Role of livestock in lively hood security and maintenance of

ecological balance vis a vis strategic action plan and framework

towards prevention and mitigation of desertification and land
degradation
S. K. Sankhyan and S M K Naqvi
ICAR- Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute,
Avikanagar- 304501

Rajasthan with geographical area of 342239 square km has predominantly

hot semiarid and arid agro-climatic conditions. Out of the total geographical
area, 45.3 % landmass is put to cultivation, 14.6 % culturable waste land, 7.7 %
current fallow land, 7.3 % fallow land/other current fallow land, 7.5 % forestland,
7.5 % barren un-culturable land, 5.1 % area under non-agricultural use and 5.0 %
permanent pasture and other grazing land. The Climate of the state is typical hot
semiarid (Eastern Rajasthan) and arid (Western Rajasthan) with maximum and
minimum temperature of 45- 46 and 2- 6 C, respectively and annual
precipitation rate of 42 cm. Normally the state receives 58 cm annual rain fall
whereas the precipitation rate has progressively decreased over the years due to
continues drought in the region.

Present status and trends

Livestock contribute 25% to Agricultural production of the country and

their contribution increases proportionately with increase in aridity of the
location. The inhospitable agro-climatic condition of the region renders the
conventional agriculture always a gamble hence the farmers dependence on
animal husbandry as an alternative for livelihood sustenance increase
proportionately. Rajasthan alone accounts for 13 and 61 % semiarid and arid
region in terms of total landmass of the country. The grazing based animal
husbandry is the predominant occupation small and marginal farmers and
landless labors and as a major source of livelihood sustenance in arid regions
while dry land farming is the major occupation of farmers in semiarid region and
that livestock rearing is subsidiary occupation. The community grazing land
accounts for about 15- 20 % landmass in semiarid zone while in arid region the
rangeland occupies about 45 % landmass. In extreme arid districts, the
distribution of community/privately owned rangeland increases and that in
Jaisalmer district the community rangeland accounts for as high as 90 to 95 % of
the land mass.

The small ruminants provide livelihood support to the poor underprivileged

landless, and marginal farm households. The goat and sheep production systems
are mainly subsistence-oriented but in view of the rising demand for meat, there
is a great scope for their commercialization. Nonetheless, these animals have
been grossly neglected in development programs and their potential for
enhancing livestock growth remains untapped. India ranks 3rd in sheep
population, next to China and Australia and is placed at the 7th position among
the top 10 countries of the world in terms of mutton and wool production.
Development of sheep has been at crossroads. The population of sheep has
stagnated except a marginal increase between 2003 and 2007.

Feed resources for livestock feeding

Pastures and grassland, community grazing land, road and canal side
grazing land, agricultural crop residues, crop byproducts, industrial by products
and waste products, energy and protein rich supplements and top feed resources
comprise the livestock feed resources of the region. A major portion of arid
region and a part of semiarid region of the country has been classified as class IV
to VII land as per FAO land use classification implying that such land is suitable
for silvipastoral development.

Rangeland resources
The term rangeland refers to the landmass supporting natural vegetation,
which is suitable for grazing/browsing by livestock. The total area available for
livestock grazing in Rajasthan is 13.602 m ha of which forest, permanent pasture,
miscellaneous tree cover and grooves and cultivable wasteland accounts for
15.9, 13.6, 0.6, 42.2 and 24.8 %, respectively. These types of land are otherwise
not suitable for conventional agriculture due to soil limitation and moisture
deficiency. Most of these lands are in poor to very poor condition due to over
exploitation/grazing and possibilities for their improvement is rather limited.
Production potential of natural rangeland open to grazing is reported to range
from 3- 5 (Shinde et al., 2003) or 5- 9 (Mann and Sharma, 2004) quintal/ha in
different locations. Several management and biological techniques viz. protection
and closure to grazing, bush cleaning operations, introduction of improved
perennial grass and pasture legumes, intercultural operations and application of
chemical and FYM fertilizer have been used to improve biomass yield of the
rangeland. Among these measures rest from grazing/defoliation is vital for
managing this situation (Lahiri, 1984). Ahuja (1977) observed that natural
succession of superior pasture vegetation is a slow process hence reseeding with
high yielding variety is essential and that the improvement in pasture yield due
to protection was sizably higher in poor than other grades of pasture. Shanker
and Gupta (1992) classified the Indian grassland as fragile ecosystem requiring
conservation measures on priority.
 The community grazing land accounts for about 15- 20 % landmass in
semiarid zone while in arid region the rangeland occupies about 45 % landmass.
In extreme arid districts, the distribution of community/privately owned
rangeland increases and that in Jaisalmer district the community rangeland
accounts for as high as 95 % of the land mass (Shanker and Kumar, 1987). The
community rangeland particularly in critical semiarid and arid environment is
undergoing rapid and progressive degradation due to increasing grazing pressure
on the land. Further the holding area of community grazing land is also shrinking
due to rapid land reclamation for conventional agriculture for crop production to
support growing human population. Moreover under intense grazing pressure the
preferred plant species on the rangeland are being replaced by inedible biota,
which is not effectively utilized in livestock feeding. Under reforestation program,
the plantation is mainly aimed at soil conservation measures, generating wood
for fuel, furniture and commercial application while the interest of poor livestock
farming community for top feed resources is not given due importance. The
rangeland resources of semiarid and arid region of Rajasthan have been
extensively studied by ICAR institutes (CAZRI, CSWRI and IGFR) and SAUs located
in the region.
The semiarid community rangeland in different locations and season has
reported biomass yield of 1.3 (Sankhyan et al., 1999), 2.7 (Shinde et al., 2005)
and 9.3 (Mann and Singh, 1982) q DM/ha sufficient to maintain 0.1 to 0.5 ACU
round the year while the stocking density on the land range from 1.0 to 51.1 in
different locations. Likewise the biomass yield of arid community rangeland is 1.0
q/ha sufficient to maintain 0.05 ACU. In addition to rangeland resources, the top
feeds and crop residues contribute sizably to sustenance of livestock in semiarid
and arid region of the country. Although optimum crop production is possible in 6
years of a decade in arid region providing crop residues for animal feeding still
livestock are mainly maintained on natural rangeland. In spite of higher stocking
density of the community rangeland and low individual production of livestock,
livestock rearing serve as major source of sustenance for farmers of Rajasthan.

Roles and functions of livestock in the livelihoods of the underprivileged families

1. Output function: related to producing food and non-food products.

2. Input function: related to providing inputs for crop production, transport etc.
3. Risk coverage or asset function: related to raising moneys in times of need.
4. Socio-cultural functions: related to social status, culture etc.

Real causes of damage to ecology

1. Increasing human population.

2. Increasing livestock population.
3. Shrinking grazing lands
4. Low carrying capacity of grazing lands.
5. Increased human dependence on livestock.
6. Indiscriminate felling of trees.
7. Use of mechanical powers in agriculture.
8. Heavier body weights and large size hooves of large ruminants.

Climate change and global warming

As major proportion of small ruminant population (>70%) thrive well in
arid and semi-arid areas of western region and southern peninsular region. The
productive potential of sheep and goat in these areas is influenced by the
exposure to harsh climatic conditions namely high ambient temperature, long
distance walking in search of feed resources and water restriction. The changing
scenario of climate change, thermal stress along with feed and water scarcity
are the major predisposing factor for the low productivity of small ruminants
under hot semiarid environment. Global warming or climate change, not only
increasing thermal stress on the animals but also affecting the biomass and
water availability especially in the arid and semi-arid region. Despite the general
awareness that energy demands vary between different seasons, informations
on how thermal stress influence biological functions when coupled with long
term nutritional stress in sheep are scanty. Sheep grazing under hot semi-arid
environment face extreme fluctuations in the quantity and quality of feed on
offer throughout the year (Martin et al., 2004).

The effect of climate change and global warming is also reflected upon
vegetative and reproductive cycle of vegetation leading to stunted growth, early
maturity and setting of fruit and seed finally weathering off. These climatic
factor also resulting in to low germination rate of natural vegetation and
prolonged exposed baron land for remaining part of the year leading to
desertification.

Economics of sheep and goat and their role in desertification

Under natural grazing/browsing the goat is more economical than cattle

and sheep. When kept on free range grazing/browsing on highly degraded
grazing land in semi-arid ecology, indigenous goats were 2.5times more
economical than indigenous sheep. The two species have generally been
understood to be associated with desertification. However, it is human
interference especially through felling of trees, excessive lopping of trees and
over-grazing of the natural range land by livestock, coupled with changes related
to global warming and also in the physical environment which have resulted in
desertification. Sheep, because of it's close grazing nature is more responsible
for soil erosion. The studies carried out at the Central Sheep and Wool Research
Institute (CSWRI), Avikanagar, India, indicated that sheep has role in
desertification through the removal of surface vegetation. The superior
contribution of goats relative to other species of domestic livestock in this
ecology is possible because of their higher reproductive rate, higher digestive
efficiency of cellulose and inquisitive behaviour. Sheep and goats because of
their small size and higher reproductive rate, are preferred to large ruminants in
arid and semi-arid regions. Furthermore these require a relatively smaller
investment and can be managed by sparse family labour. There is large
variability among and within the different breeds which will allow improvement
through selection and grading.

Role of CSWRI to mitigate the land degradation and desertification

Extensive studies on establishment and evaluation of pastures have been

carried out at IGFRI, Central Ariz Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur (CAZRI) and
CSWRI in India. The greatest limitation in the range lands and natural pastures in
the arid and semi-arid areas is on the availability of adequate energy throughout
the year and adequate protein for more than half of the year. These lands hardly
carry one sheep when unprotected and 2 sheep/hectare when protected and
there is great prospect of improving them through reseeding with more
productive and nutritious grasses and legumes. Application of 40 kg N/ha to
reseeded Cenchrus pasture gave 12.8t per hectare of green forage as compared
to 10.3t for control. Line sowing of pelleted seed of Cenchrus gives quickest
establishment and maximum fodder yield. Intercropping of cowpea in Cenchrus
pasture increased maximum fodder yield. Intercropping of cowpea in Cenchrus
pasture increased the dry matter by five times during the year of establishment.
 For establishing a mixed pasture of grass and legumes, the combination of
Cenchrus and Dolichos sown in 1:1ratio in alternative strips of 6 to 8 rows of
each was found the best. Clitoria could be introduced successfully through
broadcasting. The introduction of Dolichos lablab improved the nutritive value
and increased the dry matter yield from 1.0 1.2t to 2.5 3.0t per hectare. Such
a grass legume pasture could carry 5 adult sheep with followers per hectare for
five years.

The plantation of 50 fodder trees of Prosopis cineraria and Ailanthus

excelsa per hectare has no adverse effect on the growth of pasture grasses and
legumes and provides an additional yield of about 1 t dry matter when fully
grown and lopped twice a year and the siIvi-pastures thus established can carry
two more sheep per hectare. Inter cropping of Dolichos with Bajra (Pennisetum
typhoides) in the ratio of 2:1and row spacing of 30 cm gave highest production of
both grain as well as fodder.

Silvipasture Hortipasture Reclamation for

pasture development

Supplementary Feeding

The indigenous lambs and kids which are not normally supplemented with
concentrates or legume hay attain a body weight of 13 to 16 kg at the age of 89
months. The growth rate is only about 40 g in kids and 50 g in lambs, dressing
percentage is about 35 and 40 and the bone:meat ratio very poor. Studies
conducted at CSWRI, IVRI and centres of AICRP on Sheep and Goat Breeding in
India have shown a marked improvement in the quantity and quality of mutton
and chevon by supplementary feeding of both lambs and kids.

Pasture improvement programme

Most of the range lands and common grazing lands in this region have
poor vegetation and produce only 0.5t dry fodder per hectare per year. These
lands can be improved by protecting them from biotic factors, removing non-
edible grasses, weeds and shrubs and reseeding with high producing and
nutritious perennial grasses. This will not only improve the nutritive value of the
forage but will also increase the dry matter production to about 2.2t per hectare
as compared to natural range lands which hardly carry one sheep.

Plantation of 50 fodder trees per hectare maintaining row to row and plant
to plant distance of 20 and 10 metres may provide an additional yield of 1 t dry
matter of good quality fodder per hectare per year and thus improve the carrying
capacity of 2 adult sheep. Most promising fodder tree species which do not have
any adverse effect on the growth of pasture grasses and legumes and suitable
for arid and semi-arid tracts are Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilitica, Ailanthus
excelsa, Leucaena, leucocephala, Azadirachta indica, Albizzia levvek, Acacia
tortilis, Dichrostachys nutans and Colophospermum mopane.

Inter-cropping of Fodder Legumes in Cereal Crops

There is scope for introducing legume fodder crops in line sown cereal crops
under rainfed conditions. The intercropping of Dolichos lablab in Bajra
(Pennisetum typhoides) crops does not affect the grain yield of cereal adversely
and gives additional yield of about 1 t of dry fodder per hectare in 3 cuttings
after the harvesting of cereal crop at maturity. It is recommended to put biennial
and erect type legumes between the rows of Bajra spaced at 45 cm for single
crop areas with sandy soils.

The introduction of fodder legumes like Cowpea, Dolichos and Clitoria in the
cereal crops of Bajra (Pennisetum typhoides), Jowar (Sorghum vulgare) and Maize
(Zea mays) not only improves the yield of major crop but also provides additional
nutritious fodder besides improving soil fertility through nitrogen fixation which
in turn becomes available to the grain crop.
Limitation:

The traditional transhumance system of rearing of sheep and goats with

established migratory routes are becoming economically unviable and slowly
waning due to several reasons. The major limiting factors in improving sheep and
goat production are lack of pastures and fodder shrubs and trees in the area
where the sheep and goat abound, especially in the states of Rajasthan and the
whole of the northern hill region. All efforts for improving high altitude pastures
through arial re-seeding with perennial temperate grasses and legumes have not
been very successful. The higher stocking rates, excessive grazing pressure,
change in plant composition of grazing areas and reduced biomass availability
have rendered migratory system of rearing difficult to sustain. Excessive
parasitic load in migratory flock, higher energy spent while covering greater
distance during migration along with other factors lead to body weight loss
resulting into poor remunerative price realization by migratory shepherd
community.

Ongoing schemes

o A centrally sponsored scheme Integrated development of small ruminants

and rabbits has been under implementation with a budgetary outlay of Rs.
190 crores. However, the financial progress of the scheme has been dismal
with only Rs. 11 crores spent during the first four years of the plan, which is
just 5% of the approved outlay. It would be worthwhile to examine as to why
this important scheme was not implemented in right earnestness as
envisaged.
o It is clear that very little efforts have been made by the Animal Husbandry
departments both at state and central level for development and growth of
small ruminants. The absence of effective centrally sponsored / central sector
schemes has hampered the growth of this sector and also failed in providing
much needed assistance and livelihood opportunities to the vulnerable section
of the community.

Strategies and Programs for future by Department of Animal

Husbandry, Dairy and Fisheries Government of India

A two-pronged approach for development of small ruminant sector is

essentially called for during the 12th plan period. Since this is the only
sector, which provides direct livelihood and income generating
opportunities to landless and marginal farmers and the other vulnerable
sections of the society, formulation of appropriate schemes for inclusive
development of this sector is essential. Preparation of self-help group for
community land development and land use program.
The improvement of mutton production could be focused in other regions
of the country. Considering the fact that the migratory system of rearing of
small ruminants is on the decline and traditional communities involved in
this occupation have diversified away from this occupation, it would be
 prudent to slowly promote rearing of small ruminants on stall feeding and
at the same time focusing on providing the necessary support systems to
farmers who continue to depend on rearing of these animals for their
subsistence.
Community mobilization, training & capacity building of all the stake
holders, effective institutional mechanism and efficient & innovative
market linkages are some of the key issues to be addressed in a holistic
manner for promoting the small ruminant sector during 12th plan period.
Sheep & goat farmers organizations, Self Help groups and Producer
Companies could be promoted with adequate support for furthering the
prospects of growth of the sector.
Improved fecundity through incorporation of appropriate genes,
enhancement of twinning percentage, higher feed conversion efficiency,
achieving higher body weight at marketable age, breeding strategies for
fine wool production, improved vaccines are some of the important
research issues, which have much relevance for achieving higher growth
rate of small ruminants.
Formulating a comprehensive and holistic scheme and its effective
implementation during the 12th plan period is called for. Implementation
of this scheme is recommended in RKVY mode, which provides enough
freedom and flexibility to the states. However, it should be ensured that
the states where a large section of the community is dependent on goats
and sheep and the sector holds promise for development, should
invariably implement the scheme with a focused approach
Program of Govt. of Rajasthan indirectly addressing the issue

Area and Species specific development programmes:

Area specific approaches: Initiate programme for development of various models

of livestock production systems, improved feeding practices through managerial
interventions for effective utilization of feed & fodder, integrate traditional &
modern approaches and technologies for each district for better sustainability
and higher income generation.

Augmentation of feed and fodder resources:

The Government shall create an institutional arrangement to undertake

the following functions:

Creating a database on various feed and fodder resources, feeding

practices and consumption patterns in various agro-climatic zones/areas,
to be updated every two years. This also needs to be linked through input
and output profiles of various animal products as cost-benefit studies.
Step to be taken to effectively monitor the production and sale of quality
cattle feed, area specific production of Mineral Mixture as per Mineral
Mapping, Calf Starter and Bye-pass Protein feed.
Inter-agency coordination in fodder production, fodder seed production,
conservation, transport and sponsoring research in these directions.
Establishment of fodder banks in private sector, for which appropriate
programmes shall be formulated to generate feasible storage technologies
for each type of roughage and to facilitate banking with the farmers
themselves.
Identifying potential areas outside the State, from where fodder can be
purchased and transported to the deficient areas of the State, through
surveys well in advance of the lean period/drought.
Creation of regulated feed markets for input marketing and processing and
value addition facilities in PPP mode.

The Government shall constitute State level Standing Committee for

Fodder Development and District level Fodder Management Committees
for ensuring fodder availability. These committees shall:

Formulate and reorient existing programmes to ensure fodder and pasture

grass seed availability; increase availability of fodder by facilitating
cultivation of fodder crops and fodder trees and regeneration of grazing
lands as well as CPR through implementation of new programmes to be
formulated for this purpose.
Intensified efforts shall be undertaken so that the wasteland are converted
into grazing lands by planting grasses and fodder trees with the help of
 Gram Panchayats. Similarly, vast area of non-forest & forests land shall be
utilized for developing good grazing lands.
The Government shall make appropriate efforts to utilize land availability
with public sector organizations, Goshalas, NGOs etc. for fodder production
and pasture development.
Dovetailing of fodder production and pasture development programmes
with other programmes related to animal husbandry, agriculture, forest and
rural development.