Industrial Control System Czemplik PDF

Industrial
Control System
Instrumentation of a technological process
dr in. Anna Czemplik

(na prawach rkopisu)
1
Introduction
Industrial Control System (ICS) usually performs the following tasks:

1) an instrumentation of a technological process
2) a data acquisition and a process control
3) a data transfer
4) human-machine interface (HMI)
These tasks correspond to the following subsystems of ICS:

I. measuring devices and actuators
II. field devices
III. a communication infrastructure
IV. supervisory computers (a complex system)
2
Contents
The main topics:

I. Measurement devices
II. Actuating elements
}
15 hours
III. Field devices - controllers

IV. Communication networks
V. SCADA & DCS
} 15 hours
What is it? Definition

How does it work? Principle of operation
Main features
3
Topics
Ia. Sensors
Ia-1. Thermometers: a) Expansion thermometer; b) Pressure spring thermometer; c) Resistance thermometer; d) Thermoelectric thermometer;
e) Optical thermometer. Selection of thermometer and measuring circuit
Ia-2. Displacement and force sensors: a) Resistance displacement sensor; b) Piezoelectric displacement sensor; c) Piezomagnetic
displacement sensor; d) Inductive displacement sensor; e) Capacitive displacement sensor; f) Hall effect displacement sensor
Ia-3. Manometer: a) Hydrostatic manometer; b) Hydraulic manometer; c) Elastic manometer; d) Electronic manometer (strain gauge, inductive,
capacitive); e) Manometer with a force sensor. Selection of manometer
Ia-4. Level indicator: a) Water-level indicator; b) Float level gauge: c) Hydrostatic level gauge; d) Displacer level gauge; e) Ultrasonic level
gauge; f) Radar level gauge; h) Another l.g. (capacitive, eletrical, thermometer). Selection of level gauge
Ia-5 Flowmeter: a) Differential pressure flowmeter; b) Rotameter; c) Velocity-type flowmeter; d) Positive displacement flowmeter; e) Inductive
flowmeter; f) Ultrasonic flowmeter; g) Calorimetric flowmeter; h) Vortex flowmeter; i) Coriolis flowmeter; j) Open channel flowmeter. Selection of
flow meter
Ia-6. Speed: a) Tachometer; b) Digital speed sensor
Ia-7. Relays: a) Non electrical relays; b) Electrical relays and switches
Ia-8. Physico-chemical properties: a) pH meter, ...
Ia. Sensor selection
Ib. Converters
Ib-1. Measuring converters types and selection
Ib-3. Separating converters
Ib-4. Analog-to-digital converters
Ib-5. Digital-to-analog converters
Measuring devices; Instrumentation and control tag
IIa. Final control element
IIa-1. Valves
IIa-2. Pumps
IIb. Actuators
IIb-1. Pneumatic actuator
IIb-3. Electric actuator - Electric motors: a) Brushed DC electric motor; b) Synchronous motor; c) Inductive motor 4
Electro-mechanical drive system
Fundamental definitions
Block diagram of a control system
supervisor system
communication system
controller
A/D D/A
converter control devices converter
measuring actuator
converter (actuating driver)
measurement actuating
devices sensor final control equipment
(sensing element) element
plant
5
Part I. Measurement devices
a) Sensors
1 - temperature, c
supervisor system
2 - displacement, communication system
3 - pressure, controller
4 - level, A/D D/A
converter converter
5 - flow,
6 - rotational speed, measuring actuator
7 - relays, converter (actuating driver)
8 - electrochemical sensor final control

b) Converters (sensing element) element
1 - measuring, plant
2 - signaling,
3 - separating,
4 - A/D,
5 - D/A
c) Control engineering design
I. Measuring devices/ 6
Ia. Sensors
Sensor (transducer, measuring converter) - a device that converts a physical (chemical,

biological, ...) quantity into another signal (usually an electric signal). There are many
types of sensors base on different principles.
Measurement of a basic physical quantity:

1) temperature
2) displacement and force (also stress, strain)
3) pressure (also pressure difference) }
force-related measurement
4) level (also volume)
5) flow }amount-related measurement
6) rotational speed
and another:
7) relays (two-stage transducer)
8) electrochemical transducer
More: http://www.omega.com/literature/transactions/
http://www.sensorland.com/
Ia. Measuring devices/ 7
Ia-1a. Expansion thermometer
Principle: Thermal expansion of liquids or solid bodies

liquid-in-glass mechanical
e.g. mercury-in-gas thermometer bi-metallic
or alcohol thermometer elongation-type
The difference in thermal expansion in the two metals

leads to a difference of lenght or to a twist of element
in proportion to the temperature
With increasing temperature,

the volume of liquid expands
and the meniscus moves up the capillary.

Ia-1b. Pressure spring thermometer
(gas thermometer)
Principle: The relation between temperature and pressure in a constant volume
Types:
liquid filled (mercury, ethyl alcohol, ...)
gas filled (nitrogen, argon, helium)
vapor pressure (volatile liquid)
manometer
(spring-type pressure gauge)
capillary
thermometric
bulb
The bulb is immersed in a heated substance.

The liquid (gas) expands causing the pressure spring to unwind.

Ia-1c. Resistance thermometer
Principle: Temperature dependence of resistance

metallic Pt 100, Ni 100 (i.e. 0C = 100 )
bifilar winding of metallic t.
platinum
nickel R
copper
Metal resistance increases under the influence of temperature PTC
thermistor (semiconductor)
NTC, PTC, CTC NTC
platinum
ceramic T
PTC
Temperature dependence of resistance
Ia-1d. Thermoelectric thermometer
(thermocouple, thermoelement)
Principle: Thermoelectric effect - if junctions of two different metal have a different
temperatures than a voltage is generated.
metal A E 1) Fe-konstantan
[mV] 2) NiCr Ni
T1 T2 3) PtRh - Pt
1
metal B
2
E=f(T1-T2)
3
C
measuring junction connecting
(hot junction) head 500 1000 1500
The construction of joint and shield Ia. Measuring devices/ 11

Ia-1e. Optical thermometer
(pyrometer)
Principle: Measurement of thermal radiation emitted by any matter with a temperature
greater than 0K
global radiation
monochromatic
two-colour
Measuring area
Non-contacting measurement
based on an optical system and a detector

Ia-1. Selection of thermometer
(The main selection criteria)
1) Temperature range: 0 C
expansion -200 500
pressure spring -50 700
resistance -270 900
thermoelectric -100 1600
optical 400
2700
2) Contact or non-contact

Ia-1. Measuring circuit
for the resistance thermometer
R1 R2
2-wire circuit
Uz R0 Rw Rt
The connecting wiring
are added to
R3 connecting wiring
the measured resistance
R1 R2
3-wire circuit
Uz R0 Rw Rt
The connecting wiring
connecting wiring occur in
R3 two legs of the bridge

Ia-1. Measuring circuit
for the thermoelectric t.
Simple circuit
cold junction
hot
e t0
junction
R1 R2
mV
Rt R3
Uz
Circuit with the cold junction compensation
A e3 C
e1 cold junctions
hot
junction B A C
e2 e4 mV
t0
thermostat e=e1-e2 (e2=const), e3 = - e4 Ia. Measuring devices/ 15
Ia-2. Displacement and force sensors
Measurements of displacement (position) and force are similar on account of that the
displacement is a result of some force.
The force-related measurements contain a wide gamut of sensors for measuring:

stress (calculated by dividing the force applied by the unit area)
strain (defined as the deformation per unit length)
weight (the force on the object due to gravity)
acceleration (accompanied by a force)
torque (moment of force)
pressure (by definition the force per unit area)

Ia-2a. Resistance displacement sensor
Principle: The resistance depends on the geometry of the resistor (and the resistivity of
the material)
potentiometer
The linear or angular motion of a wiper
linear l is converted into a changing resistance of potentiometer
rotary
R=rl R=r
strain gauge
l The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable

adhesive. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed,
causing its electrical resistance to change.

Ia-2b. Piezoelectric displacement sensor
Principle: Piezoelectric effect - some materials (e.g. quartz) generate a voltage under
influence of a mechanical stress.
In most cases, the same element can be used as:

piezo sensor that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy (it is referred to as "generators)
piezo actuators that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy (it is referred to as "motors)
disk compressed: disk stretched: applied voltage applied voltage

polarization generated voltage generated voltage has the same polarity has polarity opposite
has the same polarity has polarity opposite as poling voltage: that of poling voltage:
as poling voltage that of poling voltage disk lengthens disk shortens
[http://www.americanpiezo.com/knowledge-center/piezo-theory/piezoelectricity.html]

Ia-2c. Piezomagnetic displacement sensor
Principle: Mechanical strain has an influence on a magnetization of ferromagnetic

materials
coil sensor
F Measurement of inductance
transformer-type sensor
Measurement of current in the secondary circuit
mA consisting of two push-pull winding
F (a differential measurement)

Ia-2d. Inductive displacement sensor
Principle: Displacement of a part of core involves changes in inductance

coil sensor 1) Measurement of inductance
differential coil sensor
2) Measurement of eddy current

(eddy current linear encoder)
s s

Ls0W2/
The target is part of magnetic circuit

transformer-type sensor differential transformer-type sensor

The primary winding are energised with a
1 x constant amplitude A.C. supply. This
produces an alternating magnetic field in the
2 2 x core and induces a signal into the secondary
3 winding (2,3) depending on the position of
U2 the core.

Ia-2e. Capacitive displacement sensor
Principle: Displacement of a capacitor plate involves changes in capacity
parallel-plate c. rotary c. cylindrical c.
x
x
differential parallel-plate c.
Target
Sensor The target is one plate of the capacitor

x
Ia-2f. Hall effect displacement sensor
Principle: Hall effect an electric current in the conductor placed in a magnetic field
causes a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
N -
UH=kIB
I+ x UH
S
The Hall voltage is developed between the two

edges of a current-carrying conductor whose faces
are perpendicular to an applied current flow.

Ia-3a. Hydrostatic manometer
(Hydrostatic pressure gauge)
Principle: Hydrostatic equilibrium between the pressure and the hydrostatic force per
unit area at the base of a column of fluid
U-tube float sensor
(U-pipe)
p
p1 p2
h
1
2
The pressure causes a change of liquid
p1-p2=gh(1-2) level and the float transfers it to an
indicator
The pressure is indicated by the difference in levels in
the two arms of the tube
Pipes and tubes are not the same

Pipe: The purpose with a pipe is the transport of a fluid like water, oil or similar, and the most import property is the capacity or the inside
diameter.
Tube: The nominal dimensions of tubes are based on the outside diameter. The inside diameter of a tube will depend on the thickness of the
tube. The thickness is often specified as a gauge. Ia. Measuring devices/ 23
Ia-3b. Hydraulic manometer
(Hydraulic pressure gauge)
Principle: Hydraulic equilibrium of the pressure and another force
bell pressure gauge

piston pressure gauge (bell-type manometer)
The balance the
force of pressure
y and bouyant force
p
p
p1 p2
p cy+mg=pA
ring differential manometer
The force of pressure (ring balance)
is in balance with the spring p1
p1 p2
p2
p2
p1-p2=gh
Ia-3c. Elastic manometer
(Spring-type pressure gauge)
Principle: Equilibrium of the pressure and a spring force
Bourdon tube
diaphragm pressure gauge
(tube pressure gauge,
spiral pressure gauge)
bellows pressure gauge
p
The curved tube is open to external p p
pressure input on one end and is
coupled mechanically to an indicating Sensor uses the deflection
needle on the other end. The external of a flexible membrane The bellows is stretched on
pressure is guided into the tube and that separates regions of pressure influence
causes it to flex. different pressure

Ia-3d. Electronic manometer
Principle: Conversion the pressure to a displacement or a mechanical stress and next an

electric measurement of this displacement. Displacement sensors and manometers
differ in a process connection
strain gauge (measurement of resistance)
inductive (measurement of inductance)
capacitive (measurement of capacity) differential capacitive
p2 p1
p
Differential manometer with

an elastic membrane is a
double capacitor

Ia-3e. Manometer with a force sensor
Principle: Conversion the pressure to a force or a strain and next an electric

measurement this parameter.
with piezoresistive with piezoelectric sensor

strain gauge with strain gauge
with strain gauge

Ia-3. Selection of manometer
1) Type of measured pressure
absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to
gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to
absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
2) Compromise between an accuracy and susceptibility to overload
3) Inertia measurement of slow/fast pressure changes
4) Process connection 1 2
A 1 2 A
h2-h1 h2-h1
h2 h2
h1 h1
p1=p2 p1>p2
h2-h1 the pressure arisen from a liquid flow
Assumption: no pipe resistance
Ia-4a. Water-level indicator
Principle: Communicating vessels
glass level gauge magnetic level indicator

(tubular level gauge)
It is perfect for high temperature and pressure

applications in case sight glasses and indicating
glass parts cannot be used for safety reasons

Ia-4b. Float level gauge
Principle: Liquid level float is buoyant in liquid and indicates the level
inductive
Float causes a displacement

of a coil core
resistance
Float moves
on a linear resistor

Ia-4c. Hydrostatic level gauge
(Manometric level gauge)
Principle: The static pressure in the bottom is proportional to the liquid column in the tank
patm The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid

depends upon the density of the liquid and the
distance below the surface of the liquid
h1 plus any pressure acting on the surface of the
liquid
P
P=p1-patm
P=gh
bell-type capacitive

Ia-4d. Displacer level gauge
(Buoyancy transmitter)
Principle: Archimedes' Principle - a body which is completely or partially submerged in
a fluid experiences an upward force (the buoyant force)
Weighing of Buoyant force moves a coil core

the displacer element and changes its inductance
Sensor
Intelligent level transmitters based on without
Archimedes buoyancy principle are chamber
designed to measure liquid level,
interface and density. Sensor
in a side-and-bottom chamber
Ia-4e. Ultrasonic level gauge
Principle: Reflection of high frequency acoustic waves
The sensors emit waves (20 kHz to 200 kHz) that are reflected
back to and detected by the emitting transducer. The elapsed time
period between transmission and reception of the signal - at the
speed of sound - is measured and calculated as a distance and
computed into level or volume.
In order to improve the accuracy of

measurement it is important to take into
account a moisture, temperature, and
pressure changing speed of sound.
Example applications

Ia-4f. Radar level gauge
(Microwave sensor)
Principle: Reflection of microwaves
The sensors emit waves (1 GHz to 30 GHz ) and measure the time
period between transmission and reception of the signal.
Speed of microwave is independent of moist,

vaporous, dusty, and temperature environments

Ia-4h. Another level gauge
Principle: Property of sounder depends on its draught in liquid
Capacitive l.g.
Sounder is a long capacitor and his capacity depends on draught
Electrical variable-resistance l.g.

Sounder is a superconductor and his resistance
depends on draught in a low temperature liquid
Thermometer level gauge

Draught cools the measuring element, e.g. the resistance thermometer

Ia-4. Selection of level gauge
(the main selection criteria)
1) Type of medium (phase): liquid, solid or slurry
2) Properties of medium, e.g. dielectric constant, density
3) Conditions of measurement, e.g. temperature, pressure (or vacuum)

Ia-5a. Differential pressure flowmeter
(Orifice flowmeter)
Principle: Bernoullis principle an obstruction inserted in the flow causes a pressure
drop proportional to the square flow speed.
orifice plate
p
Pressure sensor measures the differential pressure before and within the constriction
flow nozzle Venturi tube
(Venturi meter)
Nozzle and tube offer advantages over orifice plates in that they require less
upstream piping and incur lower permanent pressure loss. Ia. Measuring devices/ 37
Ia-5b. Rotameter
Principle: Balance between the flowing force and the weight of the float
The rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a larger
end at the top.
The substance flows through the meter vertically from bottom to top and lifts the
float proportionally to the flow quantity.
plastic
metal
glass
Ia-5c. Velocity-type flowmeter
(Rotating meter)
Principle: The fluid flow actuates the movement of blades, screw or turbine-type impeller
proportionally to flow rate.
blade f.
screw f.
counter The flow is calculated by counter
measuring and integrating
the flow speed over the
flow area
1 2 impeller impeller
turbine f.

Ia-5d. Positive displacement flowmeter
Principle: Counting repeatedly the filling and discharging of known fixed volumes
A typical positive displacement flowmeter comprises a chamber that obstructs the
flow. Inside the chamber, a rotating/reciprocating mechanical unit is placed to
create fixed-volume discrete parcels from the passing fluid.
piston
four-way
valve
Piston is operated to fill a cylinder with the fluid
and then discharge the fluid. Each stroke
represents a finite measurement of the fluid
See also: http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/flowmeters/flowmeter_pd.cfm Ia. Measuring devices/ 40

Ia-5e. Inductive flowmeter
(electromagnetive)
Principle: Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction - when a conductor moves through
a magnetic field then a voltage will be induced
electromagnet
electrode
The liquid serves as the conductor and the

magnetic field is created by energized coils
outside the flow tube. The inducted voltage is
detected with the aid of an electrode.
It can only be used for electrical conductive fluids as water.

Ia-5f. Ultrasonic flowmeter
(Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeter)
Principle: Doppler effect - The frequency of the reflected signal is modified by the
velocity and direction of the fluid flow
scheme
Z V
By measuring the frequency shift between the

ultrasonic frequency source, the receiver, and the
fluid carrier, the relative motion are measured.
Doppler meters may be used where other meters don't work.

It can be installed outside the pipes (do not obstruct the flow )
It is sensitive to changes in density and temperature the fluid.

Ia-5g. Calorimetric flowmeter
Principle: Intensity of cooling depend on the flow rate of the fluid
Two temperature sensors are in close contact with the fluid but thermal insulated from each
other. The flowing fluid cools both sensors but one of the two sensors is constantly heated.
The temperature difference between the two sensors is proportional to the flow rate.

Ia-5h. Vortex flowmeter
Principle: Karman effect - an obstruction in a fluid flow creates vortices in a downstream

flow
Vortices cause a local disturbance of pressure

detected by the sensor. Frequency of vortices is
proportional to the flow rate
Karman vortex street
Animation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vortex-street-animation.gif Ia. Measuring devices/ 44

Ia-5i. Coriolis flowmeter
Principle: Coriolis effect -

It is a direct measurement mass (not sensitive to changes in pressure, temperature, viscosity and density )
The fluid runs through a U-shaped

tube that is caused to vibrate in an
angular harmonic oscillation. Due
to the Coriolis forces, an
additional vibration arise that
deform the tube
Animation: http://www.emersonprocess.com/micromotion/tutor/42_densityoperatingprincipal.htm
Ia-5j. Open channel flowmeter
Principle: An obstruction inserted in the flow causes a backwater
A common method of measuring flow through an open channel is to

measure the height of the liquid as it passes over an obstruction as a
weir or flume in the channel.
Common used obstruction types:
the sharp-crested weir,
the V-notch weir,
the Cipolletti weir,
the rectangular-notch weir,
the Parshall flume
Venturi flume.
sharp-crested weir V-notch weir Venturi flume

c

Ia-5. Selection of flow meter
1) If the flowrate information should be continuous or totalized?
2) Type of medium: steam, gas, liquid
3) Properties of medium: viscosity (Reynolds number), density
4) Conditions of measurement, e.g. pressure, temperature

5) Unit
m3/s (volumetric flow rate, volume flow rate, rate of fluid flow, volume velocity)
kg/s (mass flow rate)

Ia-6a. Tachometer
(Rate generator)
Principle: A small ac/dc generator that develops an output voltage proportional to its rpm
The rotor of the tachometer is mechanically connected, directly or indirectly, to the load .
dc generator ac generator
U1
Uzasil eg
eg
1
The dc rate generator often has The ac rate generator field is excited
permanent magnetic field excitation. by a constant ac supply
The phase or polarity of output voltage (eg) depends on the rotor's direction of rotation

Ia-6b. Digital speed sensor
Principle: A pulse generator plus a pulse counter
photoelectric transformer-type
fn

fn
fz Uz
relay-type magnetoresitive
.
(rotational speed
(reed swich)
sensor) S N
NS

Ia-7a. Non electrical relays
(Two-stage transducers)
Principle: Overflow of a definite input value causes an abrupt change of output value
(usually closure of contacts used e.g. to direct control)
Measurement sensors used to a detection of only two-stage.
liquid level switch, e.g.
- vibrating fork liquid level switch (submergence, filling) - float switch (exceeding the level)
pressure rise relay, e.g.

U-tube (mercury join contacts after the overflow of pressure)
temperature rise relay, e.g.
- bimetallic switch (overflow of temperature)
acoustic
- microphone (detection of sound intensity, frequency)
light-, ...
- photodiode, photoresistor (proximity detector )
Ia-7b. Electrical relays and switches
Principle: Relay - overflow of a definite input value causes a closure of contacts

Switch is operated by the motion of a machine part or presence of an object
electrical activated device
reed switch
N S N S
N S
close relation turn tern
tern
limit switch

Ia-8. Physico-chemical properties
The main type of measurement:
a) pH pH meter
b) redox potential (oxidation/reduction potential, ORP) ORP meter
c) humidity hygrometer
d) oxygen (proportion of O2 in the gas or liquid ) oxygen meter, lambda sensor
e) conductivity conductometer
f) suspension densitometer, suspension turbidity meter
g) water hardness
h) concentration refractometer
....

Ia-8a. pH meter
Principle: The measurement bases on an electrode made of a doped glass membrane

that is sensitive to a specific ion 10-14 10-7 100 mol/l
- concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) 14 7 0 pH
- in practice from 10mol/l to 10-15 mol/l
basic solution H2O acidic solution
A typical pH probe consists of a

combination electrode, which combines
both the glass and reference electrodes
into one body. The probe produces a
small voltage (about 0.06 volt per pH
unit) that is measured and displayed as
pH units by the meter
The ph meter requires a cleaning and a frequent calibration

because the glass electrode does not give
a reproducible e.m.f. over longer periods of time Ia. Measuring devices/ 53
Ia. Sensor selection
The main directions
Procedure of the sensor selection:
1) statement of the main requirements for sensor
2) review of available sensors from the point of view of fulfilment of requirements
Requirements:
measurement value (temperature, pressure, ..)
range
accuracy class
mounting of the instrument (process connection, location)
frequency response
environmental condition (e.g. Ex, dustiness, moisture)
operational reliability (e.g. periodical calibration)
dimensions, weight
complexity of additional equipment
qualification of service staff (method of calibration or programming)
price of sensor and an additional apparatus
resolution of the measured signal

Ib. Converters
Definition and classification
Classification of converters according to function:
1) measuring
conversion of a sensor signal into a standard signal
typical electric standard signals: 0-5mA, 0-10mA, 0-20mA, 4-20mA, 0-10V
2) signaling
matching circut - exchange of one standard to another
current-current, voltage-voltage, current-voltage, voltage-current, current-
pressure (intersystem converter);
3) separating
assurance of the galvanic isolation between functional sections of system
the same standard of input and output and the gain equal 1
4) analog-to-digital converter (ADC, A/D, A to D)
conversion a continuous quantity to a discrete time representation in digital form
typically the digital output is a twos complement binary number
5) digital-to-analog converter (DAC, D/A, D to A)
conversion of a digital (usually binary) code to an analog signal (current, voltage
or electric charge)
Ib. Measuring devices/ 55

Ib-1. Measuring converters
a sensor signal to the standard signal
According to input value:

converter of force, voltage, resistance, pressure
According to principle of operation:
parametric, generating
According to construction (electric circuit)
open circuit (without a feedback)
close circuit (with a feedback)
According to modulation of output signal:
a) modulation of direct current level
b) frequency modulation
c) discrete output with modulation pulse-width (PWM)

Ib-1a. Measuring converters
with modulation of direct current level
Examples:
measuring converter of a resistance measuring converter of a small voltage
Iout
Us
Rs Us
Us
Rb Rr Rb Rr
Rf Rf
Rs resistance of sensor; Us voltage of sensor

Rb balancing resistance of the circuit; Rf feedback resistance; Rr receiver
Ib-1b. Measuring converters
with frequency modulation
Types:
generating
modulating
tachometer generator
digital speed measurement

} position-type
oscillatory with a forced vibration
oscillatory with a free vibration

in out 1 F
MC OS Cout f =
2 ml
F
AC A
l
MC matching, AC activation string-type converter

OS - oscillatory system (the force F into the frequency f)
Cout output converter
Ib-1c. Measuring converters
with pulse-width modulation
Example:
T
UA
Uout
UX
ULG
ULG U
LG C UX
UA
UC
Uout
ti
LG linear generator (g. of linear signal)
UA activation; C - comparator
Ux input voltage
Uout output voltage
Ib-1. Measuring converter selection
The main directions
Requirements:
a suitable static characteristic (linear or non-linear)
stability of characteristic
a small conversion error (e.g.<1%)
no hysteresis
galvanic separation of input and output circuits
easy modification of conversion range
low level of noise
small influence onto the source of signal
low sensitivity to a change of load
dynamic properties (time response, pass band)
service conditions

galvanic separation
Disturbing signals:
serial voltages
result of a inductive coupling between two wires
primarily frequency of 50Hz and 100Hz
Suppression with the help of low-pass filter
passing the measured signal (frequency <10Hz)
parallel voltages measuring

result of a ground loop sensor converter
frequency of 50Hz5kHz,
high voltages, constant component
Suppression with the help of galvanic separation RA RB CB

UR

galvanic separation
Application of galvanic separation
2
I1 200
UP U I 200
4
I I
sys 1 100
I2 6
UP U I
I I 200 5
200 3
Realization of galvanic separation

transformer-type
optoelectronic
GZ
Iin
xin xout
= = Iout
M TO D Ib. Measuring devices/ 62
Ib-4. Analog-to-digital converters
A/D
Conversion process
u(t) Sampling u[k] Quantization Encoding
Analog signal Sampled-date signal Discrete time
(continues in both (discrete in time and Digital signal
discrete amplitude
time and amplitude) continues in amplitude)
signal
Ux
Parameters of A/D converter:
range of input signal
resolution (bits) - quantization error (%)
10 bits = 210 = 1024 qantums= 0,1%
12 bits = 212 = 4096 qantums = 0,025%
sampling rate (sampling frequency) t
conversion time (for one sample)
If a single converter services n inputs, than sampling rate = 1 / (n*conversion time)
Minimum of sampling rate (Shannon-Kotielnikov sampling theorem*)

- theoretically: fs >= 2fw fs sampling rate,
- practically: fs >= 2fb, (fb=10fw) fx the highest frequency of the original signal
fb used pass band (gain>=0.7)
*Shannon-Kotelnikov, WhittakerNyquistKotelnikovShannon Ib. Measuring devices/ 63
Ib-4a. Analog-to-digital converters
Types
Integrating ADC (dual slope ADC)
Ux
U1
Uw U1
K U2 U3 L
T1 T2 t
US GW U2
U t
Nx = Nmax x U3
Uw
Nmax Nx t
Ux Uw
T1 T2 Ib. Measuring devices/ 64

Ib-4b. Analog-to-digital converters
Types
ramp-compare ADC frequency-type ADC
c
U fx Nx
Forming Gate Counter
UX frequency
input
Controler Cancel
Uout counting fx
Pulse generator
t for a determinate
ti time period
a direct-conversion ADC (flash ADC)

a successive-approximation ADC
a delta-encoded ADC or counter-ramp
a pipeline ADC (a subranging quantizer)
a sigma-delta ADC (a delta-sigma ADC)
a time-interleaved ADC
an ADC with intermediate FM stage
...
Ib-5. Digital-to-analog converters
DAC
In: number X= X020 + X121 + ... + Xn2n if Xi=1 then switch=1 Out: signal Uout
weigh-resistive
U 21R 2iR
21R 22R 2iR
U Uout
1 1 1 22R Uout
0 X0 0 X1 0 Xi
voltage ladder
U
2R 2R
2R 2R 2R 2R
Uout
U
2R 2R
1 1 1 Uout
0 X0 0 X1 0 Xi
...

Ic. Measuring devices
classical measuring transducer (converter)

= sensor [+ measuring converter]
A controller
D
sensor. measuring c. separating c. A/D
intelligent measuring transducer (converter)

= sensor + separator + ADC + uP = communication port
A P controller
D
sensor communication port
Ic. Measuring devices/ 67

Ic. Instrumentation and control tag
Graphical symbols and identifying letters in control engineering design
process parameter D density

F flow rate
function: R - recording G distance, length, position
I - indication L level
C - control P pressure
A - alarm Q material properties
T temperature
W velocity, mass
H alarm
TRCA specification
154
TRCA programmable TRCA configurable
154 device 154 device
For further details, see DIN 19227

More: http://www.samson.deServicesTechnical Information Ic. Measuring devices/ 68
Ic. Instrumentation and control tag
Standards
US Standards:
ANSI Y32.2.3 Graphical Symbols for Pipe Fittings, Valves and Piping
ANSI Y32.2.11 Graphical Symbols for Process Flow Diagrams
ISA 5.5 Graphical Symbols for Process Displays
British Standards:
BS: 1646 1-4 Symbolic Representation for Process Measurement, Control
Function and Instrumentation
German Standards:
DIN 19227 P1-P3 Graphical Symbols and Identifying Letters for Process
Measurement and Control Functions
Polish Standards:
PN-M-42007 (archive)
More: http://enormy.pl
http://www.samson.deServicesTechnical Information Ic. Measuring devices/ 69
Part II. Actuating equipment
c
supervisor system
II. Actuating equipment communication system
a) Final control element controller
1 valve A/D D/A
converter converter
2 - pump
b) Actuator measuring actuator
1 - electrical motors converter (actuating driver)
controling
2 - pneumatic actuator system
sensor final control
3 - hydraulic actuator (sensing element) element
plant
controlled system
Examples:
Actuating equipment (final control equipment): Control valve:
- final control element - valve (closure element, body of valve)
- actuator - actuating driver
- positioner (measuring element)
Body of valve manipulates the mass and energy flow.
The opening or closing of control valve is usually done by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic actuator.
Positioner is used to control the opening or closing of the actuator based on electric, or pneumatic signals.
IIa. Actuating equipment/ 70
IIa. Final control element
Final control element a part of the controlled system that manipulates the mass and
energy flow.
Basic type of final control element:
1) valves 2) pumps
Classification valves according to function: Classification pumps according to principle of operation:

control valve positive displacement pump
throttling (choke) valve impulse pump
gate (sluice) valve velocity pump
safety-valve gravity pump
reflux valve
Classification valves according to construction:

ball (globe)
rotary (butterfly)
knife
neadle
flap

IIa-1. Valves
Valve a device that manipulates the mass flow on basis of a throttling.

ball valve V-port ball valve
(globe valve) (V-notch valve; a segmented ball valve )
Inside a spherical disc Inside a spherical disc with a notch
Features: simplicity, sealing Features: simplicity, sealing, precise control
butterfly valve
(quarter-turn valve) knife gate valve
Inside a metal disc mounted on a rod
and positioned in the center of the pipe
Features: low cost, light
More: http://www.valtorc.comValves IIa. Actuating equipment/ 72

IIa-2. Pumps
Pomp a device used to move fluids (liquids, gases, slurries) by mechanical actions
(often a reciprocating or rotary mechanism).
positive displacement pump velocity pump
(rotodynamic pump, dynamic pump)
The pump moves a fluid by trapping a fixed The pump increases the flow velocity thereby
amount of it and then forcing (displacing) that kinetic energy and this energy is converted to
trapped volume into the discharge pipe pressure
screw centrifugal
lobe
Operation under closed valve conditions

The positive displacement pump physically displaces the fluid The velocity pump can be safely operated
resulting in a continual build up in pressure and finally under closed valve conditions
mechanical failure of either pipeline or pump
impulse pump
The pump use pressure created by gas (usually air) and pushing part of the liquid upwards
IIb. Actuators
(effectors, servomotor)
Actuator - a type of motor for moving or controlling a mechanism (final control element).
It is operated by a source of energy (an electric current, hydraulic fluid pressure,
pneumatic pressure) and converts this energy into some kind of motion.
Actuator processes and amplifies the output signal of controller
Basic type of actuator:

1) pneumatic actuator
2) hydraulic actuator
3) motor-driven actuator (electrical servomotors)
Actuators are also known as:

effectors (in robotics)
servomotor linear actuator, rotary actuator
IIb. Actuating equipment/ 74

IIb-1. Pneumatic actuator
Principle: Pneumatic actuator converts energy of compressed air into a mechanical motion
diaphragm actuator bellow actuator
Actuator that has a chamber divided in half by a

diaphragm that separates areas with different
Self-acting thermostatic actuator
pressure levels.
(e.g. used for temperature control)
pneumatic cylinder More: http://heating.danfoss.com

IIb-3. Electric actuator
Definitions:
actuator - a device converting a low-power signal into a large-force displacement
(linear or rotary )
motor a device converting a heat, electrical energy, mechanical energy into energy
to drive machines (usually electrical energy into energy of rotational motion)
Actuator Motor
a large force a small torque
a small velocity a high velocity
Electric actuator (servomotor):

a) an electric motor + a gear
b) an electric motor giving a suitable displacement (e.g. stepper motor)

IIb-3. Electric motors
General principle: Lorentz force - any current-carrying conductor placed within an

external magnetic field experiences a torque or force
Classification:
stator
rotor
[http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_2/chpt_13/1.html]
IIb-3a. Brushed DC electric motor
Principle: Stator with a stationary magnets and the rotor powered from a DC power by
brushes and commutator.
Magnetic fields of the stator and the rotor interact and a generated torque causes a turn of the rotor.
The commutator consisted of a split ring reverses the current each half turn of the rotor.
permanent magnets electromagnets
+ - + - + + -
brushes M N S M M M
-
series m. shunt m. separately excited m.
The type of connection determines the characteristics of the motor
Control:
- the sense of rotation depends on the polarity of the excitation winding control by change of the polarity
- the rotational speed is proportional to the EMF in its coil - control by variable supply voltage, resistors or
electronic controls (e.g. PWM)
- the torque is proportional to the current
Advantages: low initial cost, high reliability, simple control of motor speed
Disadvantanges: sparking and wear of the electric contact commutator-brushes IIb. Actuating equipment/ 78
IIb-3b. Synchronous motor
Principle: Rotor with a stationary magnets and the stator powered from the AC power
and generating a rotating magnetic field.
Electromagnets on the stator create the magnetic field which rotates in time with the oscillations of the
line current and the rotor turns in step with this field, at the same rate (the motor speed is synchronized
with the frequency the AC supply current )
three-phase s.m. single phase s.m. stepper m.
M M
N
S
Control:
- sense of rotation depends on the direction of rotating magnetic field control by change of the phase order
- motor speed is synchronized with the supply frequency control by a variable-frequency driver
Advantages: speed independent of the load,

accurate control in speed and position for stepper motor
Disadvantanges: above a certain size, synchronous motors are not self-starting motors
IIb-3c. Inductive motor
(asynchronous motor)
Principle: Rotor contained no powered circuit and the stator powered from the AC power
and generating a rotating magnetic field.
Electromagnets on the stator create the rotating magnetic field which induces an electric current in the
windings of rotor. Interaction between magnetic fields of stator and rotor produces a torque. The rotor
rotates at a slower speed than the stator field
squirrel-cage rotor induction motor wound-rotor induction motor
Windings of rotor in the form of cage (poured Windings of rotor brought out via slip rings and
or welded) brushes which allows to connect a resistance during
start-up and to short-circuit windings during work.
Control:
- sense of rotation depends on the direction of rotating magnetic field control by change of the phase order
- motor speed is proportional to supply frequency control by a variable-frequency driver.
Advantages: ruggedness, simplicity, 90% of industrial motors are induction m. (mainly the squirrel-cage rotor)
Disadvantanges: hard starting (it is accompanied by inrush currents up to 7 times higher than running current)
V
V
Starting with:
star-delta switch
motor soft starter M
M
U W U W IIb. Actuating equipment/ 80
IIb-3. Electro-mechanical drive system
A variable-frequency drive (VFD)

(adjustable-frequency drive, variable-speed drive, AC drive, micro drive, inverter drive)
- a type of adjustable-speed driver used to control AC motor speed and torque by
varying motor input frequency and voltage
electronic - frequency converter (frequency changer)
electromechanical = motor + generator
A motor soft starter

- a device used with AC electric motors to temporarily reduce the load and torque in the
powertrain of the motor during startup. This reduces the mechanical stress on the motor
and shaft, as well as the electrodynamic stresses on the attached power cables and
electrical distribution network, extending the lifespan of the system

Contents
The main topics:

} 15 hours
------------------------------------------
I. Field devices - controllers
II. Communication networks
III. SCADA & DCS
} 15 hours
82

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Industrial

dr in. Anna Czemplik

Industrial Control System (ICS) usually performs the following tasks:

These tasks correspond to the following subsystems of ICS:

The main topics:

III. Field devices - controllers

What is it? Definition

8 - electrochemical sensor final control

Sensor (transducer, measuring converter) - a device that converts a physical (chemical,

Measurement of a basic physical quantity:

Principle: Thermal expansion of liquids or solid bodies

The difference in thermal expansion in the two metals

With increasing temperature,

Ia. Measuring devices/ 8

The bulb is immersed in a heated substance.

Ia. Measuring devices/ 9

Principle: Temperature dependence of resistance

bifilar winding of metallic t.

The construction of joint and shield Ia. Measuring devices/ 11

Ia. Measuring devices/ 12

Ia. Measuring devices/ 13

Ia. Measuring devices/ 14

The force-related measurements contain a wide gamut of sensors for measuring:

Ia. Measuring devices/ 16

l The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable

Ia. Measuring devices/ 17

In most cases, the same element can be used as:

disk compressed: disk stretched: applied voltage applied voltage

Ia. Measuring devices/ 18

Principle: Mechanical strain has an influence on a magnetization of ferromagnetic

Ia. Measuring devices/ 19

Principle: Displacement of a part of core involves changes in inductance

The target is part of magnetic circuit

Ia. Measuring devices/ 20

Principle: Displacement of a capacitor plate involves changes in capacity

parallel-plate c. rotary c. cylindrical c.

Sensor The target is one plate of the capacitor

The Hall voltage is developed between the two

Ia. Measuring devices/ 22

Pipes and tubes are not the same

bell pressure gauge

Ia. Measuring devices/ 25

Principle: Conversion the pressure to a displacement or a mechanical stress and next an

Differential manometer with

Ia. Measuring devices/ 26

Principle: Conversion the pressure to a force or a strain and next an electric

with piezoresistive with piezoelectric sensor

with strain gauge

Principle: Communicating vessels

glass level gauge magnetic level indicator

It is perfect for high temperature and pressure

Ia. Measuring devices/ 29

Float causes a displacement

Ia. Measuring devices/ 30

patm The pressure at a given depth in a static liquid

Ia. Measuring devices/ 31

Weighing of Buoyant force moves a coil core

Principle: Reflection of high frequency acoustic waves

In order to improve the accuracy of

Ia. Measuring devices/ 33

Speed of microwave is independent of moist,

Ia. Measuring devices/ 34

Principle: Property of sounder depends on its draught in liquid