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ASSIGNMENT 1

Q1. How is Computer aided design(CAD) different from

conventional process?
Ans. Computer-aided design (CAD) involves creating computer
models defined by geometrical parameters. These models
typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional
representation of a part or a system of parts, which can be readily
altered by changing relevant parameters. CAD systems enable
designers to view objects under a wide variety of representations
and to test these objects by simulating real-world conditions.
Modeling with CAD systems offers a number of advantages over
traditional drafting methods that use rulers, squares, and
compasses. For example, designs can be altered without erasing
and redrawing. CAD systems also offer "zoom" features analogous
to a camera lens, whereby a designer can magnify certain
elements of a model to facilitate inspection. Computer models are
typically three dimensional and can be rotated on any axis, much
as one could rotate an actual three-dimensional model in one's
hand, enabling the designer to gain a fuller sense of the object.
Using CAD, it is possible to simulate in three dimensions the
movement of a part through a production process. This process
can simulate feed rates, angles and speeds of machine tools, the
position of part-holding clamps, as well as range and other
constraints limiting the operations of a machine. So, CAD is used
more nowadays as compare to conventional process.

Q2. What is concurrent engineering?

Ans. Concurrent engineering is a work methodology based on the
parallelization of tasks (i.e. performing tasks concurrently), which
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is sometimes called Simultaneous Engineering or Integrated
Product Development (IPD). It refers to an approach used
in product development in which functions of design engineering,
manufacturing engineering and other functions are integrated to
reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product to the
market.

The basic premise for concurrent engineering revolves around two

concepts.

1 The first is the idea that all elements of a products life-cycle,

from functionality, producibility, assembly, testability,
maintenance issues, environmental impact and finally disposal
and recycling, should be taken into careful consideration in the
early design phases.

2 The second concept is that the preceding design activities

should all be occurring at the same time, i.e., concurrently. The
idea is that the concurrent nature of these processes significantly
increases productivity and product quality. This way, errors and
redesigns can be discovered early in the design process when the
project is still flexible. By locating and fixing these issues early,
the design team can avoid what often become costly errors as the
project moves to more complicated computational models and
eventually into the actual manufacturing of hardware.

Q3. Differentiate between top down and bottom up approaches of

design?

Ans. Top down design proceeds from the abstract entity to get to
the concrete design. Bottom up design proceeds from the
concrete design to get to the abstract entity.
Top down design is most often used in designing brand new
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systems, while bottom up design is sometimes used when one is
reverse engineering a design; i.e. when one is trying to figure out
what somebody else designed in an existing system.
Bottom up design begins the design with the lowest level modules
or subsystems, and progresses upward to the main program,
module, or subsystem. With bottom up design, a structure chart is
necessary to determine the order of execution, and the
development of drivers is necessary to complete the bottom up
approach.
Top down design, on the other hand, begins the design with the
main or top-level module, and progresses downward to the lowest
level modules or subsystems.
Real life sometimes is a combination of top down design and
bottom up design. For instance, data modeling sessions tend to
be iterative, bouncing back and forth between top down and
bottom up modes, as the need arises.

Q4. What are various input devices that can be used in CAD
system? Explain their working with help of diagram?

Ans. The input devices are those devices used to feed the data or
the requirement to the computer system. We communicate with
the system through the input devices. Software drivers are
required to enable the host applications programs. i.e., the
CAD/CAM software, to interpret the information received from
input devices as well as send information to output devices. There
are many input devices. The input may be in the form of text or
graphics. The input in the form is given by the alphanumeric
(character-oriented) keyboards. Graphics devices, or locators,
provide a position or location on the screen. These include
lightpens, mice, digitizing tablets and styluses, joysticks,
trackballs, thumbwheels, touchscreens, and touchpads. Locating
devices typically operate by controlling the position of a cursor on
the screen. Thus, they are also referred to as cursor-control
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devices. The joystick provide three-dimensional input are two-
dimensional input devices Another class of graphics input devices,
besides locating devices, is digitizer boards or tablets, or simply
digitizers. Digitizers can be divided into three kinds relative to the
mode of operation of the cursor. They are free-cursor,
constrained-cursor, and motor-cursor digitizers. In the first kind,
the cursor is attached to the end of a flexible chord, in the second
it slides along a gantry that traverses the entire digitizing board
area, and in the third kind the cursor motion is accomplished by
motors driven by an operator controlled joystick. Image-input
devices such as video frame grabbers and scanners comprise the
third class of graphics-input devices

1 Keyboards: Conventional keyboards are text-only devices and

form an essential and basic input device. They are typically
employed to create/edit programs or to perform word processing
functions. These keyboards have been modified to perform
graphics tasks by adding special function keys or attaching
graphics input devices such as mice to them. The programmable
function keyboard (PFK) is another type that typically has
pushbuttons that are programmed to eliminate extensive typing
of commands or entering coordinate information. The
pushbuttons are controlled by the software and maybe assigned
different functions at different phases of the software. PFK maybe
built as a separate unit, or button may just be integrated with a
conventional keyboard.
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2.Light pens: The light pen is intrinsically a pointing or picking

device that enables the user to select a displayed graphics item
on a screen by directly touching its surface in the vicinity of the
item. The application program processes the information
generated from the touching to identify the selectable item to
operate on. The light pen, however, does not typically have
hardware for tracking, positioning, or locating in comparison to
digitizing tablet and stylus. Instead, these functions are
performed by utilizing the hardware capabilities of the graphics
display at hand. The light pen itself does not emit light but rather
detects it from graphics items displayed on the screen. Using the
emitted light as an input, it sends an interrupt signal to the
computer to determine which item was seen by the pen.
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3.Digitizing tablet: A digitizing tablet is considered to be a locating

as well as a pointing device. It is a small, low-resolution digitizing
board often used in conjunction with a graphics display. The tablet
is a flat surface over which a stylus or a puck (a hand-hold cursor
to differentiate it from a display screen cursor) can be moved by
the user. The close resemblance of the tablet and stylus to paper
and pencil contributes to its popularity as an input device in
computer graphics. The stylus is shaped like a pen, and a puck is
a little hand-held box. The puck contains a rectile and at least one
pushbutton. The rectiles engraved cross-hairs help locate a point
for digitizing. Pressing the pushbutton sends the coordinates at
the cross-hairs to the computer. Additional buttons may be
available on the puck and may be programmed by the software
for other functions than digitizing locations such as selecting
alphanumeric font sizes or electronic symbols. Sizes of digitizing
tablets range form 11 x 11 to 36 x 36 inches and perhaps larger.
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4.Mouse: The mouse was invented in the late 1960s as a location

device but has only recently become fairly popular due to its
convenient use with icons and pop-up and pull-down menus.
Unlike the digitizing tablet, the mouse measures its relative
movement from its last position, rather than where it is in relation
to some fixed surface. There are two basic types of mice
available: mechanical and optical. The mechanical mouse is a box
with two metal wheels or rollers on the bottom whose axes are
orthogonal in order to record the mouse motion in the x and y
directions. The roll of the mouse on any flat surface causes the
rotation of the wheel which is encoded into digital values via
potentiometers. These values may be stored, when a mouse
pushbutton is depressed, in the mouse registers accessible by the
application program either immediately or during the computer
interrupts every refresh cycle. Using these values, the program
can determine the direction and magnitude of the mouse
movement. Unlike the mechanical one, the optical mouse is used
in conjunction with a special surface (the mouse pad). Movements
over this surface are measured by a light beam modulation and
optical encoding techniques. The light source is located at the
bottom and the mouse must be in contact with the surface for the
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screen cursor to follow its movements. Pushbuttons may be
mounted on top of the mouse and programmed to various
functions.

Q5. What is plasma?

Ans. Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter. The three

other states are solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma is a cloud of
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protons, neutrons and electrons where all the electrons have
come loose from their respective molecules and atoms, giving the
plasma the ability to act as a whole rather than as a bunch of
atoms. A plasma is more like a gas than any of the other states of
matter because the atoms are not in constant contact with each
other, but it behaves differently from a gas. It has what scientists
call collective behavior. This means that the plasma can flow like
a liquid or it can contain areas that are like clumps of atoms
sticking together.

Q6. Draw a line from (0,1) and (3,6) and another line from (0,1) to
(-3,6) using Bresenhams line algorithm?

Ans. (a) For a line from 0,1 and 3,6 m>1 i.e. m=5/3, dy=5 and
dx=3

x y p

0 1 1

1 2 -3

1 3 3

2 4 -1

2 5 5

3 6 1

(b) For a line from (0,1) and (-3,6) m<0 and negative, dy=5 and
dx=3 .It is impossible to draw the line as p always get increase
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x y p

0 1 1

-1 2 -3

-1 3 3

-2 4 -1

-2 5 5

3 6 1

Q7. What is centerless grinding?

Ans. Centerless grinding is a machining process that uses abrasive

cutting to remove material from a workpiece. Centerless grinding
differs from centered grinding operations in that
no spindle or fixture is used to locate and secure the
workpiece; the workpiece is secured between two rotary grinding
wheels, and the speed of their rotation relative to each other
determines the rate at which material is removed from the
workpiece.
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In centerless grinding, the workpiece is held between two grinding

wheels, rotating in the same direction at different speeds, and
a work holding platform. One wheel, known as the grinding wheel
(stationary wheel in the diagram), is on a fixed axis and rotates
such that the force applied to the workpiece is directed
downward, against the work holding platform. This wheel usually
performs the grinding action by having a higher tangential
speed than the workpiece at the point of contact. The other
wheel, known as the regulating wheel (moving wheel in the
diagram), is movable. This wheel is positioned to apply lateral
pressure to the workpiece, and usually has either a very rough
or rubber-bonded abrasive to trap the workpiece.
The speed of the two wheels relative to each other provides the
grinding action and determines the rate at which material is
removed from the workpiece. During operation, the workpiece
turns with the regulating wheel, with the same linear velocity at
the point of contact and (ideally) no slipping. The grinding wheel
turns faster, slipping past the surface of the workpiece at the
point of contact and removing chips of material as it passes
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