PRACTICAL REPORT OF BASIC BIOLOGY-II

MITOSIS

Group II:
MUFTI NUR ILMA (11315244002)
SULCHANA SARASWATI (11315244005)
DIANA ARFIANTI (11315244010)
ISLAMIAR NUR RANI (11315244020)
HIZKIA YOGA ADHITAMA(11315244023)
ROSITA SARI NUR RAHMADI (11315244031)

INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION PROGRAM

FACULTY OF MATHEMATHICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES
YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY
2011/2012

ACTIVITY 9
 MITOSIS OF ONION (Allium cepa) ROOTS

A. OBJECTIVE
In this experiments is to observe the process of mitosis in onion/ garlic root

B. BACKGROUND
Mitosis cell reproduction is the way in which cell divide through the
regular stages, namely anaphase-prophase-metaphase-telophase. Between
telophase stage to the next stage of prophase there is a rest period called
interphase cells (this step does not include cell division stage). At this stages
of interphase nuclei of the cell, the characteristics to the synthesis of core
materials.
Broadly speaking, the characteristic of each stages of the mitotic division
are as follows :
1. Prophase : at this stage it
is important the reads of chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the
chromosomes begin duplicate to chromatids.
2. Metaphase : at this stage
chromosomes/ chromatids lined up regularly in the field division (of the
equator)so that at this stage of chromosomes/ chromatids easily observed
and studied.
3. Anaphase : in this phase
will be attracted by the chromatids toward the spindle thread to the poles
of the cell division.
4. Telophase : at this stage
there is an incident kariokinesis (core division into two parts) and
cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm into two parts).
All complete division the cleavage stage of reproduction is as follow : in
contrast to mitotic division, the division between telophase meiosis 1 and
prophase II, there is not resting phase (interface). Once completed
telophase II and will proceed to prophase I then found a resting phase or
interface.
C. BASIC THEORY

Cell division is the process by which cells divide into two or more progeny
cells, usually referred to as "daughter" cells. Cell division happens for a
number of reasons. Simple unicellular organisms reproduce by cell
division. Cell division serves many functions in multicellular organisms,
such as growth, replacement of tissues that shed (such as the skin or
intestinal lining), or reproduction.

Prokaryotes such as bacteria undergo cell division by a process known as

binary fission. This is not covered here. The corresponding process in
eukaryotes is mitosis, which is described below. Additionally, multicellular
organisms can also use a different process - meiosis - to produce
specialized reproductive cells called "gametes".

Mitosis

Mitosis is the eukaryotic equivalent for binary fission - the process by

which a cell splits into two daughter cells. Unicellular eukaryotes
reproduce through mitosis. Some multicellular organisms, such as plants
which are propagated through cuttings, can also reproduce through
mitosis. Mitosis is also used to replace or regenerate lost tissues, for
example the skin, or even whole organs in animals which can regenerate
body parts. It is involved in wound healing, in the production of immune
cells, and in the growth of a zygote to embryo, fetus, newborn, to adult.

Mitosis results in the production of daughter cells which are identical to

the mother cell in terms of their genetic makeup. The DNA of the daughter
cells is identical to the DNA of the mother cell (apart from any errors that
may occur in the duplication process). This is different from meiosis,
where the daughter cells are not identical to the mother cells from which
they are produced.
The Cell Cycle

Mitosis can be thought of as a cycle, since it can occur many times in the
same cell line. A diagram of the cell cycle is shown on the left. The mitotic
or cell division phase is quite small, representing about 10-20% of the total
cycle time, even in rapidly dividing cells. The cell spends the rest of the
time either preparing for mitosis (the G1, S and G2 periods of interphase),
or in a quiescent state where it is not dividing and not preparing to divide
(G0 state).

The dividing cell goes through a rest and growth period, during which it
acquires and processes raw materials to increase in size, and produce
multiple copies of cellular organelles such as mitochondria and ribosomes,
which will be later divided between the two daughter cells. During this rest
phase, the cell also duplicates its DNA. Finally, it enters the mitotic phase,
where the duplicated DNA is separated into corresponding groups, to form
two separate nuclei. Then the rest of the cell splits into two, with each half
getting one nucleus, and two daughter cells are produced. Each of these
two daughter cells then enters the rest and growth phase, and in turn can
enter a mitotic phase of its own, each producing the next generation of
daughter cells. This is why it is considered cyclic - rest and growth -
mitosis - rest and growth - mitosis - etc. In this way, a cell can continue
subdividing many times, until its cell line reaches senescence, after which
it stops dividing. In humans, normal cells can undergo mitosis about 52
times (Hayflick Limit) until it becomes senescent and stops dividing.
Senescence is thought to be related to shortening of the telomeres, which
are repetitive sequences at the ends of each chromosome. Each time a cell
divides, the telomeres become shorter. Presumably, they reach some
critical lower limit, after which the cell cannot divide any more. Of course,
this applies only to normal cells. Cancerous cells can keep dividing
forever, because the enzyme telomerase is activated in such cells, and this
enzyme continues to lengthen the telomeres after each division. Some
normal cells, such as various cells in embryonic tissue, can also divide
many more times than normal adult cells.

The phases of mitosis are described below. It is important to remember

that not all eukaryotic cells divide in exactly the same way. The process
described below applies to mammals and many other "higher" organisms.
However, there are many eukaryotes that undergo mitosis differently. For
example, the dissolution of the nuclear membrane shown below does not
happen in many molds and lichens. The separation of the chromosomes in
anaphase happens within the nuclear membrane (which never disappears
in such organisms), and two nuclei are formed inside the same cell. Each
of these nuclei can further subdivide, and often there are cells with
multiple nuclei. Cytokinesis can then happen later, and each of the nuclei
becomes a new cell. In mammals, cytokinesis usually follows the last
phase (telophase), but can also sometimes be delayed.

Interphase

This is the long phase in between cell divisions. This is much longer than
all the mitotic phases combined (about 90%, compared to 10% of the time
the cell spends in mitosis, in mammalian cells). This is the period during
which the cell grows and produces organelles and eventually duplicates its
DNA.

The figure on the right shows a diagram of a cell during interphase. The
bars below show the mitotic "cell cycle". The left bar shows the cell
phases - G1, S and G2, which are collectively known as interphase, and M
which is the mitotic phase.

The bar on the right shows the subdivisions of the M or mitotic phase,
which are P for prophase, M for metaphase, A for anaphase, and T for
telophase. These phases are characterized by what is happening to the
DNA of the cell. However, during cell division, it is not only the DNA of
the cell that divides; it is the whole cell. The division of the cytoplasm,
with its various cell organelles, is known as cytokinesis. In mammals, this
typically happens after the last phase of mitosis, and results in the
production of two daughter cells.

The cell spends the bulk of its time in interphase, the period between two
cycles of cell division. Interphase is divided into 3 periods - G 1, S and G2.
The S period is shown in the figure to the right. This is the period during
which the DNA is duplicated. At this time, the DNA (which is normally
dispersed through the nucleus and mostly invisible) condenses into
discrete, dark staining bodies, called "chromatin".

G1 and G2 are the growth phases, also sometimes referred to as the "gap"
phases. This is the period during which cellular organelles such as
ribosomes, mitochondria, and other machinery of the cell are produced in
large numbers. This material is eventually split between the two daughter
cells.

Some cells which are not actively dividing enter a phase termed G 0.
During this phase, the cell is not preparing to divide. Cellular activities are
mostly concerned with sustaining the cell and performing its normal
functions, and there is no extra protein synthesis or organelle synthesis as
there is when the cell is preparing to divide. There is a point in time during
G1, known as the restriction point, which is sort of a checkpoint to cell
division. Provided that the cell receives a suitable mitogenic or growth
signal by the restriction point, it will continue on towards the S phase and
the duplication of the DNA, followed by mitosis. However, if the
appropriate signals are not received by the restriction point, the cell reverts
to G0.

During interphase, the nuclear membrane is present. The nucleolus (a

nuclear structure which is responsible for assembling ribosomes) is clearly
visible. DNA is visible in the form of chromatin clumps scattered
throughout the nucleus.

Prophase

During prophase, the chromosomes appear for the first time during cell
division. Prior to prophase, the DNA is loosely coiled in chromatin
bundles, but during prophase it forms itself up into highly ordered
elongated structures, called chromosomes.

Chromosomes appear bifurcate, that is, they look like they are made of two
identical strands, joined at the middle. This is because the DNA is already
duplicated (it was duplicated during the S period of interphase). Each
chromosome is made of two chromatids. Some people confuse the terms
"chromosome" and "chromatid", so I wrote a brief explanation describing
the difference here.

Each chromatid has a structure near its center, called the kinetochore. This
is a complex protein attached to the chromosome, which serves as an
attachment point for microtubules, which are used to guide the chromatids
towards each half of the cell during later phases. As the name
"kinetochore" indicates, this is a motor protein, that uses energy in the
form of ATP to "climb" its way along the microtubule to one pole of the
cell. The kinetochores of sister chromatids are also connected to each other
through the centromeres, which are regions of the DNA on each chromatid
that are connected to each other. The two sister chromatids of each
chromosome are connected to each other through the centromeres.
During prophase, the centrosomes separate and move towards opposite
poles of the cell. The centrosome is a microtubule organizing center, which
helps in organizing the microtubules or spindle fibers, which guide the
movement of chromosomes in later phases of mitosis. Normally, each cell
has one centrosome (which consists of two centrioles), which is found
associated with the nuclear membrane during most of interphase.
However, during the S period of interphase (when the cellular DNA is
duplicated), the centrosome is also duplicated, so prior to prophase the cell
contains two centrosomes. Each of the centrosomes moves towards
opposite poles of the cell, and each daughter cell will inherit one
centrosome. Centrosomes play an important part in cell division, but are
not absolutely necessary, since cells can divide without centrosomes. Some
types of cells (such as higher plants) do not even contain centrosomes, but
contain some other form of microtubule organizing centers.

Towards the end of prophase, the nuclear membrane dissolves. This

happens in humans and in most other mammalian cells, but as mentioned
earlier, not in all eukaryotic cells. There are some plants, fungi and lichens
in which the nuclear membranes remain intact through all of mitosis. In
such cases, the microtubules from the centrosomes (or other microtubule
organizing centers) penetrate the nuclear membrane and attach the
chromatids inside the nucleus.

Metaphase

In metaphase, the microtubules originating from the centrosomes

(arranged in bundles called spindle fibers) attach to the kinetochores of the
chromatids.

The kinetochores can be imagined as somewhat ring-shaped structures,

and the end of each spindle fiber is a "hook" that attaches to the ring.
Spindle fibers growing from the centrosomes are of two types. One type
can be considered the "kinetochore type" fibers, which specifically look
for a kinetochore on a chromatid to attach to. In fact, it is thought that an
unattached kinetochore continues to broadcast a signal which tells the cell
that kinetochore attachment is not yet complete, and therefore the cell is
prevented from moving on to the next stage of the cell cycle. Only when
all kinetochores are attached to a spindle fiber does this signal cease, and
the cell reaches the mitotic spindle checkpoint, which tells it that it's okay
to proceed with the next stage.

The other kind of spindle fibers are known as the "non-kinetochore type",
and these do not attach to the kinetochores of chromatids. Instead, they
attach to similar non-kinetochore type spindle fibers from the opposite
centrosome. This network of fibers stretching from one centrosome to the
other is called the mitotic spindle. The function of these fibers is to push
the two centrosomes apart, increasing the distance between them. This
happens in the next phase (anaphase); however the connections necessary
for forming this mitotic spindle happen during metaphase.

As a result of kinetochore-type fibers attaching to the kinetochore of each

chromatid from opposite sides, each chromatid pair is under two opposite
forces which balance each other. Each chromatid of a chromosome is
trying to climb up the spindle fiber on its own side. However, since the
chromatids are joined in the middle at the centromeres, they can't actually
move at this stage. But the presence of these equal and opposite forces
lines the chromosome up at the central or equatorial plane of the cell. This
happens to every chromosome of the cell.

Therefore, one of the characteristic features of metaphase is that all the

chromosomes appear to line up in the middle of the cell, along what's
known as the equatorial plane of the cell, as shown in the diagram. This is
very common in mammalian cells. However, there are some cells which
don't show such a neat lining up of chromosomes, and in those cases the
chromosomes tend to oscillate between the two poles, sometimes nearer
one centrosome and sometimes nearer the other.

Anaphase

After all the kinetochore type spindle fibers are attached to the chromatids,
and the chromosomes are lined up along the equatorial plane, anaphase
begins.
The two chromatids of each chromosome are held together by a protein
called cohesin. At the start of anaphase, a protein known as separase
cleaves the cohesin, separating the two chromatids of each chromosome
from each other. Separase is normally present in the cell, but is under
inhibition by a protein called securin. Removal of this inhibition (by a
protein called M-phase cyclin) is what initiates anaphase.

Separation of the chromatids allows them to start moving up the spindle

fibers towards the centrosomes on their respective sides. As mentioned
previously, the kinetochores on the chromatids are motor proteins, that
attach themselves to the spindle fiber and "drag" themselves along the
fiber, pulling the chromatid with them. This process uses energy in the
form of ATP.

As the chromatids move along the spindle fibers, the distal ends of the
spindle fibers disintegrate, so the fibers appear to shorten as the chromatids
move along their lengths.

Recall that in addition to the kinetochore type spindle fibers (along which
the chromatids move), there are also non-kinetochore type spindle fibers,
which stretch pole to pole across the cell, from one centrosome to the
other. These fibers start lengthening towards the end of anaphase, which
increases the separation between the two centrosomes (and therefore also
increases the separation between the two sets of chromatids, since the
chromatids are attached to each centrosome).

At the end of anaphase, the two sets of chromatids (each of which contains
1c/2n DNA, or exactly the same amount of DNA as a normal adult cell)
are at the two polar ends of the cell.

Telophase
This is the end phase of mitosis, and it basically reverses the elements of
prophase.

The non-kinetochore type spindle fibers continue to elongate, pushing the

centrosomes even farther apart and elongating the cell along the polar axis.

Meanwhile, each set of chromatids develops a nuclear membrane around

it. This nuclear membrane is made of fragments of the original nuclear
membrane which dissolved towards the end of prophase. The completion
of the two nuclear membranes results in two separate nuclei, each
containing a full complement of the organism's DNA. Note that is only
happens in some kinds of cells (most mammalian cells, including human
cells). In other organisms, the nuclear membrane never dissolves, and is
therefore does not need to be regenerated. In such cases, the maximal
separation of the two centrosomes and the consequent elongation of the
cell marks the end of telophase.

The chromatids inside each nucleus then appear to "dissolve" - the tightly
packed and organized structure is lost as the DNA uncoils, and it reverts to
the normal DNA appearance during the cell's resting phase, a loosely
organized chromatin network.
The nucleolus reappears inside each nucleus. This is a dark staining body
that contains the machinery for assembling ribosomes from ribosomal
RNA.

At this point, mitosis is complete, but cell division is not yet complete. In
order for that to happen, the cell must divide physically into two daughter
cells, which happens during the next phase of cytokinesis. Telophase
accounts for about 2% of the cell cycle in dividing cells.

Cytokinesis

This is the last phase of cell division, which occurs after mitosis is
complete.

The diagram to the right shows cytokinesis in a typical animal cell.

Cytokinesis is very different in plants, which have cell walls.

In animals cells, soon after the end of telophase, cytokinesis begins. The
cell, which was already elongated along the polar axis due to the
separation of the centrosomes, begins to pinch off in the middle at the
equatorial plane. The equatorial plane is the plane along which the
chromosomes aligned themselves during metaphase.
The "pinching off" is due to contractile non-muscle type myosin II and
actin filaments, which are deposited on the cell membrane in a ring around
the equatorial plane. Contraction of this ring produces a cleavage furrow,
which continues to deepen as the ring contracts and the cytoplasm in the
region is hydrolysed.

As the cell membrane furrow continues to deepen, the mitotic spindle

which was previously pushing the two centrosomes apart during telophase
is forced into a narrower and narrower communicating gap between the
two halves of the cell. The microtubules start to decay across the cell,
except in the region of the constriction itself, where they compact to form
the midbody structure, a flattened dense patch between the two separating
halves of the cell. Finally, the process of abscission cleaves the midbody
structure into two halves, and the two daughter cells separate, and
cytokinesis is complete.

Cytokinesis in plant cells is very different. Since plant cells have cell
walls, there is no constriction of the membrane and no cleavage furrow.
Instead, a new cell wall (known as the cell plate) is deposited at the
equatorial plane, and a complex procedure beginning with the creation of
the phragmoplast begins, which through a series of steps leads to the
formation of the two daughter cells. This process is not covered here.

Cell reproduction is one of the fundamental essence of life. The process of

cell reproduction involves the process of nuclear division to form a new
nucleus (mitosis), followed by cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). This
process produces two tersipasah nuclei in different cells. Mitosis and
cytokinesis are components of cell division that are collectively known as
reproductive cells. In mitosis, all of the properties contained in the cell
nucleus are recorded fully in the new cell. Active mitosis occurs in
meristem tissues that are growing rapidly, such as root tips, shoots, and
shoots. Speed of cell division in each different organs beda.Tujuan mitotic
division is to pass on all the properties of both parent and child cells play
an important role in biological processes, such as growth, replacement of
damaged cells and tissue repair . (Dotty Suryati , 2008)
In the field of genetics, mitosis is the process that produces two identical
daughter cells. Mitosis maintains the same pair of chromosomes through
cell division of somatic nuclei, respectively. This process occurs
simultaneously with cleavage of the cytoplasm and nucleus material
outside the cell (cytokinesis). This process has an important role in the
growth and development of almost all organisms. (LV Crowder. 1997)
Mitosis takes place in several phases, including:
1) Interphase cells at this stage ready to perform the cleavage, but do not
show splitting activities.
2) Prophase in this phase of the chromatin strands become more and more
into short, so thick .
3) Metaphase in this phase of the chromosomes to put yourself in the
middle of the cell.
4) Anaphase at this stage of the centromere divides and the two chromatids
separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell.
5) Telophase in this phase at each pole of the cell has been formed
identical chromosomes.
In the process of mitosis from each parent is diploid (2n) produces two
daughter cells, each of which remain diploid. (Suryo, 2001)

Meiosis, on the other hand, reduces the number of chromosomes by half,

so that, for example, human egg and sperm cells, called gametes, each
have 23 chromosomes and can join to produce a zygote with 46. It has two
division phases, whereas mitosis has only one. Meiosis in animals is called
gametogenesis, specifically, spermatogenesis, producing sperm, in males
and oogenesis, producing eggs or ova, in females. In the unfused state, the
egg and sperm are called haploid cells having only a single set of
chromosomes, and they become diploid having a pair of each type of
chromosome again when they unite during fertilization.
Meiosis specifically works to combine the genetic material of two
individuals. When there is only one parent in the reproductive cycle for
example, in ferns, which reproduce through spore the daughter cell
must have the full genetic material all the chromosomes of the
parent cell. Therefore, in the case of the creation of spore sporogenesis
reproduction is accomplished without meiosis.

Phases of plant cells division:

1) Interphase is considered the first and last stage of plant cell division. It
is the stage in which the cell is growing in size and replicating its DNA in
preparation for division. The nucleus is apparent.

2) Prophase. During Prophase the nuclear envelope starts to break down

and all the chromosomes start to coil up in the center of the cell.

3) Metaphase is the middle stage at which point all the chromosome pairs
line up in the center of the cell along spindle fibers that pull to either side
of the cell.

4) Anaphase. The spindle fibers become shorter and pull each

chromosome pair apart to the opposite ends of the cell.

5) Telophase. The final stage of cell replication.The nuclear envelope is

reformed. Cytokinesis takes place. A new cell wall is created down the
center and two daughter cells are formed.
1) Interphase 2) Prophase 3) Metaphase

4) Anaphase 5) Telophase

(http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artnov04macro/jronionroot.html)
 D. TOOLS AND MATERIALS
1. Stain (aceticorcein) tongs
2. Microscope
3. HCl in glass bottles with pipette (1 M)
4. TV and flaxcam
5. Watch glass
6. Hot plates
7. Methilated spirit burner and match
8. Scalpels/ razors, mounted needles, forceps
9. Microscope slides and coverslips
10. Cleaning tissue
11. Filter paper
12. Pipettes
13. Prepared mitosis slides too

E. PROCEDURES
1. Place onions/ garlic on
boiling tubes or beakers filled with water so roots will grow.
2. Place the stained toot tip on a
clean microscope slide. Cut it in half transversely and discard the half
furthest from apex.
3. Add two drops of acetic
orcein to root tip on slide.
4. without interfering too much
with the arrangement of the cells, break the root tip up with a needle so as
to spread it out thinly as possible.
5. Put on a coverslip, cover it
with filter paper and squash gently.
6. Warn the slide on the hot
plate for about tes seconds to intensify the staining (the slide should be
very warm, but not too hot to touch).
7. Examine the stages in
mitosis.
F. THE OBSERVATION DATA
G. DISCUSSION
This experiment in activity 9 is about Mitosis of Onion/ Garlic Roots.
After we did this experiment, we are expected to observe the process of
mitosis in onion/garlic root.
This lab work and observation activities have been done on Monday, 26
March 2012 in biology laboratory. This activities are observe and notice
some objects by using Stain (aceticorcein) tongs, Microscope, HCl in glass
bottles with pipette (1 M), TV and flaxcam, Watch glass, Hot
plates,Methilated spirit burner and match,Scalpels/ razors, mounted
needles, forceps, Microscope slides and coverslips, Cleaning tissue, Filter
paper, Pipettes, Prepared mitosis slides too.
Dalam percobaan ini, kami mengamati proses pembelahan mitosis yang
terjadi pada akar bawang, pembelahan mitosis sendiri yaitu, pembelahan
reduksi karena meliputi dua proses pembelahan berurutan, yaitu
kanokinesis dan sitokinesis. Dalam praktikum ini kami menggunakan
preparat yang dibuat dari ujung akar bawang merah. Sebelum dibuat
preparat, akar bawang merah yang sudah dipotong direndam kedalam
larutan FAA dengan tujuan untuk mempertahankan kondisi sel-sel akar
bawang saat pemotongan kurang lebih 12 jam,yakni menghentikan kondisi
proses mitosis yang sudah terjadi pada akar bawang merah. Pemotongan
akar bawang merah dilakukan dalam waktu-waktu tertentu yaitu antara
pukul 00.00 03.00 WIB atau antara pukul 07.00 09.00 WIB.
Pemotongan dilakukan pada pukul tersebut karena pada waktu itulah sel-
sel yang berada dalam akar bawang sedang aktif melakukan pembelahan.
Setelah kami mengamati preparat dibawah mikroskop, ternyata akar
bawang merah buatan memiliki kromosom, kromosom terlihat setelah
dicampur dengan acetocarmine yang berfungsi untuk memperjelas inti sel
dan mengetahui letak inti sel. Jadi kromosom hanya akan terlihat jelas
apabila membelah, maka dari itu kami menggunakan acetocarmine untuk
memperjelas kromosom yang terdapat pada akar bawang merah. Setiap
kromosom akan tampak seperti dua kumpulan benang yang disebut
kromatid, dan dihubungkan dengan kromatin.
Dalam pembelahan mitosis ada yang disebut sitokinesisyaitu pembelahan
suatu sel yang menjadi dua sel anakan yang masing-masing mengandung
inti sel. Pembelahan sel berlangsung dalamempat tahap yaitu profase,
metaphase, anaphase, dan telophase. Benang benang yang terdapat
dalam preparat buatan yang terdapat dalam inti sel sel akan membentuk
kromosom benang-benang spindle pada sentromen yang terikat dan setiap
kromosom akan terlihat tampak jelas dan dapat diamati hanya
menggunakan mikroskop.

Berikut hasil dari pengamatan yang kami peroleh,

PROPHASE

During Prophase the

nuclear envelope starts to
break down and all the
chromosomes start to coil
up in the center of the cell.
METAPHASE

Metaphase is the middle

stage at which point all
the chromosome pairs
line up in the center of
the cell along spindle
fibers that pull to either
side of the cell.

ANAPHASE

The spindle fibers

become shorter and pull
each chromosome pair
apart to the opposite ends
of the cell.

TELOPHASE

The final stage of cell

replication. The nuclear
envelope is reformed.
Cytokinesis takes place. A
new cell wall is created
down the center and two
daughter cells are
formed.
H. CONCLUSION
The process of mitosis in onion / garlic roots are,

Prophase. During Prophase the nuclear envelope starts to break down and
all the chromosomes start to coil up in the center of the cell.

Metaphase is the middle stage at which point all the chromosome pairs
line up in the center of the cell along spindle fibers that pull to either side
of the cell.

Anaphase. The spindle fibers become shorter and pull each chromosome
pair apart to the opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase. The final stage of cell replication.The nuclear envelope is

reformed. Cytokinesis takes place. A new cell wall is created down the
center and two daughter cells are formed.
I. QUESTIONS

1. Why cut the roots that will be used for observation of preparations
immersed in FAA?
Answered : larutan FAA berfungsi untuk mempertahankan kondisi sel-
sel akar bawang saat pemotongan kurang lebih 12 jam,yakni kondisi
proses mitosis yang sudah terjadi pada akar bawang merah. Atau untuk
menghentikan aktivitas mitosis dan mempertahankan kondisi sel-sel
akar bawang merah.

2. What is the purpose cutting roots with a rusty razor blade?

Answered : karena silet berkaran mengandung besi yang dapat
teroksidasi sehingga mampu menyerap air dan membantu proses
pengikatan zat warna pada acetocarmine.

3. Why need to be soaked within HCl?

Answered : untuk melunakkan dinding sel akar bawang merah sehingga
memudahkan dalam pemotongan tundung akar.

4. What was stage most evident? Why?

Answered : metafase
Karena pada fase metafase membrannya sudah menghilang, jadi
kromosom mudah untuk diamati.

J. REFERENCES
Campbell, N.A., J.B. Reece, L.G. Mitchell. 2009. Biology, Eight Edition. .
San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Gerking, Shelby D. 1969. Biological Systems. Toronto: W. B. Saunders

Company

Priadi, Arif. 2009. Biology 3 For Senior High School Year XII. Jakarta:
Yudhistira
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