINNING

In construction or renovation, underpinning is

the process of strengthening the foundation of
an existing building or other structure.
Underpinning may be necessary for a variety
of reasons: The original foundation isn't strong
or stable enough.
• Long span roof are today widely applied for sport, social, industrial,
ecological and other activities. The experience collected in last decades
identified structural typologies as space structures, cable structures,
membrane structures and new - under tension - efficient materials which
combination deals with lightweight structural systems, as the state of art
on long span structural design. In order to increase the reliability
assessment of wide span structural systems a knowledge based synthetic
conceptual design approach is recommended. Theoretical and
experimental in scale analysis, combined with a monitoring control of the
subsequent performance of the structural system, can calibrate
mathematical modelling and evaluate long term sufficiency of design.