IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 54, NO.
7, JULY 2007
Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy
of the Human Prostate
Ryan J. Halter*, Member, IEEE, Alex Hartov, Senior Member, IEEE, John A. Heaney,
Keith D. Paulsen, Member, IEEE, and Alan R. Schned
AbstractTissue electrical impedance is a function of its ar-
chitecture and has been used to differentiate normal and cancer
tissues in a variety of organs including breast, cervix, skin, and
bladder. This paper investigates the possibility of differentiating
normal and malignant prostate tissue using bioimpedance spectra.
A probe was designed to measure impedance spectra over the
range of 10 kHz to 1 MHz. The probe was fully characterized using
discrete loads and saline solutions of different concentrations.
Impedance spectra of five ex vivo prostates were measured in the
operating room immediately following radical prostatectomy.
Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to compare the normal and
malignant findings. The impedance probe had a signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) 84 dB across the entire spectrum and measured
a tissue volume of approximately 46 mm3 . At 10 kHz, prostate
conductivity ( ) ranged from 0.232 S/m to 0.310 S/m for tumor and
from 0.238 S/m to 0.901 S/m for normal tissue. At 1 MHz the ranges
were 0.301 S/m to 0.488 S/m for tumor and 0.337 S/m to 1.149 S/m
for normal. Prostate permittivity ( r ) ranged from 6.64 104 to
1.25 105 for tumor and from 9.08 104 to 4.49 105 for normal
tissues at 10 kHz. And, at 1 MHz the r ranges were 9.23 102
to 1.88 103 for tumor and 1.16 103 to 2.18 103 for normal
tissue. Both and r of tumor tissue were found to be significantly
lower than that of normal tissue (P 0 0001). Conductivity and
permittivity are both higher in normal prostate tissues than they
are in malignant tissue making them suitable parameters for tissue
differentiation. This is in agreement with trends observed in other
tissues reported in much of the literature. Expanded studies are
needed to further validate this finding and to explore the biological
mechanism responsible for generating the results.
Index TermsCancer screening, electrical impedance spec-
troscopy, prostate cancer, tissue electrical properties.
I. INTRODUCTION
P ROSTATE cancer is the most widely diagnosed malig-
nancy in males. In 2005, 232 090 new cases and 30 350
deaths were attributed to the disease, which was second only
Manuscript received April 28, 2006; revised October 21, 2006. This work was
supported in part by the National Institute of Health (NIH) and National Cancer
Institute under Grant NIH-NCI PPG P01CA080139-06A2. Asterisk indicates
corresponding author.
*R. J. Halter is with the is Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College,
Hanover, NH 03755 USA (e-mail: ryan.halter@dartmouth.edu).
A. Hartov is with the Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College,
Hanover, NH 03755 USA. He is also with the Norris Cotton Cancer Center,
Lebanon, NH 03766 USA.
J. A. Heaney is with the Department of Urology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Med-
ical Center, Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Lebanon, NH 03766 USA.
K. D. Paulsen is with the Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College,
Hanover, NH 03755 USA. He is also with the Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical
Center, Lebanon, NH 03766 USA, and Norris Cotton Cancer Center, Lebanon,
NH 03766 USA.
A. R. Schned is with the Department of Pathology, Dartmouth-Hitchcock
Medical Center, Lebanon, NH 03766 USA.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TBME.2007.897331
0018-9294/$25.00 2007 IEEE
1321
to lung cancer [1]. The 5-year relative survival rate for all
cancers found while still confined to the prostate approaches
100% due to the effectiveness of treatment procedures such as
brachytherapy and radical prostatectomy which are typically
administered in these situations to prevent metastasis [1].
Detecting prostate tumors early is, therefore, beneficial to in-
creasing the total survival rate associated with their occurrence.
The two most widely accepted screening methods for
prostate cancer are serologic measurement of prostate-specific
antigen (PSA) concentrations and digital rectal examination.
Although capable of detecting a high percentage of cancers,
these screening methods are limited [2]. Cancer screening using
measurements of PSA concentrations has led to a dramatic
increase in incidence rates and concomitantly radical local
therapies [3], however there is no clear evidence screening
increases survival rates [4], [5]. In addition, overdiagnosis as
a result of screening has contributed to an increased number
of procedures that are perhaps unnecessary since a large pro-
portion of these cancers may never reach a stage of clinical
significance [6], [7]. Although the clinical value of the method
is still being debated, the sensitivity and specificity of PSA
screening have been reported to be in the ranges of 70%80%
and 60%70% , respectively [8]. Digital rectal examinations
is limited to detecting palpable cancers in the posterior and
lateral aspects of the gland, where only 85% of cancers arise
[9]. Sensitivity and specificity of digital rectal examinations
have been reported to be 59% and 94%, respectively [10].
Bioimpedance is a property related to a tissues resistance to
electrical current flow and its ability to store electrical charge.
It is predominantly a function of tissue architecture including
cellular size and density, cellular spacing, and the constituents of
the extracellular matrix (ECM). Impedance differences between
tissue types may be markers for pathologic processes such as
cancer. In fact, Skourou et al. [11] have shown that a tissues
impedance signature may be more sensitive to the presence of
tumor tissue than conventional imaging techniques of computed
tomography (CT) and ultrasound. Use of electrical impedance
signatures to differentiate normal and neoplastic states has been
reported in studies of cervical [12], breast [13], skin [14], and
bladder tissues [15].
Prostate cancers are typically found in the peripheral zone of
the gland and constitute a dense arrangement of cancerous ep-
ithelial cells often in the form of small, infiltrating glands with
a proportionate decrease in stromal volume [16]. These mor-
phological differences between normal and malignant prostate
tissue along with the known sensitivity of electrical impedance
spectra to cellular structure prompted Lee et al. [17] to consider
using tissue bioimpedance as a measure for distinguishing the
disease. In a small series of 6 subjects, the Lee study showed that
1322 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2007

the resistance of prostate cancer was higher than normal tissue

but the investigators did not otherwise account for geometric in-
fluences on the data or evaluate the capacitive differences in the
two tissue types (i.e., normal versus malignant).
In this paper, we present a study of electrical impedance
spectra in freshly excised prostate specimens. As part of the
effort, we constructed, validated and experimented with a coax-
ially configured probe used in conjunction with an impedance
analyzer to record bioimpedance measurements on prostates in Fig. 1. Coaxial impedance probe. Scale in centimeters.
the operating room immediately following radical prostatec-
tomy. The investigation reports on the design and performance
analysis of the impedance probe, the procedure for obtaining
impedance measurements on freshly excised prostate tissues,
and the results and implications of the findings. This paper ex-
tends the data of Lee et al. by accounting for geometrical factors
associated with the measurement probe and sampling volume
to convert resistive and reactive recordings into intrinsic tissue
property spectra which might be of diagnostic significance.

II. BIOIMPEDANCE RELATIONSHIPS

Tissue bioimpedance, , can be determined by applying an
alternating (ac) voltage, , between two electrodes and mea-
suring the ensuing current, . The ac version of Ohms law,
, can be used to relate and to the bioimpedance of the
tissue sample influenced by the electric field established be-
tween the electrodes. Complex bioimpedance, , combines re-
sistive and reactive components, , where Fig. 2. Impedance magnitude and phase measured with the probe connected to
discrete resistors of 740
, 1 k
, and 2.7 k
.
is the imaginary number. Alternatively, one can express a com-
plex admittance, , consisting of a conductance and capac-
itance such that , where is the radian fre-
where and are the distance between the two plates and their
quency . Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance,
area, respectively. For different spatial arrangements the geom-
, and and are related to and as
etry factor can be determined analytically or experimentally. An
(1) experimental technique involves measuring the impedance of a
known load such as de-ionized (DI) water and calcu-
lating using (4).
and

(2) III. IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

, , , and are parameters that depend on the config-
uration and geometry of the measurement probe used to make
the impedance recordings. Conductivity, , and relative permit-
tivity, , are related to and , but are geometry-independent
parameters that are typically used to report impedance proper-
ties. In general, describes a tissues ability to allow electric
current to flow and has the units of S/m, while describes a
tissues relative charge storage capability and is unitless. Con-
ductivity is related to conductance as
(3)
where is a geometry factor associated with the probe config-
uration. Likewise, the relationship between relative permittivity
and capacitance is
(4)
where is the permittivity in free space, 8.85 . measurements recorded were adjusted accordingly before
In the well known case of a parallel plate geometry, , transmission to the interface computer.
A custom designed impedance probe constructed from a
4-cm- long piece of rigid coaxial cable with an inner conductor
diameter of 1 mm and an outer diameter of 3.5 mm was interfaced
to an HP4284A impedance analyzer through a set of 4 shielded
cables (Fig. 1). The wiring was configured for bipolar impedance
measurements between the central and outer conducting ele-
ments of the probe. A 1-V potential difference was established
between these two elements and maximum currents were limited
to 10 mA. Control software interfacing a personal computer with
the impedance analyzer was developed to record resistance
and reactance values of impedance at 20 discrete frequen-
cies logarithmically spaced from 10 kHz to 1 MHz. Before any
impedance measurements were made the system was calibrated
in both a short and open configuration. The short configuration
consisted of directly connecting the inner and outer conductors
together to determine systemic residual impedances, while the
open configuration consisted of leaving both conductors un-
connected to determine parasitic impedances. The calibration
factors were stored locally in the impedance analyzer and the
HALTER et al.: ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPYOF THE HUMAN PROSTATE 1323

Fig. 3. Conductivity and permittivity of different concentrations of saline solution. Measurements are in agreement with Gabriels published values [19].

Fig. 4. TS measurements. (a) Measured impedance as a function of probe distance from bottom of saline tank (0.07 M NaCl). Vertical line shows the TS associated
with a  change of less than 0.1%. (b) TS of the impedance probe in different concentrations of saline solution.

Probe signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) was determined by ob-
taining a set of 100 measurements with a 1 load resistor
connected between the inner and outer conducting elements
of the probe. The SNR was found to vary from 89.6 dB at 10
kHz to 84.9 dB at 1 MHz, which corresponds to a noise level
of 0.0033% and 0.0056% at the two frequencies, respectively.
Further testing with discrete resistors verified that the calibra-
tion procedure removed the parasitic impedances properly and
the measured impedance values were accurate. Fig. 2 shows
the magnitude and phase of impedances measured with discrete
resistors of 740 , 1 , and 2.7 . The phase shift is load
dependent and for impedances equivalent to tissue ( ) is
less than 1 at 1 MHz.
The probe geometry factor was determined experimentally
by measuring the capacitance, , at 100 kHz while the probe tip
was submerged in DI water. A central frequency of 100 kHz was
chosen to limit the effect of polarization which occurs at lower
frequencies [18] and minimize the small parasitic phase shifts
occurring at the highest frequencies. Impedance measurements
were subsequently recorded for saline solutions of varying NaCl
concentrations and the geometry factor was used in conjunc-
tion with (1)(4) to calculate the conductivity and permittivity
spectrum of each solution. The impedance spectra are shown
in Fig. 3 for concentrations ranging from 0.01 M NaCl to 0.09
M NaCl. In addition, the impedance spectrum of a volunteers
tongue is shown. The impedance values are comparable to those
reported by Gabriel et al. [19] in which a different type of probe
was used.
IV. PROBE SAMPLING VOLUME
We use probe sensitivity to describe the volume of tissue
that influences the impedance measurements. Radial sensitivity
(RS) is defined as the area parallel to the probe surface that in-
fluences the data; it includes the area directly under the probe as
well as the region outside the probe edge where fringing effects
may occur. Transverse sensitivity (TS) describes the depth along
the axial direction of the probe that influences the impedance re-
sult. Final probe sensitivity is defined as the product of the area
of RS and depth of TS.
RS and TS were both measured experimentally by inserting
the probe in a beaker of saline and translating the probe from
the edge of the beaker towards the center (RS measure) and
from the bottom of the beaker upwards (TS measure). The edge
and bottom of the beaker represent nonconductive boundaries
preventing the flow of current. Impedance measurements varied
by less than 0.5% as the probe was translated inward from the
edge of the beaker, demonstrating that the fringing effects are
minimal and that the field lines are contained within the area
1324
Fig. 5. View of the equipment and measurement setup in the OR.
described by the probe circumference. TS measurements are
shown in Fig. 4(a) for a 0.07 M NaCl solution. We define the
TS as the distance from the bottom of the beaker at which the
change in impedance varies by less than 0.1%. This approach
was used to determine the TS for different concentrations of
saline and these results are shown in Fig. 4(b). As an example,
the probe sensitivity for a load having an impedance of 0.3 S/m
is approximately 23 ( , ).
V. MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
Spectroscopic impedance measurements were made on
whole prostates removed from patients following a laparo-
scopic procedure. Recordings were acquired directly in the
operating room (OR) not more than 10 min after the prostate
was removed. The impedance probe was pressed against the
area designated by the surgeon as cancer and five data sets were
recorded. After probing the tumor volume, a second set of five
measurements were recorded on the contralateral lobe of the
prostate, symmetric to the position of the tumor. Sets of five
measurements were acquired at each location to allow us to
verify the repeatability of our measurements. Fig. 5 shows the
probing procedure and configuration in the OR.
The prostate was then transported to the Pathology Depart-
ment where it was serially sectioned transversely from apex to
base at 3-mm intervals. The 3-mm apical slice was then seri-
ally sectioned parasagitally, perpendicular to the apical resec-
tion margin. Histological type and Gleason grade and score were
assigned to the tumor along with any additional findings. Tumor
foci were outlined on the microscopic slides by the patholo-
gist, and these outlines were then traced onto a stylized diagram
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2007
Fig. 6. Histological slide of prostate tissue from case PR002. Normal tissue is
visible on the left side of the image and prostatic adenocarcinoma dominates the
right side.
of the sliced prostate to provide a visual distribution of tumor
throughout the sectioned tissues.
The above protocol was conducted on five patients after
receiving approval from the Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical
Center internal review board. Table I lists the patient character-
istics and pathology results for each of the five cases. Each of
the specimens probed had prostatic adenocarcinoma confirmed
at the sites indicated by the surgeon. Fig. 6 shows an example
of a representative microscopic field taken from case PR002.
The left side of the image shows normal tissue while the right
side exhibits adenocarcinoma. Reduced gland size, an increase
in the epithelial cell density, and a significant loss of stroma are
visible in the area of the adenocarcinoma with respect to the
normal tissue. The Gleason score reported is a combination of
the Gleason grades assigned to the dominant and nondominant
tumor patterns observed.
VI. RESULTS
Five data sets were collected on each side of the prostate
for each of five patients resulting in a total of 50 recorded
impedance spectra between 10 kHz and 1 MHz. Each data set
collected was transformed from - to - data through use
of (1)(4) and averaged for a given location. The average
spectra are shown in Fig. 7, plotted in the complex plane. The
notch frequency impedances occurring at the minimum
appear as circles.
The averaged conductivities and permittivities for measure-
ments obtained at both the tumor site and the symmetric loca-
tion on the contralateral lobe are shown in Fig. 8 for all five pa-
tients. The maximum variation between the five repeated mea-
surements at each location was less than 6% with respect to the
mean value for all data sets collected.
Cumulative mean values of conductivity and permittivity for
both tumor and normal tissue types are shown in Fig. 9 along
with the variability between measurements reported as standard
deviations. The large variation in the normal data set is due to
the large values of and measured for the normal side of case
PR005. Conductivity ranges for low (10 kHz), mid (113 kHz),
and high (1 MHz) frequency data are indicated in Table II.
HALTER et al.: ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPYOF THE HUMAN PROSTATE 1325

TABLE I
PATIENT CASE PATHOLOGY

Fig. 7. RX spectra of both normal and tumor sites for all five cases. Circles represent the minimum jXj value and are the impedances at the notch frequency for
each case.

Fig. 8. Averaged conductivity and relative permittivity spectra for tumor and normal prostate tissues. Dashed lines signify normal tissue and solid lines signify
tumor tissue.

The conductivity difference between tissue types (normal
versus tumor) was found to increase with increased signal
frequency from an average of 0.046 S/m at 10 kHz to 0.078
S/m at 1 MHz. In contrast, permittivity differences were found
to be much larger at lower frequencies, having an average
difference of 37 387.3 at 10 kHz and 67.8 at 1 MHz. Wilcoxon
signed-rank tests were used to compare the differences in data
between tumor and contralateral sides for full spectral data sets
. When the entire frequency spectrum was analyzed
both and of tumor tissue were found to be significantly
lower than that of normal tissue . (high ) and barriers to ionic conduction (low ). As signal
No significant correlations were found between the histolog-
ical assessments and measured impedance data due to the lim-
ited number of samples collected and the approximate co-local-
ization between the impedance and histological measurements.
VII. DISCUSSION
The observed increase in conductivity and decrease in
permittivity with increasing frequency (Fig. 8) is consistent
with reports for other tissues [20]. At low signal frequencies,
polarized cellular membranes act as charge storage devices
1326
TABLE II
MEASURED IMPEDANCE RANGES AT EACH DECADE
Fig. 9. Average parameter values for both tumor and nontumor measurements.
Error bar variability presented as a single standard deviation. (a) Conductivity.
(b) Permittivity.
frequency increases, the polarization effect relaxes and less
charge is stored at the extracellular-intracellular interface (low
) and the impedance to current flow through this interface
decreases (higher ).
The spectrum of a single tissue type typically follows
a circular arc that intersects the R-axis at low-frequency and
high-frequency resistances and has a characteristic
frequency at the top of the arc (maximum ). The shape
of the arc is dependent on the tissue impedance and these pa-
rameters can be extracted through a fitting process [21]. Inter-
estingly, our measurements were inverted with respect to the
usual case and instead we report a notch frequency at the
minimum . Da Silva et al. [21] noted that multiple superim-
posed arcs or incomplete ones are typically obtained in practice
because of the presence of multiple relaxation time constants
and the limited frequency range usually acquired. They show
examples of impedance spectra of breast tissue exhibiting seg-
ments of inverted arcs similar to the data we have obtained for
prostate tissue. Expanding the frequency range and decreasing
the volume of probe sensitivity may allow for a more refined
characterization of prostate impedance spectra.
Although the small sample size in this investigation limits sta-
tistical power, both the conductivity and permittivity for normal
tissue are significantly higher than that of tumor tissue in all five
cases. The lower 10 frequencies for patient PR004 are the only ex-
ception to this trend. The conductivity and permittivity ranges for
tumor and normal tissue overlap considerably between patients
(Fig. 9), making selection of an absolute threshold for differenti-
ation difficult. This overlap arises from the interpatient variability
in the impedance of normal tissue. This is due to: 1) natural vari-
ability between patients; 2) variability within different regions
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 54, NO. 7, JULY 2007
of the prostate. Impedance measurements of normal tissue were
recorded on the contralateral lobe of the prostate, symmetric to
the position of the tumor for each patient; this was not the same re-
gion within the prostate for all patients. It is interesting to note that
there is a much smaller variation in the measurements of tumor
and that each of these were confirmed by histology to be ade-
nocarcinomas. Despite this overlap, the intrapatient differences
still show significant separation between tumor and normal im-
pedances (Fig. 8). Multiple measurements taken from different
locations within the prostate may provide a means to determine
regions of higher impedance associated with tumor.
Different tissue morphological changes associated with
the transition from normal to malignant diagnosis have been
reported to cause varying degrees of change in the measured
impedance spectra. Brown et al. [12] found the low-frequency
resistance in normal cervical tissue to be higher than that of
cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. They suggest that in normal
cervical epithelium current travels around the tight cellular
layers present taking a long resistive path, whereas in cervical
neoplasia the cell layering is absent and extracellular pathways
shorten, leading to a decrease in extracellular impedance.
Others, however, have reported normal tissues having higher
admittance than cancerous tissues [15], [17], [22], [23]. As an
example, Jossinet and Schmitt [23] used a four-point probe to
collect impedance spectra over the range of 0.488 kHz to 1 MHz
in a study of 120 excised samples of breast tissue. The samples
included glandular (MG), connective (CT), adipose (AT),
mastopathy (MA), fibradenoma (FA), and carcinoma (CA)
tissue types. Reported low frequency conductivity ranges were
(MG), (CT),
(AT), (MA), (FA), and
(CA). With the exception of connective
and adipose tissue, carcinoma was found to have the lowest
conductivity consistent with our findings in the prostate.
In the only other reported study of electrical bioimpedance
of human prostate tissue [17], a needle probe was used. The
group found that the resistance of prostate tumor was higher than
that of normal tissue which agrees with the results we obtained
( ). Because measurements of resistance are dependent
on the probe geometry, their results are not directly compa-
rable with our findings. However, by taking the ratio of tumor
conductivity to normal tissue conductivity we can compare our
results with the same ratio from the Lee et al. measurements.
These ratios are similar for comparable frequencies of 100 kHz
and 1 MHz as reported in Table III. Interestingly, their reactive
measurements provided no useful information, whereas our data
suggests that the differences in permittivity between normal and
neoplastic tissue is significant especially at the lower frequencies
and may be used to differentiate tissue pathologies. Since the
range of measurements significantly overlaps between patients,
the ratios expressed in Table III may provide a meaningful
HALTER et al.: ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE SPECTROSCOPYOF THE HUMAN PROSTATE
TABLE III
COMPARISON OF DATA TO LEE et al. [17]
diagnostic for differentiating tumor from normal tissue within
an individual patient. The results from this study and Lee et al.
suggest a possible threshold of 0.8 for the ratio of conductivities.
An expanded study is, however, necessary to determine how sen-
sitive and specific bioimpedance would be using this threshold.
Although this investigation includes only five subjects, the
trends are repeatable and suggest that there is a significant dif-
ference in the impedance measured between normal and tumor
prostate tissue. It is well established that cancer causes morpho-
logical changes in tissue, and that different impedance spectra
stem from these variations. In the benign state, prostate tissue
consists of ducts lined by two layers of epithelial cells. Between
these ducts is a large volume of fibromuscular stroma making
up the ECM. Embedded in the ECM is extracellular fluid which
acts as a conduit for current flow. At the onset of tumor growth,
the ECM is infiltrated with proliferating neoplastic cells where
the tumorous glands become smaller in size and more densely
packed than normal glands, and the stroma is reduced because
of the increase in cancerous epithelial cells. The loss of stroma
and increase in epithelial density decreases the volume of ex-
tracellular fluid in which the current flows and may result in
the observed increase in tissue impedance. This mechanism of
tumor growth is common in other types of tissue.
Further studies incorporating histological measures such as
epithelia-to-stroma ratios, tissue water content, and cellular size
as a function of the tissue impedance may help to elucidate the
subtleties of why neoplastic prostate tissue has been found to
have lower conductivity relative to its normal counterpart which
may help with further tissue differentiation [24]. Given the lim-
ited number of studies investigating prostate bioimpedance it
would be beneficial to measure a larger sample of prostates and
more importantly make measurements in conjunction with the
post-resection procedure where the probe placement and his-
tology can be precisely coregistered. For the normal side of pa-
tient PR005, a high impedance was measured. After further ex-
amining the associated histological slide, the tissue in that area
was found to have a mixture of cystic atrophy, inflammation,
glandular hyperplasia, and high grade prostatic intraepithelial
neoplasia (PIN). The histological analysis, however, considered
a tissue area larger than the probe sensitivity and better co-lo-
calization of the probe placement with respect to the area of his-
tological analysis may help to isolate the pathological state of
the tissue influencing these impedance measurements.
VIII. CONCLUSION
A probe used to measure the electrical bioimpedance of
prostate tissue was constructed, validated, and characterized
for spectroscopic recordings from 10 kHz to 1 MHz. Each
measured prostate exhibited significantly higher impedance
values for tumor relative to normal tissue. Our data is consis-
tent with prior reports in the literature, with the added benefit
that our results are not probe specific. It is envisioned that a
bioimpedance probe may be incorporated into typical screening
1327
modalities for enhanced tissue differentiation or may be used
in conjunction with a trans-rectal ultrasonic probe to aid in
locating areas of suspicion during prostate biopsy procedures.
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Authors photographs and biographies not available at the time of publication.